Icfo 2005

Laser Safety for Laboratory Users
Dr Mike Green D Phil (Oxon) F Inst P

Member of BSI EPL/76 laser products,
PH2/3 laser eye protection and IEC TC/76 laser products.
Pro Laser Consultants

Pro Laser Oxford House 100 Ock Street Abingdon Oxon OX14 5DH UK
!= +44 1235 550 522 != +44 1235 550 499 email= mikeg@prolaser. co.uk
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
050329 2 SIRA laser safety
Contents
Contents .................................................................................................................... 2
Overview................................................................................................................... 4
Legislation............................................................................................................. 4
Biological hazard....................................................................................................... 5
Radiation hazards in general .................................................................................. 5
Injuries to the eye .................................................................................................. 6
Effects of different wavelengths on the eyes .......................................................... 8
Safety calculations................................................................................................... 10
Maximum Permissible Exposure.......................................................................... 10
Assessing the level of laser exposure ................................................................... 11
Hazard distance ................................................................................................... 14
Nominal ocular hazard distance........................................................................ 14
Extended Nominal ocular hazard distance........................................................ 15
The laser hazard classification scheme..................................................................... 17
Defining the problem....................................................................................... 17
Laser-related Workplace Legislation........................................................................ 21
The Workplace Directive..................................................................................... 21
The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Directive.......................................... 21
Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations............................................ 22
Associated Hazards.................................................................................................. 24
Indoor use of lasers.................................................................................................. 28
TR 60825-14 User Guide..................................................................................... 28
Administration of laser safety .......................................................................... 28
Control recommendations by Class .................................................................. 29
Control measures ............................................................................................. 32
Maintenance of safe operation.......................................................................... 36
Medical inspections ......................................................................................... 37
Personal protective equipment ................................................................................. 38
When to use eye protection .............................................................................. 38
How to choose protective eyewear ................................................................... 39
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Selecting eyewear using standards EN207 and EN208 ..................................... 40
Protective eyewear aftercare............................................................................. 41
Protective clothing........................................................................................... 41
On-site laser maintenance and servicing .................................................................. 42
Increased risks during laser equipment servicing.................................................. 42
Temporary laser controlled areas ......................................................................... 43
Controls during servicing..................................................................................... 43
Visiting service engineers ................................................................................ 44
Fibre optic systems .................................................................................................. 45
Fibre Optic Communications Products................................................................. 45
Manufacturers requirements (subject to revision of 60825-2) ........................... 46
Users Guide for fibre optic work......................................................................... 46
Live working practices......................................................................................... 48
Working codes for laboratory laser work ................................................................. 49
A R&D Working Code ........................................................................................ 49
Risk assessment ....................................................................................................... 51
General methodology........................................................................................... 51
Step 1 - Identify the potentially injurious situations.......................................... 51
Step 2 - Assess the risk for potentially injurious situations ............................... 51
Step 3 - Select control measures, and repeat from Step 1 process ..................... 52
Dealing with residual risks................................................................................... 53

Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Overview
Whilst the potential for injury exists, lasers have an excellent track record for safety.
The risk of ocular injury has always been well appreciated and a cautious approach
has been adopted in the development of laser safety standards. However, as laser
technology develops, into such areas as high divergence semiconductor sources, laser
diode arrays and femtosecond pulse lasers, the setting of safe exposure levels and
control measures continues to be a challenge.
Legislation
There are no specific legal requirements related to the use of lasers in Europe. The
selection of appropriate safety measures is a matter for the employer, who is legally
obliged under the Management of Health and Safety at Work Directive to adopt a risk
assessment approach. In this context, the guidance provided in the laser safety
standard TR60825-14 Safety of laser products - Part 14 - A users guide has the
status of a Highway Code. The CVCP laser working code Safety in Universities -
Notes of Guidance - Part 2:1 Lasers is a working code for laser use, a prescriptive
implementation of the EN 60825-1 user guidance, but is currently in great need of
updating.
The risk assessment approach apportions the risk of what are identified as reasonably
foreseeable injurious events and goes on to select reasonably practicable
precautions. Risk is a product of two factors, the severity of injury and the
probability of exposure. If the risk is above what is regarded as a tolerable level then a
combination of engineering and administrative control measures must be introduced
to reduce the risk. Personal protective equipment (e.g. protective eyewear) is used as a
last resort if there remains a residual risk.
The simplest situation to deal with is where the laser product is Class 1 i.e. the laser
light is properly guarded to prevent human access. In this case, the user need not be
concerned with the laser light hazard during normal use of the product. However, if
the embedded laser is Class 3B or Class 4, then the user may have to incorporate
additional measures to address the laser light hazard during some on-site service
activities.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Biological hazard
Radiation hazards in general
Over the wavelength range that different lasers operate, the skin is a strong absorber
and thereby protecting all the organs of the body except for the eyes. For the eyes (but
not for the skin) the wavelength of the radiation has a strong effect on the injury it can
cause.

One can distinguish between two principal types of competing tissue damage
mechanisms for radiation in the ultraviolet to visible: thermal and photochemical.
When absorption of radiation occurs, the temperature of the absorbing tissue rises: if
the temperature exceeds a temperature of approximately 60 C then proteins in cells
denature and the cell dies; if the temperature rises above 100 C, water in the tissue
begins to boil and further temperature increases lead to carbonisation of the tissue.
This is the thermal damage process. It is characterised by a sharp threshold for injury
and is non-cumulative in that if, over prolonged exposure, thermal injury does not
occur within about 10s (during which the temperature of the exposed tissue will be
rising to some steady-state value), then it will not occur at all.
For prolonged exposure to radiation at wavelengths in the ultraviolet and the blue end
of the visible spectrum, a photochemical injury mechanism can dominate. The
capability of radiation to initiate photochemical effects is strongly wavelength
dependent and generally increases with decreasing wavelength. Chemical changes in
the exposed tissue induced by this shorter wavelength radiation are cumulative,
certainly over a working day, so the degree of damage depends on the radiant
exposure (J m
-2
on the exposed surface) i.e. the accumulated energy. Unlike the
WAVELENGTH
GAMMA X-RAY UV VISIBLE INFRA-RED MICROWAVE RADIOWAVE
0.1 m 1000 m
penetration penetration
Non-ionising radiation
thermal burn risk
Ionising radiation
cancer risk

The wavelength of the radiation determines its biological effects

Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
threshold for thermal damage, which varies with wavelength only in response to the
changes in the absorption depth in the tissue, the photochemical action curve has a
strong wavelength dependence and dominates only for prolonged or repeated
exposures at levels which are too small to cause a sufficient temperature rise for
thermal damage. For short time (less than 10s) single exposures, thermal damage will
always be the more important.
Injuries to the eye
The human eye is equipped to transmit electromagnetic radiation in the restricted
wavelength range of 400 nm (blue light) through to 1400 nm (near infrared):
through the cornea, which provides the primary means of focusing of the
radiation;
through the pupil at the centre of the iris, whose partial closure in response to
bright light provides a degree of regulation;
through the jelly-like lens, which under muscular control provides the remaining
amount of focusing of the radiation;
creating an image of the radiation source on the foveal region of the retina, where
photoreceptors provide a signal to the brain from which the structure and colour of
the image are interpreted.

Fovea
Retina
Choroid
Sclera
Visual axis
Symmetry axis
Optic nerve
Optic disc
Vitreous
Aqueous
Lens
Cornea
Iris
Conjunctiva
Ciliary
body
Pupil

The absorption of radiation incident on the eye has a strong and complex wavelength
dependence. Various wavelength bands can be discerned over which the cornea, the
anterior region (aqueous and lens), the posterior (vitreous) and the retina is at risk of
injury. This is set out in the table below, which delineates the principal types and
locations of injury according to spectral band and exposure duration. Note that
Schematic horizontal cross section of a human eye.
Central sharp vision is only possible in the central part of the retina, the macula (yellow spot), and
particularly in the even smaller centre of the macula, the fovea. The main refractive power of the eye
is provided by the cornea, while the lens is needed for adaption (imaging) of distant and close objects.

Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
damage to the cornea or lens can result in serious, though in principle correctable,
vision loss. In the retinal hazard range injuries are not reversible.
Within the retinal hazard range (0.4 to 1.4 m) a laser beam entering the eye and
passing through the pupil can be transmitted focused to a spot of the order of 10 - 20
m diameter on the retina, resulting in a concentration of up to 100 000 times (ratio of
areas of a 7mm diameter pupil to a 20 m image) over the exposure level at the
cornea. In practice, factors during laser exposure including pupil size and
accommodation of the eye (i.e. distance of focus), combined with involuntary eye
movements and, in the wavelengths range of light (0.4 0.7 m), aversion responses
(including the blink reflex)), lessen the retinal exposure. Nevertheless, it remains the
case that the maximum safe exposure (measured at the cornea) for, say, a 1ms
duration is 100Wm
-2
for visible radiation and 1MWm
-2
at wavelengths just outside the
retinal hazard range.
Wavelength range Tissue
affected
Single-pulse injury Long exposure several seconds or
more) CW and repetitively pulsed
lasers
Ultraviolet
(180 nm to 400 nm)
Cornea lens Thermal damage dominates.
Denaturation (clouding) of cornea and
(0.28 0.4m) lens.
Short pulses: Photoablation of corneal
tissue with high power pulses.
Photochemical damage dominates.
Photokeratitis (arc-eye or snow
blindness) of the cornea.
Photochemical cataract. (0.28 0.4m)
Visible and near
infrared
(400 nm to 1400 nm)
Retina Thermal damage dominates.
Burn (protein denaturation) with severe
vision loss when damage in the foveal
region.
Short pulses: photomechanical damage
i.e. rupture of tissue, bleeding into inner
eye.
400 nm 550 nm (blue to green)
Photochemical damage for exposure for
more than several seconds.
Visible exposure for thermal damage
normally limited to one second by
aversion response to bright light. Eye
movement reduces hazard for longer
durations
Far Infrared
(1400 nm to 1 mm)
Cornea lens Thermal damage dominates.
Denaturation (clouding) of cornea and
(1.4-1.9m) lens.
Short pulses: photoablation of corneal
tissue with high power pulses.
Exposure for thermal damage normally
limited to a few seconds by reaction to
pain due to heating of cornea.
Long term infrared cataract (1.4-3m)
Summary of principal ocular injuries for ultraviolet to infrared radiation
The cornea has a highly effective repair mechanism for minor injuries, but for the lens and retina the
injury is permanent. Note that the injury mechanisms apply to both laser and non-laser sources, except
for short pulse (typically q-switched lasers with pulse durations less than 1 s) injury mechanisms,
which are unique to lasers.
devised with Dr Karl Schulmeister, Osterreichisches Forschungszentrum, Seibersdorf, Austria
The retina as sensitive only to wavelengths in the approximate range 0.4 - 0.7 m
whereas wavelengths out to 1.4 m are transmitted. The near infrared (0.7 1.4 m)
reaches the retina but is not sensed directly, neither as light nor as pain, so damage
can accumulate without the victim being aware of it at the time. As confirmed by
accident statistics, the near infrared is the most hazardous wavelength range for lasers
in general and near infrared pulsed lasers are the most hazardous sources.
For energetic laser pulses of duration less than 1 s, rapid heating of the absorbing
tissue can cause vaporisation, resulting in a micro explosion at the back of the eye,
possibly leading to damage extending well beyond the irradiated area and
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
haemorrhaging. The flow of blood and debris into the vitreous humour greatly
increases the impairment of vision.
Effects of different wavelengths on the eyes
Ocular Exposure to Ultraviolet Radiation
UV radiation can cause photochemical damage to the cornea. Arc-eye suffered by
welders is an example of this injury, which can be very painful, but heals in about two
days. Short wavelength UV is stopped by the cornea, longer wavelengths can reach as
far as the lens, where cumulative exposure can produce a cataract. The 308 nm
excimer laser is at about the worst wavelength for causing a photochemical cataract.
Ocular Exposure to Visible and Near Infrared Radiation
In the 0.4 - 1.4 m wavelength range the eye transmits, and can focus the radiation
onto the retina. Short exposures to the sun and some powerful arc lamps can produce
retinal burns, as can low power (several mW) laser beams in this wavelength region.
In the 0.4 - 0.7 m wavelength range the retina senses the exposure, and attempts to
regulate the level of exposure by a relatively slow partial closure of the iris, down to a
pupil size of about 2 mm diameter, but no further. For exposure to potentially harmful
levels of bright light the blink reflex is the eyes natural aversion response.

Optical power density on retina
TV
100 W
Light bulb
Sun
1 mW laser
1 100 1,000,000 100,000,000 10,000
Safe for prolonged viewing
Safe for accidental
viewing (1/4 second)

Comparison of magnitudes of retinal irradiance for visible radiation
A person accidentally looking into a bright light, such as the sun, will blink and turn his head away in
less than 1/4 second. The blink reflex of the eye does not, however, provide adequate defence against:
near infrared radiation; laser pulses of less than 1/4s duration; very bright sources, for which even 1/4s
is too long; purposeful staring (e.g. during solar eclipses)
Radiation in the 0.7 - 1.4 m wavelength range, the near infrared, reaches the retina
but the retina does not sense the radiation directly, neither as light nor as pain, and no
damage can be done without the victim being aware. Many diode lasers and solid
state lasers including the Nd:YAG laser operate in this most hazardous wavelength
range.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________

0 500 1000 1500 nm
Fraction of incident power
reaching retina
Retinal response
b
l
u
e
g
r
e
e
n
y
e
l
l
o
w
o
r
a
n
g
e
r
e
d
invisible retinal
hazard
l
i
n
e
a
r

s
c
a
l
e

The eye-transmitting wavelength band and the limited range of retinal response

Ocular Exposure to Medium and Far Infrared Radiation
Radiation of wavelength longer than 1.4 m but less than 4 mm is fully absorbed in
the volume of the anterior of the eye. At longer wavelengths the cornea is a strong
absorber and thermal burns are a possibility. For severe injuries, a corneal graft may
be necessary.
Pulsed laser injuries
The one exception, all the injuries addressed above can be inflicted by conventional
radiation sources as well as by lasers. The exception is the thermo-mechanical
injury from exposure to high power laser pulses of duration 1 s or less. If such
pulses contain sufficient energy, the rapid heating of the absorbing tissue causes
vaporisation and creates strong mechanical forces. Retinal injuries of this type are
characterised by the victim hearing a popping sound caused by a micro explosion at
the back of the eye. Such injuries cause damage over an area of tissue much greater
than that irradiated by the laser and the flow of blood and debris into the vitreous
humour greatly increases the impairment of vision.
Injuries to the skin
Everyone has experienced skin damage, ranging from photochemical damage by UV
from the sun (sunburn) to thermal burns to the legs from sitting too close to electric
bar fires, where the damage is caused by infrared radiation.
The very thin (10-20 m thick) outer layer of dead cells (the epidermis) strongly
absorbs far infrared wavelengths, such as that emitted from a CO
2
laser. Similarly, in
the ultraviolet this outer layer of dead cells absorbs virtually all the radiation. At
intermediate wavelengths the penetration increases, peaking at 0.7 m (red), but is
always less than 1 mm. Skin cancer can be caused by over exposure to UV radiation,
including sun radiation.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Safety calculations
Maximum Permissible Exposure
One of the principal aims of a laser safety programme is to ensure that any exposure
to laser radiation that might occur is within safe limits. It is therefore often necessary
to assess the maximum level of exposure that could arise under all foreseeable
conditions and then to relate this to the maximum permissible exposure (MPE). The
Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE) can be thought of as setting the boundary
between safe and potentially harmful level of exposure or irradiance. However, it is
not to be thought of as a sharp boundary: MPE values are derived primarily from
animal experiments in which a number of exposures are delivered to the eye or the
skin for some fixed set of conditions (laser wavelength, exposure duration, spot size)
and examined afterwards for detectable lesions. For obvious reasons, the exposed site
can only be exposed once and therefore a range of sites per animal and also a number
of animals have to be exposed. As a result, and in combination with experimental
uncertainties, there is not a sharply defined threshold exposure value below which no
lesions are found and above which all exposures lead to damage.
Values of MPE are given for eye and skin exposure in EN 60825-1 and (identical) TR
60825-14. They are expressed as functions of the laser emission wavelength and
exposure duration. The International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation
Protection (ICNIRP) develops these values. They are set below known damage
thresholds and are based on the best available information. The MPE values should be
used as guides in the control of exposure and should not be regarded as precisely
defined dividing lines between safe and hazardous levels. Because exposure to laser
radiation below the MPE can still be uncomfortable in certain circumstances and may
cause secondary hazards (as explained below), exposure should in any case be kept as
low as reasonably practicable.
The exposure dose at which 50 % of the exposures lead to a lesion, ED-50, is
generally referred to as the threshold, even though there is a finite probability for
damage at energies somewhat below the ED-50. The MPE is set well below the ED-
50, often a factor between by a factor of 10. However, where there is less variability
and small experimental uncertainty, such as for corneal photochemical injury in the
UV range, a safety factor less than 10 has been agreed by the international committee.
To cover bands of wavelength and pulse duration, MPE values are expressed as single
values or by a simple analytical expression and as a result safety margins greater than
10 are often encountered.
MPEs vary widely with both wavelength and exposure duration and the same values
are broadly accepted world-wide. MPE values are provided for:
! exposure of the skin and eyes
! wavelengths from 0.18 m (UV) to 1 mm (onset of microwaves)
! exposures from less than 1 ps to 30,000 s (about 8 hours) duration.
! point and extended laser sources
! exposure to trains of pulses
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
! simultaneous exposure to more than one wavelength
Other points to bear in mind in this context are:
! MPEs for ocular exposure in the eye-transmission range include
assumptions about the accommodation of the eye (i.e. that the lens
images the light onto the retina) and the size of the pupil (i.e. that the
pupil is fully dilated to 7 mm).
! MPEs take no account of the severity of injury. For example, exceeding
the MPE by around ten times for a skin exposure may cause a mild
reddening which soon heals, whereas the same exposure to the eye may
be a permanent retinal burn.
! MPEs relate only to acute injuries. Chronic (i.e. long term, cumulative,
multiple exposure) effects such as cataracts and the blue light hazard are
not included.
! Ocular MPEs include a factor for the image size, to take into account
direct viewing of very poor quality laser beams or diffuse reflections.
! An MPE has associated with it a limiting aperture, a circular area over
which the power or energy in the beam is averaged. An MPE of 25 Wm
-2

with a limiting aperture of 7 mm (this figure depends on wavelength,
exposure duration and whether the MPE is for skin or eye) means 1 mW
through a 7 mm diameter circle.
Assessing the level of laser exposure
An assessment of laser exposure may be needed in order to determine the boundary of
the laser hazard zone, or to specify the level of protection that is necessary (for
example, with the use of laser protective eyewear or protective viewing windows).
Measurement, calculation or both can be used for this assessment.
It is generally straightforward to do a first order calculation of exposure under
foreseeable conditions assessment using the maximum output data for the laser source
supplied by the manufacturer; for greater accuracy a measurement is generally
required. On the other hand, measurements can be hazardous operations, there are
many pitfalls in conducting and interpreting the data, and it can be difficult to be sure
that the measurement does indeed represent the maximum level of exposure under all
foreseeable conditions.
The effective exposure
The level of human exposure arising from a laser product should be determined at the
positions at which it is reasonably foreseeable that a person might be located and
where the highest levels of exposure can occur. This evaluation should take into
account all reasonably foreseeable conditions of direct beam emission and beam
reflection.
For CW (continuous wave) lasers, the exposure will normally be expressed in terms
of the incident irradiance (Wm
-2
). With pulsed lasers, both the average irradiance
(Wm
-2
) and the radiant exposure due to a single pulse (Jm
-2
) will usually need to be
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
known. In all cases, the measurement must be made through the specified limiting
aperture as given below:
Aperture diameter for
Spectral region nm Eye mm Skin mm
180 to 400 1 3.5
!400 to 1400 7 3.5
!1400 to 10
5
1 for t " 0.35 s
1.5 t
3/8
for 0.35 s < t < 10 s
3.5 for t = 10 s
3.5
10
5
to 10
6
11 11
The diameter of the limiting aperture applicable to measurements of irradiance
and radiant exposure (t is the exposure duration)

Note that the irradiance (Wm
-2
) or radiant exposure (Jm
-2
) must be calculated by
measuring the power or energy through the appropriate limiting aperture and then
dividing the measured value by the area of the limiting aperture and not by the actual
area of the beam.
There is also a special procedure for dealing with large (extended) laser sources These
considerations can mean that the value of the applicable exposure (called the effective
exposure) that must be used for comparison with the MPE may not be the same as the
exposure that would actually arise.
The main parameters that may be needed for exposure assessment are:
! emission wavelength;
! beam dimensions at laser output;
! beam divergence and position of the beam waist;
! beam profile (power or energy distribution across the beam);
! maximum reasonably foreseeable exposure duration;
! minimum reasonably foreseeable exposure distance;
! angular subtense of apparent source (this is usually only needed for laser
arrays and for the assessment of diffuse, i.e. non-specular, beam reflections);
! for scanning beams, the scanning characteristics and scan geometry.
In addition, for continuous (CW) emission:
! beam power;
and for pulsed emission:
! pulse energy;
! pulse duration;
! pulse repetition frequency;
! pulse shape and pulse distribution in time (if complex).
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Angle of acceptance for the assessment of exposure from extended sources
The majority of single lasers represent small sources, since the angular subtense of
the apparent source is less than !
min
(1.5 mrad). Where the emission from such
sources is within the retinal hazard region (i.e. between 400 nm and 1 400 nm), the
eye can focus it to form an effective point image on the retina. This is not possible
with larger apparent sources (often called extended sources), which, therefore, for a
given level of exposure at the surface the eye, may be less hazardous. Extended-
source exposure conditions may be applicable to diffuse reflections, laser arrays or
laser products employing a diffuser, when these are viewed at a sufficiently close
distance.
When determining the level of the effective exposure arising from an extended laser
source (that is, any source subtending more than 1.5 mrad at the position at which the
exposure is being assessed), there are stipulated angles of acceptance that should be
used: any contribution to the exposure that is due to the sources emission arising
from outside the angle of acceptance should be excluded from the assessment of the
effective exposure. The angular subtense of the apparent source is measured at the
distance at which the exposure is being assessed, but not at a distance less than 100
mm.
a) For the determination of the level of exposure to be evaluated against
photochemical MPEs (400 nm to 600 nm), the limiting angle of acceptance ."

is
for 10 s < t " 100 s: "

= 11 mrad
for 100 s < t " 10
4
s: "
= 1.1 t
0.5
mrad
for 10
4
s < t " 3 10
4
s: "

= 110 mrad
If the angular subtense of the source ! is larger than the specified limiting
angle of acceptance "
, the angle of acceptance should not be larger than the

values specified for "
. If the angular subtense ! of the source is smaller than

the specified limiting angle of acceptance "
, the angle of acceptance should

fully encompass the source under consideration but otherwise need not be well
defined (i.e. the angle of acceptance need not be restricted to "
).
b) For the determination of the level of exposure to be evaluated against all
MPEs other than the retinal photochemical hazard limit, the angle of
acceptance should fully encompass the source under consideration (i.e. the
angle of acceptance shall be at least as large as the angular subtense of the
source !). However, if ! > !
max
, in the wavelength range of 302.5 nm to 4000
nm, the limiting angle of acceptance should not be larger than !
max
(0,1 rad)
for the thermal hazard limits. Within the wavelength range of 400 nm to 1 400
nm for thermal hazard limits, for the evaluation of an apparent source which
consists of multiple points, the angle of acceptance shall be in the range of !
min

" " " !
max
.
For the determination of the MPE for non-circular sources, the value of the angular
subtense of a rectangular or linear source is determined by the arithmetic mean of
the two angular dimensions of the source. Any angular dimension that is greater
than !
max
or less than !
min
should be limited to !
max
or !
min
respectively, prior to
calculating the mean. The retinal photochemical MPEs do not depend on the
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
angular subtense of the source, and the exposure is determined using the angle of
acceptance specified above.
Hazard distance
Laser beams normally have a low divergence, a narrow "pencil like" spread of angles.
In such cases, the hazard to eyes and skin is approximately independent of distance.
This is in sharp contrast to conventional sources, where the skin and corneal hazards
decrease rapidly with distance.
Knowledge of hazard distance can be especially useful in the case of divergent-beam
lasers, where the hazard distance can be relatively short and the hazard therefore
limited to the immediate vicinity of the laser aperture. It can also be important for
collimated beams from lasers that are used over long distances, such as out-of-doors,
where hazard distances can be considerable. Particular care needs to be taken with the
out-door use of collimated-beam Class 1M and Class 2M laser products: although
these lasers present no hazard to the unaided eye, the distance over which the use of
magnifying viewing aids could be hazardous may be very large. If the beam extends
into public areas it cannot be assumed that magnifying aids such as binoculars will not
be used.
As a laser beam travels it expands, perhaps after having first passed through a focus.
At a sufficiently great distance from the laser output, the effect of this expansion
(aided by absorption and scattering in the medium that the beam is travelling through)
is that the MPE is not exceeded in the beam. The closest distance where this occurs is
the Nominal Ocular Hazard Distance (NOHD). Another term sometimes used is the
Extended Nominal Ocular Hazard Distance (ENOHD), the point at which the level
is at the Class 1 AEL. From this point onwards, about 7x NOHD from the laser, the
beam is deemed safe to use with optical viewing aids.
Nominal ocular hazard distance
The distance at which the level of exposure has dropped to the level of the MPE (for
the eye) is known as the nominal ocular hazard distance (NOHD). Beyond this
distance there is no hazard to the unaided eye, although there may be a hazard if
magnifying viewing aids are used.
A simple back of the envelope calculation of NOHD is given below.
Simple calculation of NOHD
Step 1
Decide on the acceptable level of exposure laser radiation (generally the MPE).
Step 2
Calculate the area over which the laser's power or pulse energy would have to be
uniformly spread for the power or energy density to be at the level derived in Step 1.
Step 3
Measure or estimate the full angle beam divergence and calculate how far the laser
beam would have to travel before it had expanded to the safe area estimated in Step 2.
Step 4
If appropriate, allow for any non-uniformity over beam diameter by multiplying the
value in Step 3:
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
If the beam diameter is specified at the '1/e
2
' points*, multiply hazard distance by
1.4.
If it is suspected that there are hot spots in the beam, multiply hazard distance
by 1.6.
For extended sources the calculation is more complicated. At Step 1 it may well be
best to ignore the for angular subtense and then confirm is this simplification is valid
after a value is arrived at in Step 4. If the NOHD is so small that the C
6
correction
factor needs to be taken into account than the MPE must be expressed as a algebraic
function of distance (using the fact that ! is inversely proportional to distance) and
then solve the quadratic equation at step 3.
* For circular beams having an approximately Gaussian profile, the on-axis value is equal to the
total beam power or energy divided by the area of the beam determined on the basis of its 1/e
diameter. This area contains 63 % of the total beam power or energy. The 1/e diameter is the
diameter at which the beam irradiance, radiant exposure or radiant intensity has decreased to
1/e, or 0.37, of the peak, on-axis value. In many cases, however, the manufacturer will specify the
diameter of the beam in terms of the 1/e2 value. The 1/e
2
diameter is equal to the 1/e diameter
multiplied by 1.4.
Extended Nominal ocular hazard distance
To take account of the possible use of magnifying aids, where this is reasonably
foreseeable, the extended nominal ocular hazard distance can be used. This distance is
determined on the basis of the increase in exposure (at the surface of the eye, within
the relevant limiting aperture) that could arise through the use of magnifying
instruments. The extended nominal ocular hazard distance (ENOHD) is therefore that
distance beyond which magnifying instruments can be safely used. In this regard,
TR60825-14 provides the following useful information:
Use of binoculars
If a laser source is viewed through binoculars, then the increase in the effective
exposure at the surface of the eye will be the smaller of either M
2
or (D/d)
2
, where M
is the angular magnification of the binoculars, D is the diameter of the objective (i.e.
outer) lenses and d is the diameter of the relevant limiting aperture. (Binoculars are
normally specified in the form M x D, e.g., 7 x 50.) Allowance can be made for
transmission losses through the binoculars at the laser wavelength. Typical
transmission percentages for binoculars are:
Wavelength % Transmission
0.18-0.302 m <2%
0.302-0.4 m 70%
0.4-0.7 m 90%
0.7-2 .8 m 70%
2.8-103 m <2%
The angular subtense of an extended source viewed though the binoculars will be
increased by a factor M.
Both the NOHD and ENOHD depend critically on the beam geometry as well as on
the magnitude of the laser output. It can be possible, for example, to refocus or
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
collimate the beam, even by means of an optical component positioned some distance
from the source, and thereby increase both the NOHD and ENOHD.
In some applications it can be useful to determine the skin-hazard distance in an
analogous manner to NOHD.
Nominal ocular hazard area
From knowledge of the NOHD and ENOHD, and of the way in which the laser is
positioned and secured, and also of the circumstances of its use, it is possible to define
an area or 3- dimensional space around the laser aperture within which exposure
hazards can arise. This region, the hazard zone, is called the nominal ocular hazard
area (NOHA) if it is based on the criterion for the NOHD, or the extended nominal
ocular hazard area (ENOHA) if it is based on the ENOHD.
Because of the possible use of magnifying aids by people unconnected with the laser
operation, especially where lasers are used out-of-doors, it is important to recognise
that the laser hazard can extend over the full area of the ENOHA, and not just that of
the NOHA. For outdoor applications, if the beam is terminated by the ground, a tree-
line or other terrain features, the NOHD can not exceed the line of sight to this opaque
feature.
Provided that access into the ENOHA can be restricted and reliably controlled,
however, it is not always necessary to enclose the hazard area.

Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
The laser hazard classification scheme
Defining the problem
Without specifying how a laser is to be used, what is its maximum safe level of
output? This question is the of defining the maximum output of a safe (Class 1) laser.
The safety standard stipulates 100s is to be taken for assessing exposure appropriate
to Class 1 unless intentional viewing is inherent in the design or function of the laser
products, in which case the time period is 30,000s. With this in mind, an appropriate
MPE can be deduced. This value (in Wm
-2
or Jm
-2
), multiplied by the area of the
corresponding limiting aperture, gives a value (in Watts or Joules, respectively) which
is referred to as the Class 1 Accessible Emission Limit (AEL).
The safety standard goes on to specify the conditions of measurement, addressing in
particular the measurement distance, the collection aperture and location of the
detector; and the state of the laser (including worst single fault conditions).
In essence, the classification scheme divides laser products into four major classes:
Class 1: No risk to eyes or skin
Lasers that are safe in normal operations under reasonably foreseeable conditions,
including direct intrabeam viewing.
Class 2: Low risk to eyes. No risk to skin
Lasers emitting visible radiation in the wavelength range 400 700 nm for which
the natural aversion response to bright light (including the blink reflex) prevents
retinal injury for direct intrabeam viewing. These lasers do, however, present a
dazzle hazard.
Class 3: Medium risk to eyes. Low risk to skin
Lasers for which intrabeam viewing is hazardous, but for which the viewing of
diffuse reflections is normally safe. Natural aversion response to localised heating
prevents serious skin injury.
Class 4: High risk to eyes and skin
Lasers for which intrabeam viewing and skin exposure is hazardous and for which
the viewing of diffuse reflections may be hazardous. These lasers are also a fire
hazard.
Each Class has associated with it an Accessible Emission Limit, generally expressed
in Watts and Joules, except Class 4 for which there is no upper limit. The AEL is a
maximum level of accessible laser radiation for the class, according to prescribed
measurement conditions and measurement detector positions and collection aperture
sizes. The measurement procedures are intended to take account of many of the worst-
case assumptions of exposure conditions for which the product could be used i.e.
exposure duration, closeness of viewing and the use of optical instruments.
The current internationally approved classification scheme represents a major
refinement. It includes relaxed forms of Class 1, 2 and 3, taking into account both
large beam diameter and high beam divergence sources.
The table below summarises the current classification scheme. A sub division of
classes has been included to highlight how, on specifics of warning signs,
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
manufacturer-installed safety measures and user guidance, a total 7 classes and 11
sub-classes can now be identified from the primary four.
Included in the table is a listing of the general manufacturers requirements, Section 2
of EN60825-1. There are additional requirements for certain classes of product
including medical laser equipment, optical fibre communication equipment and
machines that use lasers to process materials.
Protective housing
All classes of laser product are required to have a protective housing to limit human
access to levels of laser radiation below the AEL assigned to the product. This is the
primary engineered safety feature on a laser product and its design becomes
particularly important for Class 1 (embedded) laser products, particularly those
enclosing Class 4 laser sources.
Laser safety standards include requirements for labelling on access and service panels
that form part of the protective housing and provide access to hazardous levels of
laser radiation and, in addition, interlocking for such panels that are intended to be
removed during normal use or maintenance.
Thin walled enclosures will keep fingers out and block any weakly scattered laser
radiation but insofar as they are incapable of withstanding a high power laser beam
they rely heavily on the maintaining the direction of the beam path. Regular alignment
checks and the maintenance of optics and the environment (e.g. vibration, humidity,
temperature, dust) can therefore be important safety considerations in the context of
high power laser beams. Indeed, the subject of laser guards, a machine term but
essentially simply a component of a protective housing, is the subject of a separate
standard [IEC 60825-4: Laser guards].
Class 1 laser products are safe under reasonably foreseeable circumstances, either
because their output of the laser is so low or because of engineering safeguards. Many
commercial laser systems that are sold as Class 1 products contain higher power laser
products, where the laser radiation is completely contained. Such a laser is referred to
as an embedded laser, and is Class 1 by engineering design. The main benefit of
making a product Class 1 is that it can be used without implementing laser safety
precautions. Laser Printers and CD players are examples of such devices.

Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Qualitative description of Laser Safety Classes
devised with Dr Karl Schulmeister, Osterreichisches Forschungszentrum, Seibersdorf, Austria
Class Sub division Meaning Warning label and safety features
Intrinsic

Safe by virtue of the intrinsic low power of the
laser, even with the use of optical instruments
No warning label.
No additional safety features
Class 1
Engineering Embedded laser products, safe by virtue of
engineering controls e.g. total enclosure
guarding, scan failure mechanism.
No warning label.
No additional safety features (but see
requirements for protective housings in
6.4.3)
Collimated Well collimated beam, output in range 302.5
4000 nm, with large diameter that is safe for
unaided viewing but potentially hazardous
when a telescope or binoculars are used.
LASER RADIATION
DO NOT VIEW DIRECTLY WITH
BIONOCULARS OR TELESCOPES*
Class 1M
High divergence Output in range 302.5 4000 nm, Safe for
unaided viewing but potentially hazardous
when an eye loupe or magnifier is used.
LASER RADIATION
DO NOT VIEW DIRECTLY WITH
MAGNIFIERS*
Class 2 - Output in range 400 700 nm. Safe for
unintended exposure, even with the use of
optical instruments, by virtue of natural
aversion response to bright light
DO NOT STARE INTO THE BEAM
Collimated Well collimated beam in range 400 700 n,
with large diameter that is safe for unaided
viewing by virtue of natural aversion response
to bright light but potentially hazardous when
a telescope or binoculars are used.
LASER RADIATION
OR VIEW DIRECTLY WITH
BIONOCULARS OR TELESCOPES*
Class 2M
High divergence High divergence source with output in range
400 700 nm. Safe for unaided viewing by
virtue of natural aversion response to bright
light but potentially hazardous when an eye
loupe or magnifier is used.
LASER RADIATION
OR VIEW DIRECTLY WITH
MAGNIFIERS*
Class 3R Visible Output in range 400 700 nm. Direct
intrabeam viewing is potentially hazardous,
but by virtue of natural aversion response to
bright light the risk is lower than for Class 3B.
AVOID DIRECT EYE EXPOSURE
Non-visible Output in UV (180 400 nm) or IR (700 nm -
1 mm). Direct intrabeam viewing is potentially
hazardous, but the risk is lower than for Class
3B.
AVOID DIRECT EYE EXPOSURE
(700 1400 nm)
AVOID EXPOSURE TO THE BEAM
(outside the range 400 1400nm)
Emission warning device.
Class 3B - Medium power laser. Direct ocular exposure is
hazardous, even taking into account aversion
responses, but diffuse reflections are usually
safe.
AVOID EXPOSURE TO THE BEAM
Key switch, emission warning device,
externa#l interlock connection and beam
stop
Class 4 - High power laser. Direct exposure is
hazardous to eye and diffuse reflection may
also be hazardous. Skin and potential fire
hazard.
AVOID EYE OR SKIN EXPOSURE
TO DIRECT OR SCATTERED
RADIATION
Safety features as for 3B
* The general phrase optical instruments can be used in place of binoculars or telescopes or magnifiers.
However, generally only one or other group of optical instruments leads to an increase in the hazard for a given
laser product. Therefore, at the discretion of the manufacturer, a specific wording can be added to the warning
label.
Visible emission from lasers can cause disturbing and potentially dangerous dazzle
effects at exposure levels that are well below the maximum permissible exposure and
which therefore cause no direct physiological injury. This is especially so with laser
classes 2, 2M and 3R (includes laser pointers and low-power alignment lasers). These
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
should not therefore be directed, whether intentionally or unintentionally, at a person's
eyes. This can startle and distract the exposed person, and can cause them to lose
concentration, with particularly serious consequences if the person is performing a
safety-critical task, such as driving or controlling machinery. It can also produce
disturbing after-images, generate fear, and induce reactions such as watering eyes and
headaches if the person believes that they might have suffered injury as a
consequence of exposure. Persistent rubbing of the eyes in response to a perceived
injury can also result in painful corneal abrasions.
The laser hazard classification scheme has a number of limitations. In particular, the
scheme relates only to the safety of the product in regard to laser radiation emitted
during normal and maintenance operations. For example, embedded laser products
can operate in a higher classification during maintenance and servicing operations;
and, of course, to say a laser is 'Class 1' says nothing about the non-laser hazards of
the product. Furthermore, the laser hazard classification scheme is only a crude guide
to safe laser use. It takes no account of the variations in severity of injury with
wavelengths and, within any particular Class but especially within Class 4, output
power.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Laser-related Workplace Legislation
The Workplace Directive
This Directive applies to all permanent workplaces. I believe that this extends
previous legislation by covering research establishments, schools and colleges etc.,
which were previously not covered by industrial legislation. The Directive lays down
requirements and demands that minimum health and safety requirements are
implemented. These requirements cover a wide range of workplace topics and
include:
Definition of escape routes;
a requirements for cleanliness;
that maintenance of the workplace shall be carried out;
that safety equipment shall be maintained and checked;
minimum safety and health requirements be established for
workplace structural stability;
electrical installation;
emergency routes and exits;
fire precautions;
ventilation and temperature;
lighting;
minimum requirements for doors and gates;
that dangerous areas are defined and minimized;
provision of rest rooms, rest area, changing rooms and washing facilities;
toilets are provided;
first-aid equipment is provided.
The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Directive
This Directive, often known as PUWE78, is applicable virtually everywhere that work
is done. It very clearly makes the employer have a legal (as well as any moral)
obligation for health and safety of workers and others in the workplace.
The Directive requires that equipment and machinery is
suitable for the task envisaged;
can be used without risk to health and safety
is adequately maintained to ensure an acceptably low level of risk to users.
Thus there is a requirement to carry out risk assessments of workplace activities and
then to eliminate or reduce to an acceptable level all risks associated with the work
activity. Control systems must be safe, breakage and damage must not result in
danger, protection is required against rupture or disintegration, preventing fire or
overheating, discharges of gas, dust, liquid, vapour or other substances, explosion,
contact with electricity and equipment must be appropriate for use. The use of
personal protective equipment is only to be considered as a last resort. This Directive
thus places the responsibility on an Employer not to purchase or put into service
equipment which is not in conformity with relevant product Directives i.e. CE marked
by the manufacturer or supplier.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Overview
Ever since the invention of the laser in 1960 the risk posed by laser injury to the eye
has been well appreciated. As a result, awareness of laser safety has in general been
high, laser standards have adopted a conservative approach to safety; and lasers have
maintained an excellent track record for safety. Nevertheless, the pace of development
of laser technology and applications remains high and continually presents new safety
challenges; certainly, there is no room for complacency.
Legislation for users
There are no specific legal requirements related to the use of lasers in Europe. The
selection of appropriate safety measures is a matter for the employer, who is legally
obliged under the Management of Health and Safety at Work Directive to adopt a risk
assessment approach. In this context, the guidance provided in the international laser
safety technical report TR 60825-14 Safety of laser products - Part 14 A users
guide has the status of a Highway Code. It is universally recognised as defining best
practice in laser safety. In addition to this general document, there is more specific
guidance available for some laser user groups, including HSE guidance document
HS(G)95 The radiation safety of lasers used for display purposes (also 60825-3, a
technical report addressing the same subject internationally), a laser working code
issued by the Committee of Vive-Chancellors and Principals of Universities in the
UK Safety in Universities - Notes of Guidance - Part 2:1 Lasers, and 60825-8, a
technical report, Guidelines for the safe use of medical laser equipment; all of which
offer a sub-set of laser users an interpretation of the EN 60825-1user guidance. There
is no widely accepted guidance document for industrial laser users.
The risk assessment approach apportions the risk of what are identified as reasonably
foreseeable injurious events and goes on to select reasonably practicable
precautions. Risk is a product of two factors, the severity of injury and the
probability of exposure. If the risk is above what is regarded as a tolerable level then a
combination of engineering and administrative control measures must be introduced
to reduce the risk. Personal protective equipment (e.g. protective eyewear) is used as a
last resort if there remains a residual risk.
Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations
Legislation requires all employers to following protecting the health and safety of
their employees. The main requirement is for employers to assess workplace risks
and introduce appropriate preventative measures. In summary these principles are:
! avoid risks;
! evaluate the risks which cannot be avoided;
! combat risks at source;
! give collective protective measures;
! provide individual protective measures, such as PPE

PPE thus comes into effect only when the risks cannot be avoided or sufficiently
limited by collective protection, such as engineering controls or systems of work. The
PPE Directive covers all equipment designed to be worn or carried to protect against
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
one or more safety or health hazard. In using the PPE Directive, the employer is
required to:
! assess the risks;
! ensure that the PPE is suitable for the worker;
! select the PPE which
gives protection when fitted correctly;
complies with the PPE Product Directive;
! provide the PPE free of charge;
! maintain PPE in clean, good working order;
! provide information, instruction and training on the use of PPE;
! involve workers in the selection of the PPE
Where personal protective equipment has been deemed to be an appropriate method
of risk reduction, its use should be compulsory. PPE should ideally be issued on a
person-by-person basis, and for hygiene reasons should be properly cleaned by an
appropriate method before reuse by another person. Special requirements apply in
Europe covering the specification, marking and testing of laser eye protection, using
the concept of protective (rather than optical) density, which takes into account the
ability of the protection to withstand the incident laser radiation (ref EN 207 and EN
208).

Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Associated Hazards
In addition to the laser radiation hazard, there are other general hazards associated
with laser use. These so-called non-beam or associated hazards do not affect the
laser classification, and so may be present with even Class 1 laser products. Some,
such as electric shock, can be life-threatening.
The control of associated hazards should normally be addressed by the manufacturer
through appropriate design of the equipment and by written instructions for safe use
supplied by the manufacturer to the user. Nevertheless, where such hazards cannot
reasonably be completely eliminated through engineering design (as in the case of
fume), or where the laser is being used for a purpose or in a manner other than that
intended by the manufacturer, some responsibility for the control of these hazards will
fall upon the user.
Hazards can be divided into three categories: those generally associated with the laser
source, those associated with the laser application and those associated with the laser
environment. The tables below summarises the main laser-related hazards and control
measures.
Users should take all reasonable steps to investigate and ensure adequate protection
from all hazards that may arise from their own use of laser equipment. Advice from
Competent Persons who are experienced in areas other than laser radiation safety may
be beneficial.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________

Hazards Arising from the laser source
Hazard Typical hazardous situation Typical control measures
High voltage Laser head and power supply exposed during
servicing
Many lasers utilise high voltages, and pulsed
lasers frequently employ capacitors that can
store significant amounts of electric charge.
Proper screening of exposed HV. Restricted
access to qualified persons.
Use of earthing stick to ensure the removal of
stored energy prior to commencement of
servicing work.
Fore and
Explosion
Laser equipment can present a fire hazard by
virtue of the flammable components, plastic
parts etc. contained within it, which can
overheat or catch fire in the event of a fault
within the equipment.
During changes of high pressure flashlamps in
optically-pumped lasers, and other internal
components such as capacitor banks, can
explode.
For fire: provision of a fire extinguisher; smoke
alarm; training.
For explosion: gloves and face shield; training.
Noise The discharge of capacitor banks within the
laser power supply can generate noise levels
high enough to cause ear damage. Ultrasonic
emissions and repetitive noise from pulsed
lasers can also be harmful. Some air-cooled
lasers produce significant noise levels.
Use of ear protectors where excessive noise
levels cannot be eliminated.
Collateral
radiation
Ultraviolet, visible and infrared emission can be
produced from gas laser discharge tubes.
Microwave and radio frequency radiation is
produced in RF-excited lasers, and can be
emitted by the equipment if not properly
shielded e.g. .during servicing.
X-rays can be produced by high-voltage
thermionic valves within the laser power
supply.
Proper screening combined with access
restricted to service engineers.
Mechanical Unloading and positioning of laser power
supplies and ancillary items such as gas
cylinders.
Trailing cables and water-circulation tubing can
present a trip hazard.
Provide attachment points for use of lifting
equipment by qualified persons. Training and
use of gloves.
Properly secure equipment. Cover cables in
ducting or under a raised walkway.
Chemical The material used as the active medium in
many lasers (especially laser dyes and the gases
used in excimer lasers) can be toxic and
carcinogenic.
The solvents used in many dye lasers have the
ability to carry their solutes through the skin
into the body. They may also be highly volatile
and should not be inhaled.
The liquids used in some optically active
components (e.g., for Q-switching and
frequency-doubling
Proper storage, handling and disposal
precautions should be adopted.
Training and use of gloves and other PPE.

Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Hazards Arising from the laser process
Fume Release of hazardous particulate and gaseous
by-products into the atmosphere through the
interaction of the laser beam with the target
material during laser materials processing and
laser surgery*.
General precautions include:
Fume extraction and filtration.
Face mask and gloves worn during cleaning
operations.
Hazardous
substances
Cleaning solutions and also other materials
used in conjunction with the laser (e.g., zinc
selenide lenses) may be hazardous..
Use proper storage and implement handling and
disposal precautions.
Fire and
explosion
The laser emission from high-power (Class 4)
lasers can ignite target materials. These effects
are enhanced in the oxygen-rich environment
utilised in some laser processing applications.
Laser emission from even lower-class lasers,
especially when concentrated over very small
areas, can cause explosions in combustible
gases or in high concentrations of airborne dust.
(Power levels above 35 mW emerging from a
single mode optical fibre can be sufficient to
cause combustion in such environments.)
Improperly terminated Class 4 laser radiation
Control flammable materials and beam path.
Provide a fire extinguisher in the laser area.
Secondary
radiation
X-ray, UV and blue light emitted by the plasma
that can be generated by interaction of the laser
beam (particularly those containing short, high
power pulses) with target materials. Such
emissions can include x-rays, ultraviolet
radiation (UV), visible light, infrared radiation
(IR), microwave radiation and radio-frequency
(RF) radiation.
Enclose target area and monitor hazard.
Wear PPE for exposure to UV and blue light.
Mechanical Beam delivery arms and robotic systems that
move under remote control can cause serious
injury. Large work-pieces (such as sheet metal)
can present manual handling problems such as
cuts, strain, and crush injuries.
Guard traps and add warning signs.
Restrict access to moving parts.
*A characteristic of fume created during laser materials processing is a relatively high concentration of small
particles, of diameter less than 0.1 m diameter; these can be inhaled into the lungs and retained. However, apart
from a shift to small particle size, the fume produced during laser cutting and welding of metals appears very
similar to that produced during other forms of thermal processing, such as flame cutting.
Dust is generally a problem when cutting such inorganic materials as alumina, quartz, marble and limestone. In
some applications, such as the cutting of glass, small inert fibrous dust can be produced which if inhaled may pose
a long-term health risk. The current evidence points to the need for effective fume extraction. This is especially
true during the processing of organic material. This heading includes, in particular, wood and plastics. Chemical
composition and particle size distribution and morphology have been quantified for some of the wide range of
laser/assist gas/material/process combinations of industrial interest but the assessment of possible toxicity is
incomplete. The fume may contain benzene or other known carcinogens as well as inorganic irritants. For
example, the laser cutting of PVC and other halogenated polymers produces copious quantities of hydrogen
chloride, a severe eye and throat irritant.

Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Hazards Arising from the laser environment
Temperature
and humidity
Excessive high or low ambient temperatures, or
high levels of ambient humidity, can affect the
performance of the laser equipment, including
its in-built safety features, can compromise safe
operation and make the wearing of safety
eyewear uncomfortable. Condensation on
optical components can affect beam
transmission through the system.
Provide air conditioning and humidity control
of the local environment.
Install a gas purge in beam delivery line.
Mechanical
shock and
vibration
Misalignment of the optical path, generating
hazardous errant beams.
Install a vibration isolation system on the legs
of optical tables holding optical components.
Construct a floating foundation for large laser
machines.
Atmospheric
affects
Laser ignition of solvent vapour, dust, and
inflammable gases present in the environment.
Enclose beam and process zone and add a gas
purge.
Install gas sensors to detect presence of
inflammable gases and vapours.
EM and RF
interference
Compromised operation of control circuits
caused by interfere to laser equipment caused
by exposure to EM radiation and high voltage
pulses conducted down supply or data cables.
Screen equipment and filter supply and data
cables.
Power supply
interruption or
fluctuation
Interruption or fluctuation of the electrical
supply can affect the operation of the laser's
safety system.
Install a voltage regulation system and back-up
supply.
Computer
software
problems
Serious and unpredictable hazards arising
without warning caused by errors in computer
programming of software control.
Use only approved protocols for software
control of safety functions.
Ergonomic
and human-
factor
considerations
Poor arrangement of the physical layout of the
laser and its associated equipment.
Lack of space resulting in a cluttered
environment.
Complex or difficult operating procedures.
Human factors, including: personal aspects
(mental and physical attributes of the
individual, including work ability and
perception of workplace risks and attitude to
safety); job aspects (tasks or functions to be
performed; influence on human performance of
the equipment that has to be used);
organisational aspects ("safety culture" of the
organisation, including the framework within
which an individual has to work and the
influences and pressures (real or imagined) that
the individual may be under).
Improve layout, reduce clutter and review the
ergonomics of repetitive or sustained tasks.
Training to improve human factors (play some
part in the majority of work-related accidents).

Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Indoor use of lasers
TR 60825-14 User Guide
In the absence of national guidelines, TR60825-14 A Users Guide, takes on the
status of 'highway code' in the use of lasers.
The parts of the technical report directly related to control measures are addressed
below.
Administration of laser safety
This section addresses general issues of safely responsibility and its delegation.
Under safety responsibilities it reminds employers and employees, and all users of
lasers (including students) and those supervising or overseeing them, that they have a
role to play in maintaining a safe place of work and in ensuring that their activities do
not present unacceptable levels of risk to themselves or to others.
It is the employer's responsibility to ensure that the risks to health arising from the use
and reasonably foreseeable misuse of laser equipment are properly assessed. The
employer must take all necessary steps to ensure that these risks are either eliminated
or, where this is not reasonably practicable, reduced to an acceptably low level.
Significant findings of this assessment should be documented and appropriate
protective measures implemented wherever necessary to reduce the identified health
and safety risks. The effectiveness of such protective measures should be reviewed
regularly.
The TR recommends that wherever potentially hazardous lasers are in use, the
employer should establish a general policy for the safe management of these hazards,
although specific safety tasks may be delegated to others. This policy should:
Be an integral part of the organisation's overall safety policy.
Should require that all reasonably foreseeable hazards arising from laser use
are identified and that steps are taken to control them so far as is reasonably
practicable.
However, the TR advises that a specific safety policy for lasers are not normally
necessary where only laser products in Class 1 or Class 2 are in use (excluding
embedded lasers and, for Class 2, locations where dazzle could be a problem), and
may not always be necessary for laser products in Class 1M or Class 2M.
Laser Safety Officer
The TR recommends that a Laser Safety Officer should be appointed in organizations
where:
Class 3B or Class 4 laser products are in use.
Class 1M and Class 2M laser products generating well-collimated beams are
in use.
Embedded lasers are in use and serviced on site.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
The use of lasers of a lower class than 3B or 4 may nevertheless still introduce
a significant risk, perhaps through the involvement of untrained people or
because of the existence of associated laser hazards.
The Laser Safety Officer should take responsibility, on behalf of the employer, for the
administration of day-to-day matters of laser safety. It is the employer's responsibility
to ensure that the person appointed as Laser Safety Officer has sufficient competence
and capability to perform this role satisfactorily. Suitable training should be provided
if necessary.
The duties of the Laser Safety Officer should be agreed with the employer (or with
the employer's delegated representative) and documented. These duties should be
those necessary to ensure the continuing safe use of lasers within the organization
concerned, but are likely to include as a minimum:
a) being aware of and, if appropriate, maintaining records of, all potentially-
hazardous laser products;
b) responsibility for monitoring compliance with the organisation's procedures
for ensuring safe laser use, for maintaining appropriate written records, and for
taking immediate and appropriate action in respect of any non-compliance or
apparent inadequacy in such procedures.
The role of Laser Safety Officer rarely needs to be a full-time appointment and in
addition to a LSO a Competent Person may be appointed to provide specialist
assistance in hazard determination, risk assessment, and protective control and
procedure provision. The Competent Person need not be an employee of the
organisation concerned, but may instead be an external adviser.
Information and training
All employees should, where relevant, be made aware of any hazards (including
associated hazards) to which they may be exposed during the use of laser equipment,
and of the procedures necessary to ensure protection. Sufficient instruction or training
should be given in order that employees have the necessary understanding to avoid
placing themselves and others at unacceptable risk. Safety training is especially
important for those who work with Class 3B or Class 4 laser products.
Control recommendations by Class
The classification of a laser gives an indication of its potential hazard. Laser product
classification is based on the maximum level of laser radiation that is accessible
during conditions of normal operation. Associated hazards that may also be present
during use of the laser do not affect the laser classification.
Protection requirements for Class 1: Ensure that the conditions for Class 1 operation
are maintained. If access to levels of laser radiation in excess of the limits for Class 1
could occur, for example during servicing of an embedded laser product.
Protection requirements for Class 1M: Avoid the use of magnifying viewing aids or
instruments (such as binoculars, telescopes, microscopes and magnifying lenses, but
not spectacles or contact lenses). Avoid placing optical devices in the emitted beam
that could cause the concentration of the laser radiation to be increased. Do not direct
the beam into areas where other people may be present if there is a likelihood of the
people in those areas using telescopes or binoculars to look directly into the beam.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Protection requirements for Class 2: Avoid staring into the beam (i.e. deliberate
viewing of the laser source) or pointing the beam at other people.
Protection requirements for Class 2M: Avoid the use of magnifying viewing aids or
instruments (such as binoculars, telescopes, microscopes and magnifying lenses, but
not spectacles or contact lenses). Avoid placing optical devices in the emitted beam,
which could cause the concentration of the laser radiation to be increased. Avoid
staring into the beam (i.e. deliberate viewing of the laser source) or pointing the beam
at other people.
Protection requirements for Class 3R: Prevent direct eye exposure to the beam or
pointing the beam at other people.
Protection requirements for Class 3B: Prevent eye (and in some cases skin) exposure
to the beam. Guard against unintentional beam reflections.
Protection requirements for Class 4: Prevent eye and skin exposure to the beam, and
to diffuse reflections (scattering) of the beam. Protect against beam interaction
hazards such as fire and fume.
Default control measures
The essential difference between the user guidance in EN 60825-1 and TR 60825-14
is that the latter is risk assessment based. However, in many applications where the
laser products in use are no higher than Class 3R (i.e. they are Class 1, 1M, 2, 2M or
3R), the user may implement control measures based on the highest class of laser
product in use without any need to undertake a detailed risk assessment or to evaluate
possible levels of human exposure. These so-called default control measures are
summarized in the table below.
However a more detailed analysis to be undertaken in order to determine the
protective measures that are appropriate in the case of:
All uses of laser products in Class 3B or 4.
The use of protective eyewear.
Reliance for protection on the concept of a minimum safe distance from the
laser.
Other situations where the controls specified in Table 1 may be inappropriate,
insufficient or unreasonably restrictive given the actual degree of risk.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________

Table 1 Default protective control measures for laser products
CLASS PROTECTIVE CONTROL MEASURES
These should be implemented unless a risk assessment justifying the adoption of alternative
protective control measures has been undertaken.
1 No protective control measures are necessary under conditions of normal operation. (This
may not be the case under conditions of maintenance or service.)
In the case of embedded laser products containing a laser of higher power, follow
instructions given on warning labels and supplied by the manufacturer.
Special precautions may be needed for on-site servicing of embedded laser products.
1M Prevent direct viewing of the laser source through magnifying viewing instruments, such as
binoculars, telescopes, microscopes, optical sights or magnifying lenses, unless these
incorporate adequate levels of protection
a
.
Prevent the use of any external optics that could decrease the beam divergence or its
diameter.
2 Do not stare into the beam. Do not direct the beam at other people or into areas where other
people unconnected with the laser work might be present.
2M Do not stare into the beam.
Do not direct the beam at other people or into areas where other people unconnected with
the laser work might be present.
Ensure the beam is always terminated at a suitable non-specular (i.e. non mirror-like)
surface.
Prevent direct viewing of the laser source through magnifying viewing instruments, such as
binoculars, telescopes, microscopes, optical sights or magnifying lenses, unless these
incorporate adequate levels of protection
a
.
Prevent the use of any external optics that could decrease the beam divergence or its
diameter.
3R Prevent direct eye exposure to the beam.
Do not direct the beam at other people or into areas where other people unconnected with
the laser work may be present.
3B and
4
Class 3B and Class 4 laser products should not be used without first carrying out a risk
assessment to determine the protective control measures necessary to ensure safe operation.
Where reasonably practicable, use engineering means, as specified in IEC 60825-1, to
reduce the class of the laser to below Class 3B. (This will normally mean completely
enclosing the laser radiation to form a Class 1 laser product.)
a The type of viewing instrument that could be hazardous may be indicated on the warning label or in
the user information supplied by the manufacturer.
Embedded lasers
Since laser products are classified based on the level of laser radiation that is
accessible during normal operation. In the case of an embedded laser product,
opening, removal or displacement of any part of an enclosure that is not designed to
be opened, removed or displaced during operation may therefore give access to
harmful levels of laser radiation.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Some products, within any class other than Class 4, may incorporate a laser having
accessible emission that is constrained within that class by the design of the electronic
drive circuitry or by other means, even though the laser itself is capable of generating
a level of emission that would place it in a higher class. Users of such products should
therefore be aware that under a combination of fault conditions, or when used in a
manner other than that intended by the manufacturer, higher levels of laser radiation
can become accessible. The user should refer to the manufacturers operating
instructions in order to avoid exposure to potentially hazardous laser radiation.
Control measures

access interlocks
key control
safety shutter
eye protection
skin protection
rigid mounting of
optical components
beam enclosure
beam path
termination

Essential tools of User Hazard Control in 60825-14

Where a risk assessment has shown that an unacceptable degree of risk exists, the
feasibility of using a laser of a lower class should always be considered as the first
option in controlling hazards. The need to use a hazardous laser should therefore be
justified prior to purchase and use.
Control measures should be considered under three headings, covering engineering
controls, administrative controls and personal protective equipment. Wherever
reasonably practicable, however, laser hazards should be eliminated completely at
source by the use of engineering controls (e.g., by total enclosure of the beam).
Engineering controls include features incorporated into the laser equipment
and around the laser beam by the manufacturer or user, in particular the fixture
of protective barriers and guards to prevent human access to laser radiation.
Administrative controls cover overall policy, procedural issues (the "local
rules" governing laser use), and the use and display of hazard warning signs,
training and instructions, assignment of responsibilities and prohibitions.
Personal protective equipment is that protection worn by an individual. In the
context of laser safety it refers primarily to the use of laser protective eyewear,
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
but can also include items of special clothing (e.g., gloves and face-masks) to
protect the skin, as well as respirators to protect against dust and fume and
earplugs to protect against excessive noise.
Engineering controls should be given primary consideration as the means for reducing
the risk of laser-related injury. Administrative controls covering procedural issues and
safe systems of work should then be considered. Personal protective equipment
should only be used as a last resort where a combination of engineering and
administrative controls cannot reasonably provide a sufficient level of protection.
Where personal protective equipment is employed it should be supported with an
adequate level of administrative control governing its use.
Enclosing the hazard
Beam enclosures
The best way of dealing with the laser hazard is to enclose the beam and its
reflections. A thin-walled metal protective housing will keep fingers out and block
any weakly scattered laser light. The use of such enclosures to completely contain the
laser beam should always be considered as a means of preventing human access to
hazardous levels of laser radiation.
All enclosures need to be of appropriate material, robust, secure and fit for purpose in
the context of their intended use and under the impact of their local environment.
High-power Class 4 lasers, such as those used for cutting, welding and other forms of
materials processing, present an additional enclosure problem by virtue of the ability
of the laser beam to penetrate an opaque material through melting, burning,
vaporisation or ablation. For guidance on assessing the suitability of materials of
construction for high-power laser radiation the user should refer to IEC 60825-4. In
general, enclosures must be sufficient to adequately contain the laser radiation that
could impinge upon its inner surface for as long as necessary.
For all protective enclosures the means of preventing unintended or unauthorised
removal of all or part of the enclosure, thereby gaining access to the laser radiation, is
an important consideration.
Viewing windows
While observation (viewing) windows can be employed to allow for inspection of the
inside of a laser enclosure during laser operation, their use is not an ideal solution and
the adoption of remote viewing (TV) systems should be considered as an alternative.
Where viewing windows are used, they need to be fabricated of suitable material to
permit viewing of the inside of the enclosure without compromising its protective
properties.
The method of calculating the required optical density of the window material at the
wavelength(s) of the laser radiation that is enclosed is the same as for laser protective
eyewear, but the assessment of maximum foreseeable exposure will be different. In
particular, since a viewing window is not worn, accidental exposure may be of much
longer duration than is the case for eyewear. (See IEC 60825-4).
Interlock protection
For an interlock that performs a safety critical function it is recommended that the
following criteria should be considered.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
a) Mechanical switches should be of "positive break" design. These have
contacts that spring apart when the interlock switch is released, so preventing
arcing or the risk of intermittent operation.
b) Proximity switches should be coded (that is, require two matched parts to be
brought together) to prevent casual override.
c) Interlock systems should be so designed that a single fault in any part of the
circuit does not lead to the loss of its protective function. The single fault
should be detected before the system can be reset.
It is good practice for interlock systems to be designed so that, after operation, the
system can only be reset by a deliberate action (e.g., reset button).
Interlock systems that have provision for an override facility should meet the
following requirements.
It should not be possible for the interlock to remain overridden when the
enclosure has been reinstated. This requirement can be achieved, for example,
by limiting the duration of override operation or by mechanical design of the
override mechanism.
There should be a distinct visible or audible warning whenever the override is
in operation.
Where interlocks can be overridden from outside a laser-controlled area this
should only be possible by means of a coded or key-operated switch to prevent
activation of the override by unauthorised persons.
Hazard mitigation
Preventing access
Human access to a laser hazard should be prevented by engineering means as far as is
reasonably practicable.
Laser controlled areas
At its simplest, a laser-controlled area is an area within which laser beam hazards can
exist and over which there is some level of effective hazard control. Such areas should
be clearly delineated, and access to them limited to nominated persons who have
received adequate safety training and to persons under their control.
The boundaries of the area should enclose the hazards associated with the use of the
laser under all reasonably foreseeable conditions of use (including reasonably
foreseeable faults occurring with the laser or associated equipment, and reasonably
foreseeable failures to follow correct procedures).
Warning signs should be clearly displayed on the outside of all laser-controlled areas.
Such signs should include the laser hazard symbol and should indicate the type of
hazard(s), the restrictions on access that are in force, and the precautions to be
adopted on entry. It can also be useful to include the name of the person responsible
for the area from whom further information can be obtained.
Illuminated warning signs may be used on the outside of laser controlled areas to
indicate when the laser is in use and the door interlocks (if fitted) are operational.
These signs should clearly indicate when it is safe, and when it is not safe, to enter the
area.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Associated laser hazards may require safety features needed in the laser-controlled
area; including the provision of electrical isolation points, ventilation (fume
extraction) and fire control. As in all work areas, the area layout must allow for rapid
egress and admittance in the event of an emergency. Information about the hazards
present and how to isolate them should be provided (for example, on a door sign) for
the benefit of patrol and emergency services. The installation of conventional, red,
emergency-stop buttons on the inside of laser areas to terminate hazardous laser
emission in the event of an emergency should be considered in relation to other risks.
Local rules and procedures
Administrative controls should be implemented in the form of documented local rules
and procedures. These may be drawn up specifically for the particular organisation,
location or equipment concerned, or may be based on a suitable standard model. They
should include:
a) description and purpose of the equipment or process;
b) the name and contact point of the Laser Safety Officer and of the person
responsible for the laser equipment;
c) the names of personnel authorised to operate, maintain or service the laser
equipment;
d) the procedures to be adopted for laser operation, maintenance and service (where
relevant), and of all precautions to be followed, including, where applicable, the use
of personal protection and the use and secure storage of laser control keys;
e) action to be taken in the event of specified equipment failure or other emergencies;
f) the incident reporting procedure and the action to be taken in the event of a
suspected accident;
g) details of requirements, if any, for authorisation for hazardous operations, e.g.,
procedures for approval of servicing (permit to work).
Local rules should be reviewed regularly to ensure their continued relevance to
requirements.
Localised risk reduction
Within all laser controlled areas, steps should be taken to reduce the risk of injury to
persons authorised to work within them. These steps should include:
b) adequate training of all personnel involved;
c) sufficient levels of room illumination;
d) uncluttered environment and well-organised working layout;
e) secure control of laser operating keys;
f) the secure fixing of the laser and all components along the path of the beam;
g) safe method of beam alignment;
h) design beam paths to be horizontal or pointing vertically downwards - not
upwards;
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
i) a beam stop at the end of the useful path of the laser beam, where appropriate;
j) use of the beam attenuator or beam stop fitted to Class 3B and Class 4 laser
products to temporarily terminate laser emission whenever such emission is
not required for short periods. Whenever laser emission is not required for
longer periods, the laser should be turned off;
k) enclosure of as much of the beam as is reasonably practicable;
l) keeping the beam above or below eye level where practicable;
m) confinement of the beam within well-defined areas, which are as small as
reasonably practicable (e.g., keeping the beam within the confines of an
optical table; placing barriers preventing human access where an open beam
crosses the floor);
n) the use of screens, blinds, or curtains to contain the laser radiation (see IEC
60825-4 for guidance on selection of suitable materials);
o) use of checklists where appropriate.
Particular care should be taken to prevent the unintentional specular reflection of laser
radiation. Mirrors, lenses, and beam splitters should be rigidly mounted and should be
subject to only controlled movements while the laser is emitting. Note in particular
that:
reflecting surfaces that appear to be diffuse may actually reflect a
considerable part of the radiation beam specularly, especially in the
infrared spectral range.
Potentially hazardous specular reflections occur at all surfaces of
transmissive optical components such as lenses, prisms, windows and
beam splitters.
Potentially hazardous radiation can be transmitted through some
reflective optical components such as mirrors (for example, infra-red
radiation passing through a reflector of visible radiation).
Many surfaces become specularly reflecting at grazing incidence.
Personal protection
Except for the high power lasers used for materials processing, laser burns are
generally small area and, like soldering iron burns, rank only as a minor injury.
Moreover, skin protection can significantly hamper movement and produce
significant discomfort, giving rise to the possibility of trips, bumps and other non-
laser accidents. For these reasons, protective clothing is rarely used or expected,
except for gloves where UV beams are present and masks where fume is generated.
Very occasionally the use of whole body protection may be required.
See next section Personal Protective Equipment.
Maintenance of safe operation
TR 60825-14 recommends that regular monitoring of laser working areas should be
carried out, and such monitoring recorded, to ensure that the control procedures that
have been adopted remain effective and that the conditions for achieving acceptable
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
risk remain satisfied. Protective procedures should be modified whenever necessary to
ensure continuing safe use. The results of investigations into safety incidents and
suspected accidents should be used to re-appraise the effectiveness and adequacy of
the control procedures.
Circumstances that could indicate an urgent need for reassessing risk and for
reviewing protective procedures and controls include the following.
a) modifications to, or relocation or replacement of, the laser equipment;
b) changed conditions of use;
c) changes to the environment in which the laser equipment is used;
d) changes to the personnel who could have access to the laser equipment or who
could be exposed to laser hazards;
e) indications of any reduction in compliance with safety procedures.
Medical inspections
In the event of an actual or suspected hazardous exposure to laser radiation or other
laser hazard (an accident), or a possible failure of a protective measure which could
have led to an accident (an incident), laser emission should be terminated
immediately. The incident should be reported to the management of the facility where
the incident occurred.
Where an accident has or is suspected to have occurred, medical attention should be
sought as necessary. In the event of an apparent or suspected injury to the eye, a
medical examination by a qualified ophthalmologist should be carried out within 24 h
of the event. It is useful to have a summary of the laser beam characteristics to
accompany the casualty and assist the ophthalmologist. In all cases where a hazardous
exposure is suspected, a full investigation to ascertain the circumstances surrounding
the event and the likely magnitude of the exposure should be undertaken, and the
conclusions of this investigation documented. In the case of an accident, the reason
for the possible failure should be determined, and any necessary changes to the
system of protective controls should be introduced before re-use of the laser.
Routine ophthalmic examinations of employees working with laser equipment have
no value as part of a health surveillance programme. Ophthalmic examinations are
sometimes carried out for other (e.g., medico-legal) reasons; in particular, as a
precaution against later claims of laser damage.
Some of the investigative procedures used are themselves hazardous, and these should
therefore only be carried out when medically advisable, and not used for routine
screening. Even a simple visual acuity check can pick up, for example, if a potential
new laser user had a diseased or damaged retina.. Only in cases where 20-20 vision
cannot be achieved with spectacles should further investigations be carried out.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Personal protective equipment
Use of personal protective equipment (PPE)
PPE (such as laser protective eyewear) should be worn, where appropriate, by
individuals working in laser controlled areas in order to provide protection against
laser hazards. Such protection should, however, only be used where it is not
reasonably practicable to ensure adequate protection by other means, preferably by
total enclosure of the laser radiation, and where it has been ascertained that personal
protective equipment is able to provide sufficient protection.
Where personal protective equipment has been deemed to be an appropriate method
of risk reduction, its use should be compulsory and not left as a matter of individual
choice. PPE should ideally be issued on a person-by-person basis, and for hygiene
reasons should be properly cleaned by an appropriate method before reuse by another
person. Additional national requirements covering the design, specification and use of
PPE may exist.
Standards EN207 and EN208 cover the specification, marking and testing of laser eye
protection, using the concept of protective (rather than optical) density, which takes
into account the ability of the protection to withstand the incident laser radiation.
Specifying eye protection
Eye protection can be in the form of spectacles (having frames which rest on the ears)
or goggles (secured by a band around the head). Such protection incorporates optical
filters to reduce the transmission of laser radiation to the eye, and may be employed as
a protective measure within a laser controlled area. Total beam enclosure combined
where necessary with the use of remote viewing (e.g., television) systems should,
however, always be considered first as an alternative to reliance on personal eye
protection.

When to use eye protection
Eye protection should only be used if all of the following conditions are satisfied.
! There exists a non-trivial risk of injury arising from the accidental exposure of
the eyes to levels of laser radiation above the MPE.
! There is no serious co-existent risk of skin injury arising from laser exposure
(but see 8.4.5.3). Such a risk is likely to exist where high levels of filter
density would be necessary to protect the eyes.
! It is not reasonably practicable to ensure adequate protection entirely by the
use of engineering and/or administrative controls.
! The protective eyewear has the necessary performance specification with
regard to:
! the reduction in the maximum reasonably foreseeable laser exposure to safe
levels,
! the capability of the eyewear for withstanding the maximum reasonably
foreseeable laser exposure long enough for corrective action to be taken to
terminate exposure, and
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
! the ability of the wearer to be able to use the eyewear without discomfort and
without any significant degradation in vision.

How to choose protective eyewear
When choosing appropriate eyewear the following should be considered:
! the wavelength of operation. Laser eyewear utilises filter materials to provide
protection over certain defined wavelength ranges. Use of the incorrect
eyewear will usually mean that insufficient protection is provided;
! the reasonably foreseeable worst-case effective exposure, expressed in terms of
either the incident irradiance (Wm
-2
) or the incident radiant exposure (Jm
-2
);
! the applicable value of the ocular MPE (determined in accordance with Clause
4), and specified in the same units as the effective exposure;
! the actual exposure and the beam diameter (these parameters enable the ability
of the eyewear to withstand the incident laser radiation to be established);
! the optical density D. of the eyewear at the laser wavelength. The optical
density should be sufficient to reduce the transmitted radiation to below the
MPE applicable for the maximum reasonably foreseeable exposure time. The
value of D. required to give the minimum necessary level of eye protection
can be calculated from the formula:
D. =log
10
[(maximum reasonably foreseeable exposure)/(MPE)]
Other important factors include:
! visible light transmission, and the ability to see warning lights or other
indicators through the filters;
! general design, comfort, ventilation, peripheral vision, and provision for
spectacle correction (either by using goggle-style protectors which fit over
normal spectacles, or protective spectacles which incorporate the wearer's own
optical correction);
! degradation or modification of the absorbing material of the filter, including
radiation-induced transparency;
! mechanical strength of materials and resistance to shock;
! any relevant national requirements or regulations.
Eyewear should be permanently marked to indicate:
! the operating wavelength;
! the optical density at the operating wavelength.
Other eyewear considerations include the following:
! Any limitation on the maximum level of laser exposure to which the eyewear
should be subjected (due to the possibility of damage to the filter material at
high levels of exposure) should also be known.
! Where different kinds of protective eyewear are in use it can be helpful to use
colour-coding or other means to link each pair with its particular laser.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
! For work with visible laser emission it can sometimes be desirable to be able
to see the laser beam for alignment purposes or other operational reasons. In
this case the eye protective filters should be specified on the basis of reducing
an accidental exposure to the equivalent of Class 2, where protection is
afforded by the natural aversion response. This is done by using a time base of
0,25 s for defining the MPE in the equation given above for D. .
! Protective eyewear is designed to protect against accidental exposure to laser
radiation. It should not be used to protect against deliberate exposure or the
intentional viewing of a laser beam. Protective eyewear should be checked
periodically for signs of wear or damage. The date of checking should be
recorded and the eyewear replaced when necessary. Protective eyewear should
also be examined for suitability on each occasion prior to use.
! At high incident power or energy levels, absorption of the incident radiation in
the filter material can result in severe stress build-up and sudden failure of the
filter. For this reason, protective eyewear, which has been subjected to a single
incident of accidental exposure at a high level of exposure, should be replaced.
Selecting eyewear using standards EN207 and EN208
Standards EN207 and EN208 are mandated under the PPE Directive for Laser
protective eyewear. EN207 is used for protection again laser radiation in the spectral
range 180nm to 1000m. EN208 applies for laser adjustment protective eyewear.
These EN standards define the protection given by filters by means of a scale number
Lxx. The scale number is based on a combination of maximum transmittance and
maximum power or energy density. In other words on the suitability of the filter to
attenuate laser wavelengths and withstand the laser energy falling on it.
Before selecting eye protection a risk assessment must first be undertaken and the risk
minimized by engineering and administrative controls.
It is possible to make a distinction between the different types of lasers according to
their duration of operation and pulse length. The limits between the various types of
lasers in EN207 Table A.1 should not be drawn too sharply either by physical or by
biological factors and should therefore only be regarded as guideline values.
In the following calculations of the power density or energy density, the actual beam
area (i.e. the area of the smallest circle containing 63 % of the laser power and
energy) should be used. For non-circular cross-sections, a similar procedure should be
employed and the smallest rectangle containing 63 % of the laser power and energy
should be used.
Continuous wave laser (D)
The power density E of the laser beam is calculated from the laser power P and from
the beam area A as follows:
E = P/A
The required scale number can then be deduced from the appropriate table in the
standard corresponding to the wavelength of the laser.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Pulsed lasers
Using to EN 60825-1, the maximum permissible exposure for wavelengths from 400
nm to 10
6
nm is determined by using the most restrictive of requirements as
appropriate. A time base of 10s is applicable.
Pulse duration ! 10
-9
s (I and R)
The energy density H of the laser beam is calculated from the pulse energy Q and the
beam cross section A as follows:
H =Q/A
For lasers in the wavelength range 400 nm to 1 400 nm, this value of the energy
density shall be multiplied by N
1/4
:
H
1
= H x N
1/4

Then, for H
1
, the necessary scale number is taken from column I or R in EN207
corresponding to the wavelength and type of laser.
Mode-coupled lasers: pulse duration < 10
-9
s (M)
The calculation, H = P/A, is done using the peak power of the individual pulses for
laser power P. In addition, calculate H
1
as described above for lasers in the
wavelength range 400 nm to 1 400 nm and read off the required scale number.
Time base
The laser radiation eye-protectors specified in EN207 and EN208 are not suitable for
continuous exposure to a laser beam. The protection has been designed on the basis of
10 s with regard to transmission (attenuation of the laser beam) for wavelength in the
range above 400 nm, otherwise on the basis of 30 000 s. The standards require that
stability to laser radiation is tested for 10 s in both cases.
Protective eyewear aftercare
It recommended that a register is maintained of all laser protective eyewear being
used in a facility. This register should not only describe the type and suitability of the
eyewear but also to whom it has been allocated. In addition, a regular inspection of
the eyewear should be carried out to ensure that the PPE is of acceptable quality and
still fit for purpose. Result of inspection should be recorded in the Register. Any
equipment found to be defective should be removed from use until the defects have
been rectified or the equipment replaced.
Protective clothing
In some cases it may be necessary to provide other protective clothing for work in
laser controlled areas. This is most likely to take the form of masks or gloves, but may
very occasionally require the use of whole body protection.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
On-site laser maintenance and servicing
Maintenance is generally the activity carried out by the operator of the equipment. It
is normally assumed that the operator knows how to use the equipment but may have
very limited knowledge or experience of how the equipment works and what the risks
are when safeguards are removed to allow remedial work on the equipment. Thus
maintenance should be limited to the essential tasks necessary to keep the equipment
operational without the need for specialist expertise. With laser equipment,
maintenance can often be done without the laser being energized and thus exposure to
laser radiation can be eliminated.
The Service activity usually requires specialist training and skills. Because of this
additional knowledge and skill, it may not be operator or normal user who carries out
the service. A detailed knowledge required not only of how and why the equipment
works, but also of the additional risks that may be encountered when safeguards are
removed and how to minimize those risks.
Increased risks during laser equipment servicing
Laser products are classified on the basis of the level of laser radiation accessible
during operation. Maintenance and servicing, on the other hand, may require removal
of protective covers, disabling of the product's protective features and/or a significant
change to the performance of the laser product, thereby increasing the risk of injury.
Additional hazards (e.g., electrical) may also be present.
Before service operations are undertaken a separate risk assessment should be
undertaken. A record should be kept of all servicing operations and any resulting
changes to the performance of the laser product.
The servicing of embedded lasers can greatly increase the risk of a laser radiation
injury. Servicing usually includes beam alignment and other adjustment operations,
and the likelihood of creating errant laser beams (that is, beams pointing in
unexpected directions) is greatly increased. In order to carry out servicing in a safe
manner it is often necessary to set up a temporary laser controlled area around the
laser equipment, and to implement procedures and safeguards appropriate to the
increased level of risk. Manufacturers are required to provide advice on safe
procedures during servicing, upon request.
Laser products are classified on the basis of the level of laser radiation accessible
during operation. Maintenance and servicing, on the other hand, may require removal
of protective covers, disabling of the product's protective features and/or a significant
change to the performance of the laser product, thereby increasing the risk of injury.
Additional hazards (e.g., electrical) may also be present. Servicing and maintenance
operations may require a higher level of safety training than is necessary for normal
operation.
Before service operations are undertaken a separate risk assessment should be
undertaken. A record should be kept of all servicing operations and any resulting
changes to the performance of the laser product.
The servicing of embedded lasers can greatly increase the risk of a laser radiation
injury. Servicing includes beam alignment and other adjustment operations, and the
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
likelihood of creating errant laser beams (that is, beams pointing in unexpected
directions) is greatly increased. In order to carry out servicing in a safe manner it is
often necessary to set up a temporary laser controlled area around the laser equipment
(see below), and to implement procedures and safeguards (e.g., a systematic method
for beam alignment) appropriate to the increased level of risk. Manufacturers are
required to provide advice on safe procedures during servicing, upon request.
Temporary laser controlled areas
A temporary laser controlled area should be established whenever conditions allowing
human access to hazardous levels of laser radiation are created temporarily (e.g.,
during servicing), and where persons who are unauthorised, unaware of the presence
of the laser hazard and/or are not appropriately trained or supervised in the necessary
safety procedures could be present.
The guidance for temporary controlled areas is the same as for laser-controlled areas
in general. Although the normal requirement for engineering control of access may be
difficult to achieve, administrative controls can have increased effectiveness when
restriction of access is only temporary. If safe access to the area is not controlled by
engineering means, then appropriate warning and prohibited entry signs should be
posted at the points of entry to the area. In certain circumstances it may be desirable
in addition to have another person present to enforce the temporary access
restrictions.
Controls during servicing
In establishing control measures during equipment servicing, where there is an
increased risk of laser radiation injury, particular consideration should be given to the
following:
a) reducing the level of emission to the maximum necessary;
b) limiting the range of movement of beam steering components to reduce
uncertainty in beam position during alignment;
c) first checking beam alignment close to the laser and then progressively further
away, to minimise the uncertainty in beam position;
d) placing large area beam stops behind target screens during beam alignment to
stop the laser beam in the event that it misses the target;
e) providing beam visualising alignment aids (e.g., cameras, fluorescent or heat
sensitive screens and viewers). These should also be used in the case of visible
laser beams where there is the added benefit of countering the strong
temptation to remove protective eyewear in order to clearly see the beam;
f) provision of comfortable laser safety eyewear, suitable for use over prolonged
periods, where adequate protection by other means is not feasible;
g) providing an engineering means for the transfer of control of the laser beam
(e.g., a handheld hold-to-fire device) where two or more persons are involved
in servicing, in particular where a person remote from the laser might
otherwise call to the other to fire the laser;
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
h) using non-reflective coatings or diffusely-reflecting surfaces on tools, and
requiring the removal or covering of jewellery, watches, etc. by those in the
controlled area, in order to minimise stray reflections.
Statistically, beam alignment is the most hazardous laser operation. The reasons for
this obvious: (i) it can be tempting to remove protective eyewear, especially if the
beam is visible (ii) the operator's eyes may be at the level of the laser beam and (iii)
there is maximum uncertainty about the position of the beam. Techniques of beam
alignment include the use of fluorescent screens for UV, visible and IR, 'liquid
crystal' film which changes colour (black to red to yellow to blue) as it is warmed up,
heat sensitive paper to make burn marks', visible Class 2 alignment lasers, TV and
infra-red (thermal imaging) cameras.
Visiting service engineers
If an outside agency (e.g. the laser equipment supplier) is engaged to conduct the
servicing of the laser equipment, then a permit-to-work procedure should be adopted
for handing the equipment over to the service engineer and accepting it back fully-
restored to normal operation when the work is completed. Written procedures should
be used to achieve this. Verification of safety interlock restoration should be part of
the release of the equipment to the user.
A risk assessment of the service operation is required, even if the service engineer has
complete control of the work. Responsibility for establishing a temporary laser
controlled area prior to starting service activities, if such an area is required, may be
determined by contractual arrangement. If no such contractual arrangement exists,
then responsibility should be taken by the laser user to ensure that necessary servicing
controls are put in place.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Fibre optic systems
Fibre Optic Communications Products
The safety of laser products, equipment classification, requirements and users guide
are covered by IEC 60825-1. Part 2 of the series deals with optical fibre
communication systems. Such systems would be safe under normal operating
conditions because the optical radiation is totally enclosed under intended operation,
but because the length and distribution of fibre (where optical power, under certain
conditions, may be accessible many kilometres from the optical source), the
precautions to minimise the hazard will be different from those concerning more
conventional laser sources which are normally under local operator control.
The potential hazard of an optical fibre communication system depends on the
likelihood of the protective housing being breached (e.g. a disconnected fibre
connector or a broken cable) and on the nature of the optical radiation that might
subsequently become accessible. 60825-2 addresses engineering requirements and
user precautions in such cases. Its requirements include the necessity for assessing the
potential level of accessible laser emission from an optical fibre in terms of the hazard
level (e.g., hazard level 1, 1M, 2, 2M, 3R, 3B or 4), equivalent to product class. (N.B.
Previously, a Class k x 3A was introduced for part 2 only, but with the new revision
of part 1, k x 3A has been withdrawn.) The hazard level applies only to a particular
location at which an interruption of the fibre might reasonably foreseeably occur,
rather than to the complete system or installation as a whole. It is therefore possible
that different locations at which access to fibre emission could occur within the same
system may be assigned different hazard levels. This is not possible for product class,
which is based on the highest level of accessible emission from a complete laser
product.
In summary, the primary differences between IEC 60825-1 and part 2 are as follows:
a whole optical fibre communication system is not classified in the same
way as required by IEC 60825-1. This is because, under intended
operation, the optical radiation is totally enclosed, and it can be argued that
a rigorous interpretation of IEC 60825-1 would give a class 1 allocation to
all systems, which may not reflect the potential hazard accurately.
However, if the emitter can be operated separately, it must be classified
according to IEC 60825-1;
each accessible location in the extended enclosed optical transmission
system is designated by a hazard level on similar procedures as those for
classification in IEC 60825-1, but this level is based not on accessible
radiation but on radiation that could become accessible under reasonably
foreseeable circumstances (e.g. a fibre cable break, a disconnected fibre
connector etc.);
the nature of the safety precautions required for any particular hazard level
will depend on the type of location, i.e. domestic premises, industrial areas
where there would be limited access, and switching centres where there
would be controlled access. For example, it is specified that, in the home, a
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
disconnected fibre connector should only be able to emit radiation
corresponding to class 1, whilst in controlled areas it could be higher.
Manufacturers requirements (subject to revision of 60825-2)
Mechanical protection of cables (degree of depending on location)
Cable connectors
! All systems operating in unrestricted locations in which cable connectors
are accessible require the use of a tool for disconnection if hazard level 1
can be exceeded.
! All systems operating in restricted locations in which cable connectors are
accessible require the use of a tool for disconnection if hazard level 1M or
2M can be exceeded.
! All systems operating in controlled locations in which cable connectors are
accessible require the use of a tool for disconnection if hazard level 1M or
2Mor 3R can be exceeded.
! The positioning of the connector in a way that prevents human access to a
higher hazard level is an acceptable feature to ensure that these requirements
are met.
! Automatic power reduction may be used to control the hazard levels.
Labelling
Optical fibre cables should carry appropriate markings to distinguish them
from cable containing other services (e.g electricity) if the hazard level at the
location is in excess of hazard level 1. (Labels as per 60825-1).
Users Guide for fibre optic work
Optical fibres carrying laser radiation normally provide a complete enclosure of the
radiation, and so prevent access to it. However, if a fibre is disconnected or a fibre
break occurs, hazardous levels of laser exposure can be present.
Safety requirements specifically applicable to optical fibre communication systems
are defined in IEC 60825-2. These requirements include the necessity for assessing
the potential level of accessible laser emission from an optical fibre in terms of the
hazard level (e.g., hazard level 1, 1M, 2, 2M, 3R, 3B or 4), equivalent to product
class. The hazard level applies only to a particular location at which an interruption of
the fibre might reasonably foreseeably occur, rather than to the complete system or
installation as a whole. It is therefore possible that different locations at which access
to fibre emission could occur within the same system may be assigned different
hazard levels. This is not possible for product class, which is based on the highest
level of accessible emission from a complete laser product.
The following working practices are taken from an informative annex of 60825-2 as
an example of good practice when working with any optical fibre system:
Viewing fibre Do not stare with unprotected eyes or with any unapproved
collimating device at the fibre ends or connector faces, or
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
point them at other people.
Viewing aids Use only approved filtered or attenuating viewing aids.
Fibre ends
(single or multiple)
Any single or multiple fibre end(s) found not to be terminated
(for example, matched, spliced) shall be individually or
collectively covered when not being worked on. They shall
not be readily visible and sharp ends shall not be exposed.
Suitable methods for covering include the use of a splice
protector or tape. Always attach end caps to unmated
connectors.
Ribbon fibres Do not cleave ribbon fibres as an unseparated ribbon, or use
ribbon splicers, unless authorised.
Test cords When using optical test cords, the optical power source shall
be the last to be connected and the first to be disconnected.
Fibre off-cuts Collect all fibre off-cuts and dispose of them in an approved
container. The container itself should be disposed of in an
approved manner.
Maintenance Follow only approved instructions for operating and
maintaining the system being worked on.
Cleaning Use only approved methods for cleaning and preparing optical
fibres and optical connectors.
Modification Do not make any unauthorised modifications to any optical
fibre system or associated equipment.
Board extenders Board extenders shall not be used on optical transmitter cards.
Do not power optical sources when they are outside
transmitter racks.
Label damage Report damaged or missing optical safety labels to line
management.
Key control For equipment with key control, the keys shall be placed under
the control of a person appointed by management who shall
ensure their safe use, storage and overall control.. Spare keys
shall be retained under strict control procedures by a
nominated line manager.
Test equipment Use test equipment of the lowest class necessary and practical
for the task. Do not use test equipment of a higher class than
the location hazard level.
Signs Area warning signs are required for locations exceeding
hazard level !M and 2M. Area signs may be displayed in
locations of lower classification.

Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Live working practices
Warning signs should be erected/displayed, even at temporary work locations.
Use only approved viewing aids with valid calibration labels or test reports.
For hazard level 3B, responsible and adequate OFCS safety and training programmes
should be established and maintained by management. Personnel engaged in the
installation and servicing of OFCS should observe all rules, and report to management
any potentially unsafe conditions or abnormal exposures to optical radiation.
Live working on hazard level 3B locations or systems is not recommended.
If live working is not permitted on hazard level 3B systems, then the following
working practices should be used:
all general practices defined above;
power down the system;
check that there is no optical power in the fibre using an approved optical power
meter;
cover the ends of all exposed fibres not being worked on. Always attach end caps
to unmated connectors;
use only indirect viewing aids (for example televised or shadow imaging splicing
machines). Do not use microscopes without authorisation;
when using optical test cords, the optical power source shall be the last to be
connected and the first to be disconnected.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Working codes for laboratory laser work
The international safety standard presents user control measures in the form of
guidance, leaving it to the user to decide if, for example, the remote interlock
connector of Class 3B and 4 lasers should be connected to a room door is
interpreted as a requirement or not. A number of laser safety working codes set out to
take away some or all of the decision, with sets of rules based entirely on the hazard
classification system. The USAs ANSI Z136 series is the most comprehensive of
these, but there are other National, Profession, and Organization-based working codes
that serve a similar purpose of controlling laser use. This prescriptive approach only
works, however, because the scope of such codes restrict their application to specific
laser applications and/or types of user.
The Health and Safety Executive regard EN60825 as a guide to what is "reasonably
practicable" within the terms of the Health and Safety at Work Act. The responsibility
for safety invariably lies with the line management and ultimately with the Director:
the promulgation of a Working Code is one of the ways in which the Directors
responsibilities are discharged.
Working Codes of Practice are comprehensive statements describing safety
precautions to be implemented. A Working Code applies the general guidance given
in TR60825-14 to the specific needs of the organisation devising it, replacing the
"shoulds" in the list of control measures in the User section of the Standard with
"shalls".
A R&D Working Code
Introduction
The first few sections can be regarded as introductory. Points include stating the
scope of the code in terms of its area of applicability (e.g. on site), defining BS
TR60825-14: 2004 as applying to the current British Standard if and when BS
TR60825-14: 2004 is superseded, and addressing the issue of exemptions. A general
requirement is that the LSO has the power to grant exemptions from any of the
requirements of the Code
Definitions
Among the most important definitions are those of the Classes of laser. Other useful
terms might include the defined terms for responsible officers (e.g. laser engineer,
laser system supervisor), a definition of what constitutes Standing Orders, and some
of the jargon such as human access, specular reflection and intrabeam viewing
might be included.
Responsibilities
A clear chain of responsibility should be established through line management to the
appointed LSO and from there to those responsible for laser work. The aim should be
to ensure that responsibilities fall within the envelope of authority that that person has
been given e.g. for a local supervisor of laser activities they might include:
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
ensuring that this Code is complied with
maintaining radiation safety equipment in good working order
ensuring that Standing Orders are prepared, posted and are kept up to date.
Appointments
Written appointments, signed by both parties, should define limitations of
responsibility. A renewal date of appointment ensures a regular (e.g. annual) review.
Control Measures
The main use of control measures arises in the context of Class 3B and Class 4 lasers.
The working code will usually define that such lasers are to be used only within a
Designated Laser Area. The design criteria of such areas as specified in the Code
might include: (i) light tight boundaries, (ii) warning signs and lights, (ii) interlocks
(with override facilities) at entrances.
Control measures for specific activities might address: alignment procedures,
maintenance and service operations in the area, remote operation of a laser, multiple
laser operation and open beam path operation.
Special rules might be included to address embedded lasers because of the change in
radiation hazard during some servicing operations. In particular, there are now many
items of office equipment, including laser printers, scanners and CD readers that are
embedded laser products; these may be excluded if it is made a requirement that such
items are serviced off site.
Standing Orders.
The use of standing orders is the central element of a Working Code. Key points
might include such items as: (i) regular revision to accommodate changes within the
DLA, (ii) the means of transfer of control and the form of verbal warnings given
before firing the laser, (iii) minimum reliance on personal protection, but adequate
specification of when and what to use, (iv) requirements for safe alignment (e.g.
reduce laser beams to Class 3R or below).

Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
Risk assessment
Traditionally, risk has been assessed as the product of the likelihood of an event that
will cause harm and the severity of harm caused.
General methodology
The reduction of risk to tolerable levels is an iterative process. There is no standard
approach to procedure and documentation for this process. Nevertheless, the steps
involved are universal:
Step 1 - Identify the potentially injurious situations
List every reasonably foreseeable injurious situation that could arise in the use of the
laser equipment, including those of installation, normal operation, maintenance,
service, and reasonably foreseeable misuse or failure. This list should be irrespective
of the prevention/precautions included and should be applied in all cases whether
assessing a workplace, a work activity, a product or a service provision.
There are three key types of issue to consider when drawing up the list of potentially
injurious situations:
The hazards involved
Make a list of most of the hazards that may be involved in the use of the laser product.
Almost inevitably, control measures already be in place at the time of the risk
assessment will effectively isolate some of these hazards (except, perhaps, during
servicing). The extent to which such controls are taken into account when drawing up
the initial list is a matter of judgement.
The laser environment
The laser environment in the present context includes the location of the laser
equipment (e.g. inside within an enclosed and dedicated laser working area; inside
within an open-plan working area; outside), the state of the working area from an
equipment viewpoint (e.g. the influence on equipment of temperature, humidity,
vibration, dust etc. and the possibility of disturbances or damage by collisions with
persons or moving equipment), the state of the working area from a personnel
viewpoint (e.g. cluttered; clean or dirty; well-lit or dark), and the level of access (e.g.
localised restricted area within premises having no public access; unrestricted area
within premises having no public access; public access areas.)
The personnel at risk
Issues relating to persons at risk include their level of awareness, protection and
training. The list may include trained operators, service personnel, employees
unaware of the hazards, visitors, children and other members of the public who may
not fully understand warning signs.
Step 2 - Assess the risk for potentially injurious situations
For each item on the list of potentially injurious situations, separately assessed the
likelihood of injury and severity of injury.
It is usually difficult or impossible to quantify these elements. One way of dealing
with this is (i) to place the likelihood of injury into one of five categories from likely
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
to remote, taking account of the frequency of exposure to the hazard, the time of
exposure to the hazard and the probability that, when exposed, the hazard will not be
avoided, (ii) place the severity of injury into one of four categories from fatal to no
injury with perhaps a fifth category for damage to plant or environment, then (iii) use
the table below to classify the resultant risk into one of four ranks from high to
tolerable.

Likely Probable Possible Improbable Remote
Fatal High High Medium Low tolerable
Major
injury/perm.
disability
Medium Medium Low tolerable tolerable
Minor
injury
Low Low tolerable tolerable tolerable
No injury tolerable tolerable tolerable tolerable tolerable

In the above table the following descriptions are applied to the Probability/likelihood:
Likely - Occurs repeatedly/ event only to be expected
Probable - Not surprised - will occur several times.
Possible - Could occur sometimes
Improbable - Unlikely - through conceivable
Remote - so unlikely that probability is close to zero.
Actions necessary
High Highest priority for immediate action to reduce risk to an acceptable
level. If the risk constitutes a Serious and Imminent Danger after
considering the existing controls, implement withdrawal procedures.
Medium Urgent action required to analyse existing controls urgently to
determine what action is required to reduce the risk to an acceptable
level.
Low Prompt action required to analyse existing controls as soon as possible.
Tolerable No action required.
Step 3 - Select control measures, and repeat from Step 1 process
Consider each hazard and risk, even where control measures already exist, and decide
what existing or additional measures are needed to comply with relevant legislation
and/ or Company Safety Policy. It is important at this stage to ensure that all the
assessments and the conclusions are recorded as this is the what to do and why we do
it stage.
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
In selecting appropriate controls, engineering controls should be given primary
consideration as the means for reducing the risk of injury. Personal protective
equipment should only be used as a last resort where a combination of engineering
and administrative controls cannot reasonably provide a sufficient level of protection.
When assessing the various options, the basic priorities are:
remove the danger;
guard against the danger;
warn about the danger.
Where the danger cannot be removed, as much as possible should be done on the
second option to minimise what requires to be done on the third.
These three descending priorities can be explained to a more refined scale with the
following safety precedence sequence:
Eliminate the risk (is there an alternative method? can the design be changed?);
Substitute the hazard for a lesser one (replace the risk activity, use a safer chemical
process);
Isolate the hazard and thus the risk to persons or environment (make it difficult to get
at);
Control making it difficult for the person to get at the hazard;
Personal Protection giving the person protection from the hazard;
Discipline/training may be provided to both combat latent risks and also to ensure
that controls, instructions, warning are recognised and understood by all those who
are likely to come into contact with the hazard.
After control measures for reducing the risk have been determined, the risk
assessment procedure outlined above should be repeated, and if necessary a further
iteration carried out, until the risk from all potentially injurious situations has been
reduced to a tolerable level. It is recommended that these iterations are carried out
before the proposed controls are implemented and the laser equipment is used, in
order to confirm that the once the control measures have been adopted the risk is
tolerable.
The final stage of any risk assessment is to establish reviews to ensure that the
implemented actions taken to eliminate or reduce risks are really put into practice and
are effective. This stage is equally as important as any of the others to ensure
effectively of the assessment and to establish a structured monitoring process to
recognise inappropriate measures, misuse and abuse, changes in equipment/ process/
environment, etc., all of which may make previous assessments redundant and
obsolete.
Dealing with residual risks
The hierarchy of approaches is as follows:
Pro Laser 2005
__________________________________________________________________________________
1 Warn of the residual risks
This step is necessary to ensure that persons are aware and are reminded that
additional actions are or may be required to contain the residual risks.
2. Permit to Work
The second approach may be to introduce permits to work. These permits are to
cover specific actions that must be carried out to make a task safe. They are normally
recorded in writing before further work is permitted to take place. The safe systems of
work are specified in documents such as: standard operating procedures or safety
policy arrangements. Permits to work supplement these safe working practices. They
are documented procedures that require people to carry out and sign for defined
actions to make a task safe. A permit system is only part of a system of work and
must be carefully set up and properly managed to be successful. Permits to work are
not the answer to every safety problem and must be confined to those clearly specified
situation where there is a need to ensure tight control over certain action to be carried
out. They require a high degree of training and supervision to ensure compliance. The
weakness of this system of working is that the procedure covered by the permit must
be as simple as possible and should not take too long to complete. Often lack of time
for the user of the permit as well as those supervising the use of the permit lead to
short cuts being taken and the process becoming totally ineffective.
3. Training
Training is necessary to implement the objectives or either warnings or permits to
work. European Directives issued under Article 137 demand that workers are trained
so that they are capable of carrying out the tasks they have been entrusted with.
4. Information
Information is of prime importance. Information about risks and control measures
must be supplied to all users. The information should be comprehensible and relevant
information based on the risks identified by the assessment. It should include, the
preventative and protective measures, emergency procedures and the staff involved in
them. It is common for information of this kind to be written in rule books or safety
manuals. This is a good method but they must be written with the workforce in mind,
taking into account factors such as language and reading ability. Information may
sometimes be in the form of signs, such as warning signs.

Icfo 2005

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Icfo 2005

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Laser Safety for Laboratory Users

Dr Mike Green D Phil (Oxon) F Inst P

, the angle of acceptance should not be larger than the

. If the angular subtense ! of the source is smaller than

, the angle of acceptance should

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi