137

Chapter 1 Chapter 12
Now that we have studied in some detail the nature
of electric current, voltage and resistance, we can go
on to solve a variety of problems involving electrical
circuits. When representing circuits by circuit
diagrams, we will use the standard circuit symbols
shown in Figure 12.1. (We have used a few of these
already in the previous three chapters.) Some of
these components are shown in Figure 12.2.
Circuit symbols and diagrams
These symbols are a small part of a set of
internationally agreed conventional symbols for
electrical components. It is essential that scientists,
engineers, manufacturers and others around the world
use the same symbol for a particular component.
In addition, many circuits are now designed by
computers and these need a universal language in
which to work and to present their results.
Symbol Component name Symbol Component name
connecting lead variable resistor
cell microphone
battery of cells loudspeaker
fxed resistor fuse
power supply earth
junction of conductors alternating signal
crossing conductors (no connection) capacitor
flament lamp thermistor
voltmeter light-dependent resistor (LDR)
ammeter semi-conductor diode
switch light-emitting diode (LED)
Figure 12.1 Names of electrical components and their circuit symbols. continued
DC circuits
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e-Learning
Objectives
Chapter 12: DC circuits
138
Series circuits
In the circuit shown in Figure 12.3, the three
components (the cell and the two lamps) are
connected end-to-end, or in series. The direction
of the conventional current I is shown. No current
is lost at any point because electrons cannot escape
from the wires. So the current is the same at all points
round the circuit. The current transfers energy to the
lamps; no energy is lost in the connecting wires if we
assume that they have negligible resistance. The total
potential difference V across the lamps is simply the
sum of the p.d.s across the individual lamps:
V = V
1
+ V
2
In the UK, BSI (formerly the British Standards
Institute) is the body which establishes agreements
on such things as electrical symbols, as well as
for safety standards, working practices and so
on. The circuit symbols used here form part of
a standard known as BS EN 60617 (formerly
BS3939). Because this is a shared language, there
is less likelihood that misunderstandings will arise
between people working in different organisations
and different countries.
Figure 12.2 A selection of electrical components,
including resistors, fuses, capacitors and microchips.
I
I
I
I
V
1
V
2
V
Figure 12.3 An example of a series circuit.
Similarly, if we have several cells in series, their
e.m.f.s add up, as shown in Figure 12.4. Note that we
have to be careful to take account of the polarity of
each cell: if they are all connected in the same sense,
their e.m.f.s add up, but if one is reversed, its e.m.f.
must be subtracted.
a b
2 V + 2 V + 2 V = 6 V 2V + 2 V 2 V = 2 V
Figure 12.4 a For cells connected in series,
e.m.f.s add up. b If one cell is reversed, its e.m.f.
must be subtracted.
Lastly, the resistances of resistors in series also
add up. A 6 resistor in series with a 4 resistor are
equivalent to a 10 resistor. It is clear why this should
be the case: the current has to fow through one resistor
and then the next (Figure 12.5), so the overall length
of the resistors in the circuit has increased. According
to the resistivity equation R =
L
A
met in Chapter 10,
the resistance is directly proportional to the length. The
total resistance of two resistors of resistances R
1
and R
2

connected in series is thus given by the formula:
R = R
1
+ R
2
For three or more resistors in series this becomes:
R = R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+
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Chapter 12: DC circuits
139
Summarising
To summarise, for a series circuit:

the current is the same at all points around the circuit

the p.d.s add up

the e.m.f.s add up

the resistances add up.
SAQ
1 Calculate the combined resistance of two 5
resistors and a 10 resistor
connected in series.
2 The cell shown in Figure 12.3 provides an
e.m.f. of 2.0 V. The p.d. across one lamp
is 1.2 V. Determine the p.d. across
the other lamp.
3 You have fve 1.5 V cells. How
would you connect all fve of them
to give an e.m.f. of:
a 7.5 V, b 1.5 V, c 4.5 V?
Parallel circuits
Figure 12.6 shows two lamps connected in parallel
with one another. In this situation, the current I from
the cell divides into two portions I
1
and I
2
. Looking
at the diagram, you should be able to see the point
at which the current divides. Beyond the lamps, the
currents recombine. Since current (or charge) cannot
disappear or appear from nowhere, we can deduce:
I = I
1
+ I
2
I
1
V
1
V
2
I
2
I
I
Figure 12.6 An example of a parallel circuit.
In other words, the total current is the sum of the
currents at each point or junction in the circuit. This
is Kirchhoffs frst law, which was discussed in detail
in Chapter 9.
What can we say about the p.d.s across the two
lamps? If you trace the connections round, you will see
that each lamp has one end connected to the positive
terminal of the cell, and the other connected to the
negative terminal. Components connected side-by-side
in this way therefore have the same p.d. across them:
V
1
= V
2
Now we will consider what happens when two resistors
are connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 12.7. The
total resistance R of the two resistors of resistances R
1

and R
2
is given by the following equation:
1
R
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2

For two resistors, this can also be written as:
R =
R
1
R
2
R
1
+ R
2
R
1
I
1
I
V
I
2
R
2
Figure 12.7 Two resistors connected in parallel.
R
1
I I
R
2
V
Figure 12.5 Two resistors in series.
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Chapter 12: DC circuits
140
SAQ
4 Calculate the total resistance of four 10
resistors connected in
parallel.
5 Calculate the resistances of the following
combinations:
a 100 and 200 in series
b 100 and 200 in parallel
c 100 and 200 in
series and this in parallel
with 200 .
6 Calculate the current drawn from a 12 V battery
of negligible internal resistance connected to the
ends of the following:
a 500 resistor
b 500 and 1000 resistors in series
c 500 and 1000 resistors
in parallel.
7 You are given one 200 resistor and two 100
resistors. What total resistances can you obtain
by connecting some, none, or all of
these resistors in various
combinations?
Solving problems
Here are some useful ideas which may prove helpful
when you are solving problems (or checking your
answers to see whether they seem reasonable).

When two or more resistors are connected in parallel,
their combined resistance is smaller than any of their
individual resistances. For example, three resistors
of 2 , 3 and 6 connected together in parallel
have a combined resistance of 1 . This is less than
For three or more resistors in parallel, the formula is:
1
R
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
+
1
R
3
+
In words: the reciprocal of the total resistance is
found by adding the reciprocals of the individual
resistances. We will refer to this later as the
reciprocal formula for resistance. You can determine
the total resistance easily using the x
1
or the
1
x

button on your calculator. The total resistance
R of three resistors can be determined as follows:
R = (R
1
1
+ R
2
1
+ R
3
1
)
1
Summarising
To summarise, when components are connected
in parallel:

all have the same p.d. across their ends

the current is shared between them

we use the reciprocal formula to calculate their
combined resistance.
Two 10 resistors are connected in parallel.
Calculate the total resistance.
Step 1 We have R
1
= R
2
= 10 , so:

1
R
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2


1
R
=
1
10
+
1
10
=
2
10
=
1
5

Step 2 Inverting both sides of the equation gives:
R = 5
Note that we have to be careful with how we
write this. Do not write
1
R
=
1
5
= 5 .
The calculation must be done in two steps,
as shown above. You can also determine the
resistance as follows:
R = (R
1
1
+ R
2
1
)
1
R = (10
1
+ 10
1
)
1
= 5
Worked example 1
It is worth noting that the total resistance of two
identical resistors in parallel is equal to half the
resistance value of a single resistor. This can be
understood using the equation R =
L
A
. For two
identical resistors of the same length and cross-
sectional area, connecting them in parallel doubles
the cross-sectional area. Since the resistance is
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, the
resistance is halved.
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Chapter 12: DC circuits
141
even the smallest of the individual resistances. This
comes about because, by connecting the resistors in
parallel, you are providing extra pathways for the
current. Since the combined resistance is lower than
the individual resistances, it follows that connecting
two or more resistors in parallel will increase the
current drawn from a supply. Figure 12.8 shows a
hazard which can arise when electrical appliances are
connected in parallel.

When components are connected in parallel, they
all have the same p.d. across them. This means that
you can often ignore parts of the circuit which are
not relevant to your calculation.

Similarly, for resistors in parallel, you may be able
to calculate the current in each one individually,
then add them up to fnd the total current. This
may be easier than working out their combined
resistance using the reciprocal formula. (This is
illustrated in SAQ 10.)
SAQ
8 Three resistors of resistances 20 ,
30 and 60 are connected
together in parallel. Select which of the following
gives their combined resistance:
110 , 50 , 20 , 10 .
9 In the circuit in Figure 12.9 the battery of e.m.f.
10 V has negligible internal resistance.
Calculate the current in the 20
resistor shown in the circuit.
10 Determine the current drawn from
the battery in Figure 12.9.
Figure 12.8 a Correct use of an electrical socket.
b Here, too many appliances (resistances) are
connected in parallel. This reduces the total
resistance and increases the current drawn, to the
point where it becomes dangerous.
20
10 V
40
50
11 What value of resistor must be connected in
parallel with a 20 resistor so that
their combined resistance is 10 ?
12 You are supplied with a number of 100
resistors. Describe how you could combine the
minimum number of these to
make a 250 resistor.
Figure 12.9 Circuit diagram for SAQ 9 and
SAQ 10.
a
b
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Chapter 12: DC circuits
142
Figure 12.10 For SAQ 13.
13 Calculate the current at each point
(AE) in the circuit shown
in Figure 12.10.
energy as possible is transferred in the ammeter itself.
Inserting an ammeter with a higher resistance could
signifcantly reduce the current fowing in the circuit.
The ideal internal resistance of an ammeter is zero.
Digital ammeters have very low resistances.
Voltmeters measure the potential difference between
two points in the circuit. For this reason, they are
connected in parallel (i.e. between the two points), and
they should have a very high resistance to take as little
current as possible. The ideal resistance of a voltmeter
would be infnity. In practice, voltmeters have typical
resistance of about 1 M. A voltmeter with a resistance
of 10 M measuring a p.d. of 2.5 V will take a current
of 2.5 10
7
A and dissipate just 0.625 J of heat
energy from the circuit every second.
Some measuring instruments are shown in
Figure 12.12.
300
600 V
50
C
D B
A
E
+
60

Ammeters and voltmeters
Ammeters and voltmeters are connected differently
in circuits (Figure 12.11). Ammeters are always
connected in series, since they measure the current
through a circuit. For this reason, an ammeter should
have as low a resistance as possible so that as little
Figure 12.12 Electrical measuring instruments:
an ammeter, a voltmeter and an oscilloscope. The
oscilloscope can display rapidly changing voltages.
V
A
ammeter
voltmeter
Figure 12.11 How to connect up an ammeter and
a voltmeter.
SAQ
14 a A 10 V power supply of negligible internal
resistance is connected to a 100 resistor.
Calculate the current in the resistor.
b An ammeter is now connected in the circuit,
to measure the current. The resistance of the
ammeter is 5.0 . Calculate
the ammeter reading.
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Chapter 12: DC circuits
143
The current in the resistor X is 2.0 A and the current in the 6.0 resistor is 0.5 A.
Calculate:
a the current in resistor Y [2]
b the resistance of resistor Y [2]
c the resistance of resistor X. [3]
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Summary

Components connected in series have the same current through them.

Components connected in parallel have the same p.d. across them.

Resistors connected in series have a total resistance R given by:

R = R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+

Resistors connected in parallel have a total resistance R given by:


1
R
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
+
1
R
3
+ or R = (R
1
1
+ R
2
1
+ R
3
1
+ ...)
1

Ammeters measure current and are connected in series. An ammeter has very small resistance.

Voltmeters measure potential difference and are connected in parallel. A voltmeter has very high resistance.
Questions
1 A flament lamp and a 220 resistor are connected in series to a battery of e.m.f. 6.0 V. The battery
has negligible internal resistance. A high-resistance voltmeter placed across the resistor measures 1.8 V.
Calculate:
a the current drawn from the battery [2]
b the p.d. across the lamp [1]
c the total resistance of the circuit [3]
d the number of electrons passing through the battery in a time of 1.0 minutes.
The elementary charge is 1.6 10
19
C. [3]
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2 The circuit diagram below shows a 12 V power supply connected to some resistors.
J7007
CUP
0521787185c12_13.eps
12 V
6.0
Y
X
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