Chapter 6 : Failure of Metals

1) Cite the three usual causes of failure.

2) (a) Cite the two modes of fracture and the diferences
between them.
(b) Note which tpe of fracture is preferred! and "i#e two
reasons wh.
$) %escribe the mechanism of crac& propa"ation for both
ductile and brittle modes of fracture.
') %escribe the two diferent tpes of fracture surfaces for
ductile metals! and! for each! cite the "eneral mechanical
characteristics of the material.
() )rie* describe the mechanism of crac& formation and
"rowth in moderatel ductile materials.
6) )rie* describe the macroscopic fracture pro+le for a
material that has failed in a brittle manner.
,) Name and brie* describe the two crac& propa"ation
paths for polcrstalline brittle materials.
-) %e+ne fatigue and specif the conditions under which it
occurs.
.) Name and describe the three diferent stress/#ersus/time
ccle modes that lead to fati"ue failure.
10) 1i#en a sinusoidal stress/#ersus/time cur#e! be able to
determine the stress amplitude and mean stress.
11) %escribe the two diferentl tpes of fati"ue surface
features! and cite the conditions under which the occur.
12) Cite +#e measures that ma be ta&en to impro#e the
fati"ue resistance of a metal.
1$) %e+ne creep and specif the conditions under which it
occurs.
1') Ma&e a schematic s&etch of a tpical creep cur#e! and
then note on this cur#e the three diferent creep sta"es.
1() 1i#en a creep plot for some material! determine (a) the
stead/state creep rate! and (b) the rupture lifetime.
Fracture
Fracture is a form of failure where the material separates in pieces
due to stress, at temperatures below the melting point
The usual causes of fracture are improper materials selection, wrong
processing technique, inadequate design of the component and
misuse.
The fracture is termed ductile or brittle depending on the ability of a
material to experience plastic deformation
Any fracture process involves two steps
1) crac formation
!) crac propagation
Ductile Fracture
"uctile fracture is always preferred because #
1) the presence of plastic deformation gives warning that fracture is
imminent $due to happen soon), allowing preventive measures to
be taen. Alas, brittle fracture occurs suddenly and
catastrophically without any warning as a consequence of the
spontaneous and rapid crack propagation
!) more strain energy is required to induce ductile fracture because
ductile materials are generally tougher
%acroscopic fracture profile of #
$a) &ighly ductile fracture in which the specimen necs down to a point
$b) %oderately ductile fracture after some necing
$c) 'rittle fracture without any plastic deformation
The most common type of tensile fracture profile for ductile metals is
shown in Figure $b) in which fracture is preceded by only a moderate
amount of necing.

The ductile fracture process occurs in several stages.
First, after necing begins $Figure a), small cavities, or microvoids,
form in the interior of the cross section $Figure b)
(ext, as deformation continues, these microvoids enlarge, come
together, and coalesce to form an elliptical crac, which has its
long axis perpendicular to the stress direction $Figure c).
The crac continues to grow in a direction parallel to its ma)or axis
by this microvoid coalescence process $Figure d).
Finally, fracture ensues by the rapid propagation of a crac around
the outer perimeter of the nec by shear deformation at an angle of
about *+, with the tensile axis - this is the angle at which the shear
stress is a maximum $Figure e).
"uctile fracture is also termed cup-and-cone because one of the
mating surfaces is in the form of a cup, the other lie a cone.
The fractured specimen of ductile material shows that the central
interior region of the surface has an irregular and fibrous
appearance.
Fractographic examination of the fibrous central region by
scanning electron microscope shows that it consists of many
spherical .dimples/. At *+, shear lip of the cup-and-cone fracture,
elongated or 0-shaped dimples are formed.
0up-and-cone fracture in aluminum
scanning electron fractograph showing
$a) spherical dimples
$b) elongated or 0-shaped dimples
Brittle Fracture
1n brittle fracture, there is no appreciable deformation occured and
crac propagation is very fast.
'rittle fracture in mild steel
1n most brittle materials, crac propagation $by bond breaing) is
along specific crystallographic planes $cleavage planes). This type of
fracture is transgranular $through grains) producing grainy texture $or
faceted texture) when cleavage direction changes from grain to grain.
1n some materials, fracture is intergranular
a) 2chematic cross-section profile showing crac propagation through the interior
grains for transgranular fracture
b) 2canning electron fractograph of ductile cast iron showing a transgranular fracture
surface

a) 2chematic cross-section profile showing crac propagation along grain
boundaries for intergranular fracture
b) 2canning electron fractograph showing an intergranular fracture surface
Ductile Brittle
Plastic
deformation
extensive little
crack propagation slow, stable, needs stress Fast, unstable
type of materials most metals $not too cold) ceramics, ice, cold metals
warning permanent elongation none
strain energy higher lower
fractured surface rough smoother
necking yes no
Variation of properties with temperatures
The yield strength and tensile strength vary with prior thermal and
mechanical treatment, impurity levels, etc. This variability is related to
the bahaviour of dislocations in the material. 'ut elastic modulus is
relatively insensitive to these effects
The yield strength, tensile strength and modulus of elasticity
decrease with increasing temperature, ductility increases with
temperature.
Fatigue and Creep
Fatigue
Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures sub)ected to
dynamic and fluctuating stresses.
3nder these circumstances it is possible for failure to occur at a
stress level lower than the tensile or yield strength for a static load
and after a lengthy period of repeated stress or strain cycling.
Fatigue failure can happen in bridges, airplanes, machine
components, etc.
1t is the most usual $456) of metallic failures $happens also in
ceramics and polymers)
The failure is brittle-lie even in ductile metals, with little plastic
deformation
1t occurs in stages involving the initiation and propagation of cracs
Cyclic Stresses
These are characteri7ed by maximum, minimum and mean stress,
the stress amplitude, and the stress ratio. The three types of stress
cycle are#
$a) reversed stress cycle $the stress alternates from a maximum
tensile steress $8) to a maximum compressive stress $-))
$b) repeated stress cycle $maximum stresses are asymmetrical
relative to 7ero-stress level)
$c) random stress cycle.
%ean stress,
2
min max

+
=
m
9ange stress,
min max
=
r
2tress amplitude,
2 2
min max

= =
r
a
2tress ratio,
max
min

= R
The S-N Cure
The curve is obtained by using fatigue testing apparatus
The specimen is sub)ected to stress cycle at large maximum stress
amplitude then the number of cycles to failure is counted.
The procedure is repeated at decreasing maximum stress amplitude.
"ata are plotted as stress 2 $normally taen as stress amplitude)
versus the logarithm of the number ( of cycles to failure
The higher the magnitude of the stress, the smaller the number of
cycles the material is capable of sustaining before failure
Fatigue limit !endurance limit" : a limiting stress level below which
fatigue failure will not occur. 1n this case, the SN curve becomes
hori7ontal at large N
Fatigue strength : the stress level at which failure will occur for
some specified number of cycles
Fatigue life N
f
: the number of cycles to cause failure at a specified
stress level
The scatter in results $fatigue data) is a consequence of the fatigue
sensitivity to a number of test and material parameters that are
impossible to control precisely. The parameters include
specimen fabrication and surface preparation
metallurgical variables
specimen alignment in the apparatus
mean stress
test frequency
Crack #nitiation and Propagation
Fatigue failure is characteri7ed by three steps#
1. crac initiation $a small crac forms at some point of high stress
concentration)
11. crac propagation $this crac advances incrementally with each
stress cycle)
111. final failure $occurs very rapidly once the advancing crac has
reached a critical si7e)
0rac nucleation sites include surface scratches, sharp fillets,
eyways, threads, dents etc.
The region of a fracture surface that formed during the crac
propagation step may be characteri7ed by two maring, beachmars
and striations.
'oth features indicate the position of the crac tip at some point in
time and appear as concentric ridges that expand away from the
crac initiation site in a circular or semicircular pattern.
'eachmars are found for components that experienced interruptions
during the crac propagation stage
2triations
;ith regard to si7e, beachmars are normally macroscopic
dimensions and may be observed with the naed eye< fatigue
striations are of microscopic si7e and it is necessary to observe them
using electron microscopy.
;ith regard to origin, beachmars result from interruptions in the
stress cycles< each fatigue striation is corresponds to the advance of
a fatigue crac during a single load cycle.
Factors That $ffect Fatigue %ife
%ean stress $lower fatigue life with increasing mean stress 2
m
).
2urface effects
Design factors $any notches or geometrical discontinuity act as a
stress raiser and fatigue crac initiation sites - scratches, sharp
transitions and edges)
Surface treatments $surface marings can limit the fatigue life)
Four measures that may be taen to increase the fatigue resistance
of a metal alloy are#
1) =olish the surface to remove stress amplification sites
!) 9educe the number of internal defects $pores etc.) by means of
altering processing and fabrication techniques
>) %odify the design to eliminate notches and sudden contour
changes
*) &arden the outer surface of the structure by case hardening
$carburi7ing, nitriding) or shot peening
Creep
0reep is the time-varying plastic deformation of a material stressed
at high temperatures $greater than about 5.*T
m
). ?xamples# turbine
blades, steam generators. @eys are the time dependence of the
strain and the high temperature
&enerali'ed Creep Behaior
A typical creep curves $strain vs. time) exhibit three distinct
regions.
rimary or transient creep# the slope of the curve diminishes with
time
Secondary creep $steady!state creep) # the rate is constant and the
plot becomes linear
Tertiary creep# there is an acceleration of the rate and ultimate
fracture $rupture)
Stress and Temperature (ffects
'oth temperature and the level of the applied stress influence the creep
characteristics.
0reep becomes more pronounced at higher temperatures. There is
essentially no creep at temperatures below *56 of the melting point.
0reep increases at higher applied stresses.
;ith increasing stress or temperature, the following will be noted#
1) the instantaneous strain at the time of stress application increases
!) the steady-state creep rate is increased
>) the rupture lifetime is diminished
"ependence of creep strain rate on stress
A
s
=K
1
B
n
$lloys for )igh-Temperature *se
These are needed for turbines in )et engines, hypersonic airplanes,
nuclear reactors, etc. The important factors are a high melting
temperature, a high elastic modulus and large grain si7e
2ome creep resistant materials are stainless steels, refractory metal
alloys $containing elements of high melting point, lie (b, %o, ;, Ta),
and superalloys $based on 0o, (i, Fe.)