CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT

1. Introduction to Course:
Key concepts: cultural, cultural difference, intercultural
management, Cross Cultural communication.
Leadership in Globalization
Leadership in Global Communications
2. CrossCultural Communications
!ffecti"e communication: cultural factors in communication, types
of communication
#igh$lo% conte&t cultures. Crosscultural cnication e&ercise
'. #ofstede(s )i"e *imensional +odel
Lecture and discussion of #ofstede(s fi"e dimensions of cultural
difference: ,o%er, *istance, Indi"idualism, +asculinity)emininity,
-mbiguity, -"oidance and Confucian *ynamism
.. #ighConte&t "s. Lo%Conte&t Communication:
Lecture and discussion of the %or/ of !d%ard #all on direct "s.
indirect language.
0nderstanding your o%n communication style.
Comparing your style to those of other cultures.
1. 0ni"ersalism "s. ,articularism
*iscussion of the concept of social responsibility. 2he definition and
need for trust.
3alancing le"els of trust and responsibility. +a/ing ethical choices.
3ribery in a global conte&t.
Leadership in Global 4egotiations and 5trategic -lliances.
Global 4egotiations and 5trategic -lliances.
Crosscultural negotiation s/ills and strategies.
5ynergistic s/ills for global management.
Leadership in Cultural Change
Leadership in Cultural 5ynergy
6rganizational Culture and Cultural 5ynergy
Change in management, measuring organizational culture,
transforming the %or/ culture.
+anaging *i"ersity in the Global 7or/ Culture.
+anaging for CrossCultural !ffecti"eness
+anaging 2ransition and 8elocations.
9. Cultural Clash and Cultural 5ensiti"ity 2raining
Lecture and discussion of Korean-merican cultural differences.
Gender differences, communication across genders.
5elfa%areness, stereotypes, bias, discrimination and pre:udice.
*oing business %ith 4orth -mericans.
;. Course 7are
*oing business %ith 4orth -mericans
*oing business %ith Latin -mericans
*oing business %ith -sians
*oing business %ith -sians: China and <apan
*oing business %ith !uropeans
*oing business %ith +iddle !asterners
*oing business %ith -fricans
*oing business %ith 8ussians
*oing business %ith -ustralians and 4e% =ealanders
*oing business %ith Canadians
8eferences:
1. !ssentials of International +anagement: - Cross Cultural ,erspecti"e
by *a"id C. 2homas, 5aga ,ublications.
2. Cultures and 6rganizations by Geert #ofstede, +cGra%#ill
International
'. Inno"ations in International and Cross Cultural +anagement by
Christopher !arly and #arbir 5ingh from 5age ,ublications
.. 2ransnational +anagement: 2e&t, Cases and 8eadings in cross
3order +anagement by Christopher 3arlett and 5umantra Ghosal
from Ir%in ,ublishing.
1. +anaging Cultural *ifferences by ,hilip 8. #arris and 8obert +oran
from Gulf ,ublishing.
5r.
4o.
Topic
8oll 4os.
1. 3ribery in a Global Conte&t
2. 5ynergistic s/ills for Global +anagement
'. Leadership in Cultural Change
.. Change in +anagement and 2ransforming 7or/
Culture
9. +anaging *i"ersity in Global 7or/ Culture
;. +anaging for crossCultural !ffecti"eness
>. +anaging 2ransition and 8elocation
Introduction
Examples of Cross-Cultural lunders
!" It(s rude to cross your arms %hile facing someone in 2ur/ey.
#" 2he ?thumbs up@ gesture is considered offensi"e in +iddle !ast, rude in
-ustralia and a sign of ?6K@ in )rance.
$" - 05 e&ecuti"e based in Columbia %as "ie%ed by Columbian managers
as cold and un%orthy of trust because, in facetoface discussions, he
/ept bac/ing a%ay. #e didn(t understand that in ,eru and other Latin
countries, the custom is to stand Auite close to the person %ith %hom
you are spea/ing.
%" - 05 e&ecuti"e "isiting Germany for the first time %as in"ited to the
home of his largest customer. #e decided to be a good guest and
brought the hostess a bouAuet of a dozen red roses. #e later learnt that
in Germany it is bad luc/ to present an e"en number of flo%ers and that
red roses are symbolic of a strong romantic interest.
&" - 05 manager transferred to 5audi -rabia successfully obtained a
signature on a million dollar contract from a 5audi manufacturer. 2he
manufacturer(s representati"e had arri"ed at the meeting se"eral hours
late, but the 05 e&ecuti"e considered this tardiness unimportant. 2he
-merican %as certainly surprised and frustrated to learn later that the
5audi had no intention of abiding by the contract. #e had signed it only
to be polite after sho%ing up late for the appointment.
'" Bou(re in 5hanghai on business. 7al/ing do%n the street one day, you
pass a Chinese colleague. #e as/s you, ?#a"e you eaten yetC@ Bou
ans%er, ?4o, not yet.@ #e rushes off, loo/ing embarrassed and
uncomfortable. 2he ,hrase, ?#a"e you eaten yetC@ is a common
greeting D :ust li/e ?#i, ho% are youC@ in the 0nited 5tate. It(s the
Chinese %ay of saying ?Is your belly full todayC@ or ?Is life treating you
%ellC@
(" 7hen in <apan, *on(t Cross Bour Legs.
T)o Iron Rules of International usiness
!" In International 3usiness, the 5eller is !&pected to -dapt to the 3uyer.
#" In International 3usiness, the Eisitor is !&pected to 6bser"e Local
Customs.
4arayan +urthy: +entor Infosys
?+y definition of global is producing %here it(s most costeffecti"e, sourcing
%here it(s cheapest and selling %here it(s most profitable@.
)or global mindset, it is imperati"e to benchmar/ %ith the best global companies
and ha"e high aspirations.
Globalization is not a t%entiethcentury phenomenon. Globalization of economic
acti"ity has been closely lin/ed %ith the de"elopment and establishment of
empires %orld%ide through international trade since the si&teen century. Loo/ing
bac/ o"er the last three centuries, it %ould be nearly impossible to separate the
political and economic histories of 7estern nations %ith reference to international
trade.
!mpire building in the last three centuries %as closely connected %ith the
de"elopment of and attempts to monopolize, international trade.
2he 5paniards and the ,ortuguese %on trade routes from the +editerranean
po%ers in the fourteenth to the si&teenth centuries.
Later, these routes %ere %on o"er and monopolized by the 3ritish, the *utch and
the )rench. +a:or areas of the %orld that started out as ?economic@ colonies
subseAuently became political colonies including 4orth -merica. 4umerous %ars
ere fought in !urope and else%here o"er international trading rights, trade routes
and maintenance of trading monopolies.
3ritain became undisputed %orld economic po%er by the late eighteenth century
due to Industrial 8e"olution. 2his %as due to technical progress and inno"ations
in te&tiles, coal, iron and steel and harnessing of steam. It also resulted in the
displacement of agricultural %or/force to meet the needs of fast e&panding
industrial base and riches plundered from colonies. 3ritain became the %orld(s
first industrial country and accounted for about 1FG of the %orld e&port of
manufactures.
2he earliest +4!s %ere mainly !uropean firms, setting up manufacturing
facilities in the colonies. #o%e"er by the midnineteenth century, many 05 firms
began to globalize D for e&ample 5inger 5e%ing +achines D <oint "enture in
)rance in 1>11, 7estinghouse D plant in ,aris in 1>;H and Koda/ D plant in
London in 1>>H. 05 firms e&panded further after %orld %ar II as both !uropean
and <apanese industrial infrastructure %as largely destroyed by the %ar.
<apanese firms %ere relati"ely late entrants into the %orld of +4!s.
4umerous international agreements and institutions %ere set up after 7orld 7ar
II:
International fi&ede&change rate monetary agreement under the 3retton
7oods agreement D subseAuently bro/en do%n
International +onetary )und
2he 7orld 3an/
2he 7orld Court D considered ineffecti"e
2he General -greement of 2ariffs and 2rade IG-22J D lost to 726
GATT *TO
5et of agreement %ithout institutional
foundation
-greements are rules %ith permanent
institutional foundation at Gene"a
4o penalty #ea"y penalty for disobeying
5lo% method of sol"ing disputes Commercial and trade disputes are
sorted out on fast trac/
-pplicable to trade in goods -pplicable to trade in goods, ser"ices
and intellectual properties
4o e&pert body to control or manage 6ffice staff acts as management
consultants controlling global trade
economy.
726:
!stablished: 1$1$1HH1
3ased: Gene"aK5%itzerland
+embers: 11F countries
)unctions:
-dministrating and implementing multile"el trade agreements.
-cts as a trade negotiator.
8esol"es trade disputes.
Cooperates %ith other international institutes.
Glo+ali,ation

5tages in Globalization:
1. 2rade of goods
2. 5er"ices
'. Capital
.. Labour
Interdependence
Integration
Equalization
Globalization
2he +ode of )oreign !ntry:
!&ploit Competiti"e -d"antage
through !ntry -broad
,roduce at
#ome L !&port
,roduce -broad
Licensing or
+anagement
Contract
+aintain
Control o"er
-ssets -broad
<oint
Eenture
+a:ority or
7holly 6%ned
-ffiliate
3uild from
5cratch
-cAuire or
+erge
A C-ronolo./ of Important E0ents in *orld 1istor/
1211 2he +egna Carta limiting the po%er of the !nglish monarchy
12H1 2he +odel ,arliament in !ngland
1.11 In"ention of printing press
1.H2 Christopher Columbus reaches the Indies later /no%n as -merica
1.H> Easco da Gama landed at Calicut
111; 3eginning of reformation in Germany I+artin LutherJ
111H2F )irst effort to circumna"igate the earth by +agellan
19.> 2he 2reaty of 7estphalia brought an end to the !ighty year(s %ar bet%een
5pain and #olland
1;;. )irst stamp %as issued at ,atna
1;;9 1' -merican colonies adopted the ?*eclaration of Independence@ at
,hiladelphia 3irth of the 05-
1;>' 2he 2reaty of ,aris officially ended the -merican %ar of Independence
1;>H 2he )rench 8e"olution ended the rule of absolute monarchy
1;HH )rance declared a 8epublic
1>11 4epoleon 3onaparte %as defeated in the battle of 7aterloo D!nd of
4apoleonic ear in !uropean history
1>2' +onroe *octrine D -merican isolation from !uropean politics
1>'F <uly re"olution D8estoration of dynasty under /ing Louis ,hillippe
1>'H 2he )irst -ngloChinese %ar I6pium 7arJ started
1>.2 !nd of 6pium 7ar
1>.. )irst use of 2elegraph bet%een 3altimore and 7ashington
1>.; Bear of 8e"olutions in !urope ICommunist LeagueJ
1>.> )rench 8e"olution I)ebruaryJ e&pulsion of Louis. 8e"olutions in Germany,
-ustria and Italy D Karl +ar&(s Communist manifesto
1>12 4apolean III proclaimed emperor after a coup
1>1' )irst rail%ay in India and 3ritain and )rance :oined Crimean %ar
1>11 !nd of Crimean %ar
1>1; 2he re"olt in India
1>1> 2ransfer of po%er from !ast India Co. to 3ritish cro%n to rule India and
first cable from 3ritain to -merica
1>9F -braham Lincoln elected ,resident of 05-
1>92 6utbrea/ of -merican Ci"il 7ar Dsla"es free from 1.1.1>9'
1>91 -ssassination of -braham Lincoln and end of -merican ci"il %ar
1>9H 6pening of the 5uez Canal
1>;F )rance declared 8epublic D unification of Germany and foundation of
German !mpire
1>;1 )rance D first e"er Go"t. of %or/ers
1>>1 Indian 4ational Congress founded
1>H. <apan declared %ar on China
1>H1 !nd of China<apan %ar
1>H9 +odern 6lympics at -thens D 1' countries
1>HH 2he 3oer 7ar bet%een 3oers I*utch settlers in 5outh -fricaJ and 3ritain
1HF1 2he Common%ealth of -ustralia came into being
1HF' )irst -eroplane flight of 7right brothers
1HF.F1 8usso<apanese 7ar D <apan defeated
1HF1 8e"olution in 8ussia
1HF> 8e"olution in 2ur/ey
1H11 China proclaimed 8epublic
1H12 )irst 3al/an 7ar
1H1' 5econd 3al/an 7ar
1H1. ,anama Canal 6pened
1H1. )irst 7orld 7ar bro/e
1H1H 2he peace of ,aris D !nd of 7orld 7ar I
1H2F )ormation of the League of 4ations D 05 did not :oin
1H2F 8adio broadcast
1H2. *eath of Lenin D po%er struggle bet%een 5talin and 2rots/y
1H2; 2E introduced in 3ritain, 05 and Germany
1H2> )irst fi"e year plan in 0558
1H2H 5toc/ +ar/et crash at 7all 5treet in 6ctober D2he Great *epression
1H2H Indian 4ational Congress D ,oorna 5%ara:
1H'F *andi march
1H'' -dolf #itler became dictator
1H'9 4azi Germany in"ades 8hineland
1H.1 7orld 7ar II
1H.1 )ormation of 0nited nations
1H.; India became independent
1H.H 4-26 D 4orth -tlantic 2reaty organization 05, Canada and 1F 7estern
!uropean 4ations
1H1F Korean 7ar
1H1' !nd of Korean 7ar
1H1; 5putnic %ent into orbit and Eietnam %ar started
1H91 3erlin %all built bet%een !ast and 7est Germany
1H91 4on-ligned +o"ement 1
st
conference
1H91 Buri Gagarin D first human in outer space
1H9H )irst landing on +oon
1H;1 3angladesh
1H;1 !nd of Eietnam %ar D 4ational !mergency declared in India
1H;H 5o"iet troops in"aded -fghanistan
1H>F>> IranIraA 7ar
1HHF IraA in"aded and occupied Ku%ait
1HH1 Gulf 7ar D 6peration *esert 04 +ultinational force <an L feb.
1H>>H1 )all of communist region bac/ed by 0558 in ,oland, #ungry, Cze.,
Bugosla"ia, 8omania, -lbania and )all of 3erlin 7all D 8eunification of
Germany '$1F$1HHF
1HH1 *isintegration of 0558 into 11 independent states
2FF1 2errorists attac/ed 72C %ar in -fghanistan
2FF' 7ar on IraA
International Case: 7oman C!6 +anagers by the 2e&tboo/:
2he demand for managers %ith an international bac/ground is great. Consider
+arisa 3ellisario %ho %as one of the most soughtafter e&ecuti"es in !urope.
5he %as the first %oman to head a ma:or industrial firm in Italy, the state
controlled I2-L2!L 5ocieta Italiana. 2his company is the biggest Italian firm
ma/ing telecommunications eAuipment. +arisa 3ellisarioMs bac/ground, ho%e"er
is international. -fter recei"ing her degree in economics and business
administration from 2urin 0ni"ersity, she %or/ed at 6li"etti in the electronics
di"ision. 7hen 6li"etti sold its data processing di"ision to General !lectric, she
spent time in +iami %or/ing on G!(s %orld%ide mar/eting strategy for
computers. 5he left G! to head corporate planning at 6li"etti. -s the C!6 at
I2-L2!L, she turned the company around, sho%ing a small profit. I2he firm had
e&perienced huge losses in the past.J #er managerial approach has been
characterized as ?straight out of the te&tboo/@ and companies such as G2!
Corporation, I3+, -2 L 2 and other !uropean and <apanese firms are interested
in recruiting her.
1. 7hy %as +s. 3ellisario a muchsought after C!6C 7hat %as her career
pathC
2. 7hat special problems may she ha"e encountered as a %oman heading
a ma:or company in ItalyC
'. If she %as successful managing by the te&tboo/, %hy do some managers
still thin/ that management cannot be taughtC
Key concepts: cultural, cultural difference, intercultural
management, crosscultural communication.
Leadership in Globalization
Leadership in Global Communications
Key Concepts:
7hen %e thin/ of the %ord Mculture( in ordinary daily con"ersation, %e often see it
as eAui"alent to Mhigher things of mind D art, literature, music and painting.
#o%e"er culture refers to the %ays of life of the members of a society, or of
groups %ithin a society. It includes ho% they dress, their marriage customs and
family life, their patterns of %or/, religious ceremonies and leisure pursuits.
Culture can be conceptually distinguished from Msociety(, but there are "ery close
connections bet%een these notions. - society is a system of interrelationships,
%hich connects indi"iduals together. 3ritain, )rance and the 0nited 5tates are
societies in this sense. !arlier there %ere hunting and gathering societies. -ll
societies are united by the fact that their members are organized in structural
relationships according to a uniAue culture. 7ithout culture, %e %ould not be
Mhuman( at all, in the sense in %hich %e should usually understand the term. 7e
%ould ha"e no language in %hich to e&press oursel"es, no sense of self
consciousness and our ability to thin/ or reason %ould be se"erely limited.
Cultural "ariations among human beings are lin/ed to differing types of society.
7hen %e refer to culture, %e are concerned %ith those aspects of human
societies, %hich are learned, rather than inherited. 2hese elements of culture are
shared by members of society and allo% cooperation and communication to ta/e
place. 2hey form the common conte&t in %hich indi"iduals in a society li"e their
li"es. - society(s culture comprises both intangible aspects D the beliefs, ideas
and "alues %hich form the content of culture D and tangible aspects D the
ob:ects, symbols or technology %hich represent that content.
Ealues and norms: Ealue and norms %or/ together to shape ho% members of a
culture beha"e %ithin their surroundings.
1. Ealues and norms may be different across cultures. !.g. coping in 3ritain
and 8ussia.
2. !"en %ithin one society or community, "alues may be contradictory. !.g.
5ome people prefer material comfort and success and others may fa"our
simplicity and Auiet life.
'. Changing cultural "alues and norms o"er a period of time. !.g. premarital
se&ual relationship and unmarried couples li"ing together.
.. Cultural di"ersity is noticed across societies. !.g. <e%s do not eat por/,
%hile #indus eat por/ but a"oid beef. 7esterners regard /issing in public
places as normal beha"iour, %hile in India it is regarded as disgusting.
1. !"ery culture has its o%n uniAue patterns of beha"iour. -spects of daily
life %hich %e unconsciously ta/e for granted in our o%n culture may not
be part of e"eryday life in other parts of the %orld. ICultural 5hoc/J !.g.
2elephone call.
9. ,olitical rule also affects the cultural aspects. !.g. 2aliban rule imposed
many restrictions on -fghan 7omen.
;. 5ocialization connects the different generations to one another.
2ypes of ,remodern #uman 5ociety
2ype ,eriod of e&istence Characteristics
#unting and
gathering
societies
1F,FFF 3C to the present
Ino% on the "erge of
complete disappearanceJ
Consits of small numbers of
people gaining their li"elihood
from hunting, fishing and the
gathering of edible plants.
)e% ineAualities
*ifferences of ran/ limited by age
and se&.
-grarian
5ocieties
12,FFF 3C to the present.
+ost are no% part of larger
political entities and are
losing their distinct identity.
3ased on small rural communities,
%ithout to%ns and cities.
Li"elihood gained through
agriculture, often supplemented
through hunting and gathering.
5tronger ineAualities than among
hunters and gatherers.
8uled by chiefs.
,astoral
5ocieties
12,FFF 3C to the present.
2oday mostly part of larger
statesN their traditional %ays
of life are becoming
undermined.
*ependent on the tending of
domesticated animals for their
material subsistence.
5ize ranges from a fe% hundred
people to many thousands.
+ar/ed by distinct ineAualities.
8uled by chiefs or %arrior /ings.
4onindustrial
Ci"ilizations
9FFF 3C to the nineteenth
century. -ll traditional
ci"ilizations ha"e
disappeared.
3ased largely on agriculture.
5ome cities e&ist, in %hich trade
and manufacture are
concentrated.
Eery large in size, some
numbering millions of people
Ithough small compared %ith large
industrialized societiesJ.
*istinct apparatus of go"ernment
headed by a /ing or emperor.
+a:or ineAualities e&ist among
different classes.
Societies in t-e Modern *orld
)irst 7orld
5ocieties
!ighteenth century to the
present
3ased on industrial production and
generally free enterprise.
+a:ority of people li"e in to%ns and
cities, a fe% %or/ in rural agricultural
pursuits.
+a:or class ineAualities, though less
pronounced than in traditional states.
*istinct political communities or
nationstates, including the nations of
the 7est, <apan, -ustralia and 4e%
=ealand.
5econd 7orld
societies
!arly t%entieth century
Ifollo%ing the 8ussian
8e"olution of 1H1;J to the
early 1HHFs.
3ased on industry, but the economic
system is centrally planned.
5mall proportion of the population
%or/ in agricultureN most li"e in to%ns
and cities.
+a:or class ineAualities persist.
*istinct political communities or
nationstates.
0ntil 1H>H, composed of the 5o"iet
0nion and !astern !urope, but social
and political changes began to
transform them into free enterprise
economic systems, according to the
model of )irst 7orld societies.
*e"eloping
societies I2hird
7orld
societiesJ
!ighteenth century Imostly
as colonized areasJ to the
present.
+a:ority of the population %or/ in
agriculture, using traditional methods
of production.
5ome agricultural produce sold on
%orld mar/ets.
5ome ha"e free enterprise systems,
others are centrally planned.
*istinct political communities or
nationstates, including India,
China and most -frican and 5outh
-merican nations.
4e%ly
industrialized
countries
1H;Fs to the present.
)ormer de"eloping societies no% based on
industrial production and generally free
enterprise.
+a:ority of people li"e in to%ns and cities, a
fe% %or/ in agricultural pursuits.
+a:or class ineAualities, more pronounced
than )irst 7orld societies.
-"erage per capita income considerably less
than )irst %orld societies.
Includes #ong Kong, 5outh Korea,
5ingapore, 2ai%an, 3razil and +e&ico.
Influences:
1. 2he ,hysical !n"ironment
2. ,olitical 6rganization
'. Cultural )actors: religion, communication systems and leadership.
Leaders-ip in Glo+ali,ation2
6ne general conclusion that surfaces from leadership research is that effecti"e
leaders do not use any single style. 2hey ad:ust their style to the situation.
-lthough not mentioned e&plicitly, national culture is certainly an important
situational "ariable in determining %hich leadership style %ill be most effecti"e.
)or instance, one study of -sian leadership styles re"ealed that -sian managers
preferred leaders %ho %ere competent decision ma/ers, effecti"e communicators
and supporti"e of employees.
4ational culture affects leadership style because it influences ho% follo%ers %ill
respond. Leaders can(t Iand shouldn(tJ :ust choose their styles freely. 2hey are
constrained by the cultural conditions their follo%ers ha"e come to e&pect.
Consider the follo%ing: Korean leaders are e&pected to be paternalistic to%ard
employees. -rab leaders, %ho sho% /indness or generosity %ithout being as/ed
to do so are seen by other -rabs as %ea/. <apanese leaders are e&pected to be
humble and spea/ infreAuently. -nd 5candina"ian and *utch leaders %ho single
out indi"iduals %ith public praise are li/ely to embarrass those indi"iduals rather
than energize them.
8emember that most leadership theories %ere de"eloped in the 0nited 5tates,
using 05 sub:ects, so they ha"e an -merican bias. 2hey emphasize follo%er
responsibilities rather than rightsN assume selfgratification rather than
commitment to duty or altruistic moti"ationN assume centrality of %or/ and
democratic "alue orientationN and stress rationality rather than spirituality, religion
or superstition.
-s a guide for ad:usting your leadership style, you might consider the cultural
"alue dimensions presented belo%. 2he most "aluable frame%or/ to help
managers better understand differences bet%een national cultures %as
de"eloped by Geert #ofstede.
Geert #ofstede is a professor of organizational anthropology and
international management at the 0ni"ersity of Limburg at +aastricht, the
4etherlands. #e holds a +.5c. degree in +echanical !ngineering from *elft
2echnical 0ni"ersity and a ,h.*. in 5ocial ,sychology from GrOningen
0ni"ersity, both in his nati"e 4etherlands.
#e %or/ed in *utch as %ell as international business companies in roles
"arying from production %or/er to director of #uman 8esources. )rom 1H91
1H;1, he founded and managed the ,ersonnel 8esearch department of I3+
!urope. 5ince then, he has been teaching and researching at "arious
internationalmanagement institutes in four different !uropean countries. In
1HH1 he held a Eisiting 8esearch )ello%ship at the !ast7est Center,
#onolulu, %hile simultaneously teaching at the College of 3usiness
-dministration, 0ni"ersity of #a%aii. #e is an honorary professor of the
0ni"ersity of #ong Kong.
Geert #ofstede is the founder and first director of the Institute for 8esearch
on Intercultural Cooperation II8ICJ at the 0ni"ersity of Limburg, and an
internationally recognized e&pert in the field of national and organizational
culture research and theory. #e has been a consultant to national and
international business and go"ernment organizations. #e %rote a
pathbrea/ing boo/ Culture's Consequences I5age, 1H>FJ. - more popular
boo/ Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind appeared in 1HH1N
translations ha"e appeared or are under %ay into ten other languages. #is
articles more than a hundred ha"e been published in the :ournals and
readers of different countries of !urope, -sia, and 4orth -merica.
#is research sho%ed that national culture had a ma:or impact on employees(
%or/related "alues and attitudes. In fact, it e&plained more of the differences
than did age, se&, profession or organizational position. +ore important,
#ofstede identified four dimensions of national culture:
1. Indi"idualism "ersus collecti"ism
2. ,o%er distance
'. 0ncertainty a"oidance
.. Puantity "ersus Auality of life.
1. Indi"idualism: - cultural dimension that describes %hen people are
supposed to loo/ after their o%n interests and those of their immediate
family.
2. Collecti"ism: - cultural dimension that describes %hen people e&pect
others in their group to loo/ after them and to protect them %hen they
are in trouble.
'. ,o%er *istance: - cultural measure of the e&tent to %hich a society
accepts the uneAual distribution of po%er in institutions and
organizations.
.. 0ncertainty -"oidance: - cultural measure of the degree to %hich people
tolerate ris/ and uncon"entional beha"ior.
1. Puantity of life: - national culture attribute describing the e&tent to %hich
societal "alues are characterized by asserti"eness and materialism.
9. Puality of life: a national culture attribute that reflects the emphasis
placed upon relationships and concern for others.
#ofstede(s entire result includes .F countries.
Country Indi"idualism
$collecti"ism
,o%er
*istance
0ncertainty
-"oidance
Puantity
6f life Q
-ustralia Indi"idual 5mall +oderate 5trong
Canada Indi"idual +oderate Lo% +oderate
!ngland Indi"idual 5mall +oderate 5trong
)rance Indi"idual Large #igh 7ea/
Greece Collecti"e Large #igh +oderate
Italy Indi"idual +oderate #igh 5trong
<apan Collecti"e +oderate #igh 5trong
+e&ico Collecti"e Large #igh 5trong
5ingapore Collecti"e Large Lo% +oderate
5%eden Indi"idual 5mall Lo% 7ea/
05 Indi"idual 5mall Lo% 5trong
Eenezuela Collecti"e Large #igh 5trong
Q - %ea/ Auantity score is eAui"alent of high Auality of life.
I5ource: 3ased on G. #ofstede, ?+oti"ation, Leadership and 6rganization: *o
-merican 2heories -pply abroadC@ 6rganizational *ynamics.J
7hat are -mericans Li/eC
-mericans are
1. Eery informal.
2. *irect.
'. Competiti"e. I6thers may find them asserti"e or o"erbearingJ
.. -chie"ers
1. Independent and indi"idualistic
9. Puestioners.
;. *isli/e silence.
>. Ealue punctuality.
H. Ealue cleanliness.
1. !thnocentric -ttitude: 2he parochialistic Ia narro% "ie% of the %orldN an
inability to recognize differences bet%een peopleJ belief that the best
%or/ approaches and practices are those of the home country.
2. ,olycentric -ttitude: the "ie% that the managers in the host country
/no% the best %or/ approaches and practices for running their business.
'. Geocentric -ttitude: a %orldoriented "ie% that focuses on using the best
approaches and people from around the globe.
3e/ Information a+out t-ree .lo+al attitudes2
!thnocentric ,olycentric Geocentric
6rientation #ome Country #ost Country 7orld
-d"antages 5imple structure
+ore tightly
controlled
!&tensi"e
/no%ledge of foreign
mar/et and %or/place
+ore support from
host go"ernment
Committed local
managers %ith high
morale
)orces
understanding of
global issues
3alanced local
and global
ob:ecti"es
3est people
and %or/
approaches used
regardless of
origin
*ra%bac/s +ore ineffecti"e
management
Infle&ibility
5ocial and
political bac/lash
*uplication of %or/
8educed efficiency
*ifficult to maintain
global ob:ecti"es
because of intense
focus on local tradition
*ifficult to
achie"e
+anagers
must ha"e both
local and global
/no%ledge
6ther factors to be considered by Global leaders:
1. Legal !n"ironment.
2. ,olitical !n"ironment.
'. !conomic !n"ironment
.. Cultural !n"ironment
- manager on global assignment faces t%o periods of ad:ustment: the time
before going to a foreign country and the time %hile in the ne% country. 3oth
indi"idual and organizational factors influence ho% successfully a manager
ad:usts to global assignments.
Characteristics of Global Leaders:
Transformers2
Eisionary
Inspirational
Intuiti"e
Creati"e
-cti"e
Change orientation
Challenging
Transactors2
,eople centered
2as/ oriented
5hortterm orientation
,ractical, concrete, tangible
,assi"e
+aintain stability
Clarifying
)or effecti"e global Leadership de"eloping balance bet%een 2ransformers and
2ransactors is "ery important.
2en Commitments of Global Leadership: I!&tracted from Kouzes and ,osner(s
2he Leadership ChallengeJ
1. 5earch for challenging opportunities to change, gro%, inno"ate and
impro"e.
2. !&periment, ta/e ris/s and learn from both successes and failures.
'. !n"ision an uplifting and ennobling future.
.. !nlist others in a common "ision by appealing to their "alues, interests,
hopes and dreams.
1. )oster collaboration by promoting cooperati"e goals and building trust.
9. 5trengthen others by sharing information and po%er and increasing
their discretion and "isibility.
;. 5et an e&ample for others by beha"ing in %ays that are consistent %ith
your stated "alues.
>. ,lan small %ins that promote consistent progress and build
commitment.
H. 8ecognize indi"idual contributions to the success of e"ery pro:ect.
1F. Celebrate team accomplishments regularly.
Cross-Cultural Communications
2he Great *i"ide bet%een 3usiness Cultures:
8elationship)ocus "s *eal)ocus: 7hether mar/eting, sourcing or
negotiating an international alliance, the fundamental differences bet%een
relationshipfocused I8)J and dealfocused I*)J mar/ets impact our business
success throughout the global mar/etplace.
8) people prefer to deal %ith family, friends and persons or groups %ell
/no%n to them D people %ho can be trusted. 2hey are uncomfortable doing
business %ith strangers, especially strangers %ho happen to be foreigners.
3ecause of this /ey cultural "alue, relationshiporiented firms typically %ant to
/no% their prospecti"e business partners "ery %ell before tal/ing business
%ith them.
In contrast, the *) approach people are relati"ely open to doing business
%ith strangers.
2his ?Great *i"ide@ bet%een the %orld(s cultures affects the %ay %e conduct
business from the beginning to the end of any commercial relationship. )or
starters, e"en the %ay %e should ma/e the first approach to potential buyers
or partners depends upon %hether they are in *) or 8) cultures.
4eal 5ocused Cultures
4ordic and Germanic !urope
4orth -merica
-ustralia and 4e% =ealand
Moderatel/ 4eal 5ocused Cultures
Great 3ritain
5outh -frica
Latin !urope
Central and !astern !urope
Chile, 5outhern 3razil, 4orthern +e&ico
#ong Kong, 5ingapore
Relations-ip-5ocused Cultures
2he -rab 7orld
+ost of -frica, Latin -merica and -sia
+a/ing Initial Contact:
*): *irect Contact D +a/ing an appointment is Auic/ and easy. Couple of phone
calls and its done.
8): Indirect Contact D 2he proper %ay to approach someone %ho doesn(t yet
/no% you is to arrange for the right person or organization to introduce you. -
thirdparty introduction bridges the relationship gap bet%een you and the person
or company you %ant to tal/ to. 2he ideal introducer is a highstatus person or
organization /no%n to both parties. I8etired statesman, embassy officials,
chambers of commerce, trade associations, golf buddies etc.J
2he bottom line: In relationshiporiented mar/ets, plan to approach your potential
customer or partner indirectly, %hether "ia a trade sho%, a trade mission or a
thirdparty introduction.
Getting *o%n to 3usiness:
*): In *) mar/ets you can usually get do%n to business after :ust a fe% minutes
of small tal/. -nd you can learn most of %hat you need to /no% about your
potential *) counterpart in a matter of days rather than the %ee/s or months it
%ill ta/e in strongly 8) cultures such as <apan.
*) D *eal first
8) D 8apport first
In 8) D
aJ Bou need to de"elop a personal relationship
bJ 3ureaucracy in 8) mar/ets
cJ 2he Importance of )aceto)ace Contact
dJ 2he role of the Contract more important in *) rather than in 8)
Communicatin.:
8) and *) business cultures also differ in the %ay they communicate. *)
negotiators tend to "alue direct, fran/, straightfor%ard language, %hile their
relationshipfocus counterparts often fa"our a more indirect, subtle, roundabout
style.
*) D *irect language: 7hen communicating %ith others, the priority for *)
business people is to be clearly understood: they usually say %hat they mean
and mean %hat they say. !.g. German and *utch negotiators are /no%n for their
fran/, e"en blunt language.
8) D Indirect language: 8) negotiators in contrast gi"e top priority to maintaining
harmony and promoting smooth interpersonal relations. 8) people carefully
%atch %hat they say and do a"oid embarrassing or offending other people. 8)
are more careful and indirect %ith their language. I+ost <apanese, Chinese and
5outheast -sian negotiators treat ?46@ as a fourletter %ord. 2o a"oid insulting
they may instead murmur Mthat %ill be difficult( or M%e %ill ha"e to gi"e that further
study( or Mmay be( or Mthat %ill be incon"enient(.
I!.g. Chinese e&port of ready made garments to Canada %ithout labels in
)renchJ
2hey use body language also to say no. +any times they hide their emotions.
!.g. 2hai people smile under most of the circumstances.
Lo)-Context and 1i.--Context Communication2
8) negotiators tend to use indirect language in order to a"oid conflict and
confrontation. 2he polite communication of -sians, -rabs, -fricans and Latins
helps maintain harmony. 2he meaning of %hat they are saying at the bargaining
table is often found more in the conte&t surrounding the %ords rather than in the
%ords themsel"es. 2he 0.5. anthropologist !d%ard 2. #all, guru of crosscultural
communication, coined the useful term ?highconte&t@ for these cultures.
In contrast, %hen northern !uropeans, 4orth -mericans, -ustralians and 4e%
=ealanders spea/, more of the meaning e&plicit D contained in the %ords
themsel"es. - listener is able to understand %hat they are saying at a business
meeting %ithout referring much to the conte&t. #all termed these cultures ?Lo%
Conte&t@.
Sa/in. it li6e it is 0s Sa0in. face:
!"en %hen indirect 8) and direct *) people are both spea/ing the same
language D !nglish for e&ample D they are really spea/ing different language: -
*utch or German negotiator %ill choose his %ords carefully so that his
counterparts %ill understand e&actly %hat he is saying. #e %ants no ambiguity,
no beating around the bush.
+ean%hile his -rab, <apanese or Indonesian counterparts are choosing their
%ords e"en more carefully D but for a completely different reason. 8) negotiator
%ant to ma/e sure that no one at the meeting %ill be offended. 4o rude
directness, no crude bluntness, no loss of face.
!.g. *irect, straightfor%ard person D a compliment from *) %hile it is a criticism
from 8).
T-e t)o meanin.s of 7Sincerit/82
)or *) it means honesty and fran/ness e"en %hen that happens to be
unpleasant. In contrast for 8) people a sincere friend is one %ho al%ays sho%s
his %illingness to be helpful.
5ormal 9S Informal usiness Culture2
)ormal culture tend to be organized in steep hierarchies %hich reflect ma:or
differences in status and po%er. In contrast, informal cultures "alue more
egalitarian organizations %ith smaller differences in status and po%er.
Informal Cultures
-ustralia
05-
Canada
4e% =ealand
*enmar/, 4or%ay and Iceland
)ormal Cultures
+ost of !urope and -sia
2he +editerranean 8egion and the -rab 7orld
Latin -merica
In formal, hierarchical cultures status differences are larger and more important
than in egalitarian, informal cultures. )ormal %ays of addressing people is one
important %ay of sho%ing respect to persons of high status. In formal cultures
-G! and -cademic *istinctions are also "ery important.
I,arty in 5ingapore by 05 couple D maid sat %ith the guest or sha/ing hands
%ith maid in 3ang/o/ D %hite s/in gets higher status. +e&ican customer in
Copenhagen getting offended %hen he is escorted by lo%er le"el staff. ,arty for
!gyptian customer in Canada and meeting the minister in formal dress in 3angla
*eshJ
2herefore the /ey rule of international protocol is that %hen in an unfamiliar
situation, al%ays err on the side of formality at first. 2hat may mean for instance
addressing people by their surname and title rather than first name, dressing
more formally and follo%ing local etiAuette %hen sha/ing hands and e&changing
business cards. 2hat is %hy <apanese or Germans ha"e an initial ad"antage
o"er some of their more informal -ussie or Ban/ee competitors.
Status arriers:
2here are four classes of international business people, %ho ha"e to operate at
an e"en greater disad"antage %hen trying to sell goods to strongly hierarchical
buyers:
1. ,eople on the lo%er rungs of the corporate ladder in their o%n company.
2. Boung people of either se&
'. 7omen Isome cultures gi"e chance to %omen from other countriesJ
.. +en and %omen of any age in"ol"ed in international sales and mar/eting.
#o% to o"ercome youth barrierC
1. Get introduced by an older man.
2. 3e a true e&pert in your field.
'. Learn the local business protocol.
In Latin -merica and much of !urope a *) business person %hose interests are limited
to ma/ing money tends to loo/ed do%n upon. #igher status goes to the indi"idual able to
con"erse intelligently about art, music, literature, history, philosophy and the cinema.
3usiness "isitors %ho %ould li/e to be %ellregarded in those mar/ets should consider brushing
up on such sub:ects.
Time and Sc-edulin.
Ri.id-Time 0s 5luid-Time Cultures
Globetrotting business tra"elers Auic/ly learn that people loo/ at time and
scheduling differently in different parts of the %orld. In rigidtime societies
punctuality is critical, schedules are set in concrete, agendas are fi&ed and
business meetings are rarely interrupted. !d%ard 2. #all in"ented the term
?+onochronic@ for these cloc/obsessed, 5chedule%orshipping cultures.
In direct contrast are ?,olychronic@ cultures, %here people place less emphasis
on strict punctuality and are not obsessed %ith deadlines. ,olychronic cultures
"alue loose scheduling as %ell as business meetings %here se"eral meetings
%ithinmeetings may be ta/ing place simultaneously.
Monoc-ronic usiness Cultures
4ordic and Germanic !urope
4orth -merica
<apan
Moderatel/ Monoc-ronic
-ustralia$4e% =ealand
8ussia and most of !astCentral !urope
5outhern !urope
5ingapore, #ong Kong, 2ai%an, China
5outh Korea, 5outh -frica
:ol/c-ronic usiness Cultures
2he -rab 7orld
+ost of -frica
Latin -merica
5outh and 5outheast -sia
Non0er+al +usiness +e-a0iour
Expressi0e 0s Reser0ed Cultures
,eople of other cultures misunderstand our body language :ust as they may
misinterpret the %ords %e spea/ or %rite. )ortunately, ho%e"er, %e can learn the
highlights of another culture(s non"erbal language much Auic/er than %e can its
"erbal language. 2here are three types of interpersonal communication:
1. 9er+al communication has to do %ith %ords and the meaning of %ords.
2. :ara0er+al language refers to ho% loudly %e spea/ those %ords, the
meaning of silence and the significance of con"ersational o"erlap.
'. 7ith Non0er+al communication Ialso called od/ Lan.ua.eJ %e
communicate %ithout any %ords at all.
..
Expressi0e 0s Reser0ed Cultures
9er/ Expressi0e Cultures
2he +editerranean 8egion
Latin !urope
Latin -merica
9aria+l/ Expressi0e
05- and Canada
-ustralia and 4e% =ealand
!astern !urope
5outh -sia and -frica
Reser0ed Cultures
!ast and 5outheast -sia
4ordic and Germanic !urope
!.g. Inter"ie%ing in 3ang/o/ %ith high e&pressions due to Italian bac/ground
scared the inter"ie%ees.
!&pressi"e Communicators: 6"erlapping each other
1
st
spea/er RRRRRRRR RRRRRRRRR RRRRRRRR
2
nd
spea/er
8eser"ed Communicators: 2a/ing turns to a"oid o"erlap
1
st
spea/er RRRRRRR RRRRRRRRRR RRRRRRR
2
nd
spea/er
<apanese: Inter"als of silence bet%een spea/ers
1
st
spea/er RRRRR RRRRRRR RRRRRRR
2
nd
spea/er
T-e 5our 3e/ Elements of Non0er+al e-a0iour
1. ,86S!+IC5: 5patial 3eha"iour, Interpersonal *istance
2. #-,2IC5: 2ouch 3eha"iour
'. 6C0L!IC5: Gaze 3eha"iour, !yeContact
.. KI4!5IC5: 3ody +o"ements, Gestures
4istance e-a0iour
Close2 2F to '1 cms I> to 1. inchesJ
2he -rab 7orld
2he +editerranean 8egion
Latin !urope
Latin -merica
4istance2 .F to 9F cms I19 to 2. inchesJ
+ost -sians
4orthern, Central and !astern !uropeans
4orth -mericans
1i.- Contact cultures
2he -rab 7orld and +editerranean 8egion
Latin !urope and Latin -merica
9aria+le Contact
!astern !urope
4orth -merica
-ustralia
Lo) contact Cultures
+ost of -sia
0K and 4orthern !urope
T-e 1ands-a6e
Germans )irm, 3ris/ and )reAuent
)rench Light, Puic/ and )reAuent
3ritish +oderate
Latin -mericans )irm and )reAuent
4orth -mericans )irm and InfreAuent
-rabs Gentle, 8epeated and Lingering
5outh -sians Gentle, 6ften Lingering
Koreans +oderately firm
+ost -sians Eery Gentle and InfreAuent
E/e Contact in Expressi0e Cultures
Intense E/e Contact
2he -rab 7orld and the +editerranean 8egion
Latin !uropeans and Latin -mericans
5irm
4orthern !urope and 4orth -merica
Moderate
Korea and 2hailand
+ost -fricans
Indirect E/e Contact
+ost of -sia
5acial Expression2 Raised E/e+ro)s
4orth -mericans Interest, surprise
3ritish 5/epticism
Germans ?Bou are cle"erT@
)ilipinos ?#elloT@
-rabs ?4oT@
Chinese *isagreement
Am+i.uous Gestures
Use of Left 1and: It is considered unclean in +uslim, #indu and 3uddhist
cultures. -"oid touching people or handing them ob:ects such as your business
card %ith left hand. In certain cases it is better to use both hands to gi"e gifts as
a mar/ of respect.
S-o)in. t-e Sole of ;our S-oe2 2he bottom of your shoe or your foot is
regarded as unclean in the same cultures.
5ist in :alm2 In 5outheast -sia this type of body language is similar to an
obscene se&ual gesture.
Index fin.er :ointin.2 2hroughout !ast and 5outheast -sia it is rude to point at
anyone %ith your forefinger. Instead, use your %hole hand or :er/ your chin in the
direction you %ish to indicate or to simply glance in the direction you %ish to
indicate.
Index fin.er ec6onin.2 -ll o"er -sia this gesture is reser"ed for calling dogs
and prostitutes. - repeated scooping motion of the right hand is the polite %ay to
bec/on.
Tappin. ;our 1ead2
In )rance, Italy and Germany, if you tap your forehead or temple %ith your finger
%hile loo/ing at someone you are saying non"erbally, ?#ey, you are stupidT@ 3e
careful using that sign in Germany, %here it is called Vogelzeigen and %ill cost
you a !086 1FF fine if the Polizei catch you doing it.
In 5pain or Great 3ritain that same gesture is selfreferential and means ?I am so
cle"erT@
In the 4etherlands %atch carefully. If a *utchman taps the right side of his head
%ith the inde& finger "ertical it translates ?Bou are a "ery smart person.@ 3ut if he
taps his forehead %ith the finger horizontal he is saying ?Bou are an idiotT@
T-e 7T-um+s Up8 Si.n2 3e careful %ith this one too. 7hile the raised thumb is
slo%ly becoming a uni"ersal sign for ?Great@ it isn(t Auite there yet. In germany
and other parts of !urope for e&ample it signifies the numeral one. 3ut to many
!uropeans and in the +iddle !ast it is a "ery rude se&ual sign.
T-e 7:eace8 Si.n2 2he t%ofingered gesture D forefinger and second finger
e&tended %ith palm facing out%ards D meant E for "ictory during 7orld 7ar II.
3ut if you accidentally re"erse your hand and flash the sign %ith your palm facing
in%ards, you ha"e really done it. 5hould that happen you had better be bigger
than the person you :ust insulted, because the peace sign re"ersed means
roughly the same thing as ?flipping the bird@ D raising your middle finger %ith the
palm in.
T-e 7A-O38 Si.n2 2he thumbandforefinger circle is easily the most dangerous
and ambiguous of gestures. 6f course most of its multiple meanings are
harmless enough:
-merican astronauts and scuba di"ers: ?!"erything 6K. -ll systems goT@
)or the <apanese the circular shape loo/s li/e a coin, so it means ?4o% %e are
tal/ing about money.@
In the south of )rance that shape symbolizes the zero, so it indicates Auite the
opposite D ?nothing@ or ?%orthless.@
3ut in the Iberian peninsula, much of Latin -merica, parts of !urope and 8ussia,
L66K 602T In those cultures it is used as a "ulgar se&ual suggestion D
e&tremely insulting. 2he ris/ of gi"ing offense is so great that it is better not to
use it at all.
usiness protocol and Eti<uette
3usiness deal lost in 5audi -rabia as -rabian Gulf %as mentioned as ,ersian
Gulf.
I8oger -&tell(s *o(s and 2aboo 3oo/s published by <ohn 7iley L 5ons in the
05-J
4ressin. protocol
Climate and culture both play a role in sartorial beha"iour. In the tropics and hot
desert climes businessmen often %ean an opennec/ed shirt and cotton trousers.
3ut e"en in those mar/ets it may be safer to% ear a suit coat or blazer to the first
meeting :ust in case. )or meetings %ith go"ernment officials this formality ta/es
on greater importance.
In most parts of the %orld business %omen can choose bet%een a good dress,
suit or blazer and s/irt. )or men a dar/ suit, conser"ati"e tie and dar/ soc/s %ill
co"er most meetings %ith highstatus indi"iduals. #ere are fe% culturespecific
hints:
1. Eisit to Latin !urope and Latin -merica reAuire special attention to style
and Auality of both men(s and %omen(s apparel and accessories.
2. In the +iddle !ast your business contacts often :udge you partly by the
Auality and price of your briefcase, %atch, pen and :e%elry. 7ear and
carry the best you ha"e.
'. Germans feel more comfortable doing business %ith men %hose shoes
are brightly polished.
.. throughout -sia it is a good idea to %ear slipon shoes such as high
Auality loafers because custom reAuires you to remo"e your foot%ear
%hen entering temples, peoples( homes and some offices as %ell.
1. -mericans pay special attention to the condition of your teeth, so some
!uropeans include a "isit to their dentist for a cleaning as part of their
preparation.
9. In +uslim countries female "isitors should dress so as to sho% as little
bare s/in as possible.
Meetin. protocol
In Germany, 5%itzerland, the 4etherlands and other rigidtime cultures, it is
imperati"e to be on time for the scheduled meeting. 3ut remember, e"en in
polychronic cultures the "isitor is e&pected to be punctual in order to sho%
respect. It is eAually important to recall that if our counterparts /eep us %aiting in
a fluidtime culture, they are not being rude. 2hey are :ust being themsel"es D
polychronicT
Non0er+al Greetin.s2 1ands-a6e= o)= Salaam= Namaste or *ai>
)or men being introduced to female counterparts, one of the fe% rules of
etiAuette that is almost uni"ersally "alid is to %ait for the %oman to foeer her
hand. In most dealfocused cultures today business %omen e&pect to sha/e
hands %ith men.
In some 8) cultures ho%e"er %omen may not %ant to sha/e a man(s hand. 5o namaste in India
and 7ai in 2hailand is appropriate. In <apan bo%ing can be attempted. If one is not comfortable
then nodding your head respectfully %hile sha/ing hands and maintaining gentle eye contact is
good enough.
Non0er+al Greetin.s2 3issin.2 1and= c-ee6= Lips Or None of t-e A+o0e>
1. *on(t %orry about /issing or being /issed the first time you meet.
2. -t subseAuent meetings foreigners are e&cused from all that
promiscuous /issing if they do not %ish to participate. I- great relief for
most -siansJ
'. )or men %ho do decide to :oin, %hen /issing a %oman(s hand or chee/
you don(t actually touch the s/in. <ust /iss the air a fe% mm from her
hand or chee/.
.. Chee//issing: 2he proper 3rits usually /iss :ust once Ion the right
chee/J, the )rench t%ice Ileft, rightJ and the passionate 3elgians three
times Ileft, right, leftJ
1. Germans, Italians and 5panish prefer hand /issing.
9. )or non!uropean %omen: %hen a man raises your hand to his lips, the
appropriate response is to react as though this is about the fifth time it
has happened to you today. <ust ac/no%ledge the gallant gesture %ith a
slight smile.
;. 5ome male "isitors to 8ussia are not Auite comfortable %ith being /issed
on the lips by 8ussian men %hile enfolded in a great bear hug.
Meetin. :rotocol2 5orms of Address
1. 2he more formal the culture the more li/ely you %ill confine yourself to
using the person(s family name plus any applicable title or honorific.
2. In Korea D +anager Kim or Chairman ,ar/
'. In <apan D polite prefi& san can mean +iss, +5, +rs. 6r +r.
.. 2he Chinese normally ha"e three names of %hich first is the family name.
Bi !r +an as +r. Bi.
1. In Indonesia Lo%er class has one name, middle class may ha"e t%o and
the upper class has three names.
9. In +alaysia use the title both in correspondence and in person.
;. In 5pain and Latin -merica they ha"e t%o family names
>. In +e&ico use prefi& 5enor and if 0ni"ersity graduate than Licencuado for
man and Licenciada for %oman.
H. 05-, -ustralia and 4e% =ealand is "ery informal but in 05- *r. for
physicians and surgeons and *r. for ,h.*(s %hile on duty.
1F. +odern organizations firstname but traditional organizations as +r. +iss,
+rs., +5 etc.
9er+al Greetin.
#iT #ello, #o% are youC !tc.
Meetin. :rotocol2 Exc-an.in. usiness Cards
-mericans are "ery casual about "isiting cards but it should be treated %ith
respect. <apanese hold it %ith both hands and place them in leather %allet and
not in plastic.
Gi0in. and Recei0in. Gifts
In contrast to most *) cultures, 8) people tend to "alue e&changing gifts
because it is an accepted %ay to build and cement strong personal relationships.
6n these Auestions the %ise business tra"eler relies on local contacts or consults
some of the guides.
1. 7hat to Gi"e: 7atch culture specific taboos. -"oid sharp ob:ects such as
/ni"es Din some culture they symbolize the ending of a relationship. In
China a"oid cloc/s and %atches as they bring bad luc/. Good choices are
Auality %riting instruments, branded %his/y Inon+uslimJ, picture boo/s
about your city, region or country and products your home country is
famous for.
2. 7hen to Gi"e: In !urope, after the agreement is signed. In <apan and
most other -sian countries, at the end of the meeting. 4ote that 4orth
-merica is not a giftgi"ing culture. +any companies ha"e strict policies
concerning gifts.
'. #o% to Gi"e: In <apan the %rapping of the gift is as important as the gift
itself. In <apan and the rest of -sia, present and recei"e any gift %ith both
hands D e&cept in 2hailand %here you hand o"er the present %ith your
right hand supported by hour left. In -sia your gift %ill probably be
un%rapped after you lea"e. In !urope and 4orth and 5outh -merica it %ill
more li/ely be opened in front of you.
1ostess Gifts
7hen in"ited for dinner at the home of your potential business partner.
1. 8ed roses are out because they imply that you are romancing the
hostess.
2. 8ed carnations are bad unless you /no% your hosts are good 5ocialists.
'. +ums, Calla, Lilies, 7hite -sters and *ahlias are not good because they
are for funerals.
.. 8emember to al%ays bring an une"en number.
1. *on(t forget to un%rap the bouAuet before presenting it to the hostess.
9. 7ine bottle is bit tric/y D may offend the host unless it is from a reno%ned
%inema/er or from your home country if it is a %ine country.
;. - bo& of fine chocolates or tin of best coo/ies or something for children is
a good idea.
Meetin. :rotocol2 Refres-ments
In -sia and the +iddle !ast, "isitors %ill be offered hot tea or coffee. 7ait for the
host to ta/e a sip before putting cup to lip. -l%ays accept the offered be"erage
and a"oid as/ing for anything that has not been e&plicitly offered.
*inin. and 4inin.
1. 6bser"ant +uslims do not drin/ alcohol or eat any por/ product. +any
a"oid shellfish as %ell. <e%s share some of these food taboos.
2. #indus a"oid both beef and por/N most are strict "egetarians.
'. 3uddhists are often strict "egetarians but may en:oy beef.
.. Italians only drin/ cappuccino in the morning, before 1F am.
!d%ard 2. #all
1H1.
!d%ard 2. #all %as born on +ay 19, 1H1. in 7ebster Gro"es, +issouri.
#e recei"ed his -.3. degree at the 0ni"ersity of *en"er in 1H'9. #e
then %ent to the 0ni"ersity of -rizona in 1H'> and got his +asters of
-rts *egree. 2hen he %ent to Columbia 0ni"ersity %here he recei"ed
his ,h.*. in 1H.2. )rom 1H.2 until 1H.9, #all ser"ed in the 0.5. -rmy
Corp of !ngineers in !urope and the ,acific. In 1H.9, he married
+ildred !llis 8eed. 2hey("e li"ed happily e"er after in 5anta )e, 4e%
+e&ico e"er since. !rnest 2. #all made many disco"eries in ho%
people learn language. #e analyzes the le"els of learning. #e found
that there %ere three le"els of learning, the Informal le"el, the )ormal
le"el, and the 2echnical le"el.
2he Informal le"el is defined as the le"el %ith the most affect. Informal
learning is learning by e&ample, by modeling, often out of a%areness. It
ta/es no conscious focus on learning. -n e&ample %ould be concerns
about grades that might include a general sense that you %or/ hard
and that that should earn good grades for you. 2here %ould also be a
sense that grades are important for later %or/ promotion, and that C(s
no longer represent ?a"erage@ to many people.
2he )ormal le"el of learning is the middle le"el of affect. )ormal
learning is learned by rules. )or a general student a formal le"el of
learning could include, being on time, loo/ing attenti"e, reading all
assignments, and passing tests %ith high grades. 2hese rules aren(t
usually e&clusi"e. 2hey depend on %hat the person has learned as to
%hat the rule means to them. )or e&ample it could be much more
important to one person to be to class on time than another. 2his us
because of %hat they ha"e formally learned.
2he other le"el is the 2echnical le"el. 2his is the le"el %ith the least
affect. 2echnical learning is learning by discussion of the reasons for
the rules. 2his is %here you learn most of your opinions. -n e&ample
%ould be discussing the theory that manners pro"ide the glue for
society(s rough spots in interpersonal relationships, so that our policy is
to rely on manners to /eep those relationships smooth. !d%ard 2. #all
did most of his %or/ on 5ilent Languages. #e used these theories as
%ell as many others to e&plain ho% people %ould communicate %ithout
the use of an elaborate language. #e has made many disco"eries in
the -nthropology field dealing %ith the language of prehistoric people.
#e has %ritten the boo/sN The Silent Language, Beond Culture, The
!ance of Life, and "idden !ifferences#
1i.--context ? Lo)-context
,erhaps the most %ell/no%n cultural continuum is #allUs I1H;9J discussion of
highconte&t and lo%conte&t cultures. #all "ie%s meaning and conte&t as
Vine&tricably bound up %ith each otherV I1H>2, p. 1>J. 2he difference bet%een
high and lo% conte&t cultures depends on ho% much meaning is found in the
conte&t "ersus in the code. Bou can thin/ of VcodeV as the message. Bou can
thin/ of Vconte&tV as setting or circumstance, including the people, in %hich the
message appeared.
Lo%conte&t cultures, such as the -merican culture, tend to place more meaning
in the language code and "ery little meaning in the conte&t. )or this reason,
communication tends to be specific, e&plicit, and analytical I2ing2oomey, 1H>1J.
In analyzing messages, lo%conte&t cultures tend to focus on V%hat %as saidV
and gi"e literal meaning to each %ord. )or this reason, the %ords or %hat %as
said can ta/e on a po%er of their o%n. Chen L 5tarosta pointed out that lo%
conte&t cultures tend to use a direct "erbale&pression style in %hich the situation
conte&t is not emphasized, important information is usually carried in e&plicit
"erbal messages, people tend to directly e&press their opinions and intend to
persuade others to accept their "ie%points, and selfe&pression, "erbal fluency,
and eloAuent speech are "alued I1HH>, p. 1FJ.
In highconte&t cultures, meaning is embedded more in the conte&t rather than
the code. In this case, V%hat %as saidV cannot be understood by the %ords alone
one has to loo/ at %ho said it, %hen they said it, %here they said it, ho% they
said it, the circumstances in %hich they said it, to %hom they said it, etc. !ach
"ariable %ill help define the meaning of V%hat %as said.V
In spea/ing of highconte&t cultures, #all states, Vmost of the information is either
in the physical conte&t or internalized in the person, %hile "ery little is in the
coded, e&plicit, transmitted part of the messageV I1H>2, p.1>J. 2hus the listener
must understand the conte&tual cues in order to grasp the full meaning of the
message. -s #all says:
,eople raised in highconte&t systems e&pect more from others than do the
participants in lo%conte&t systems. 7hen tal/ing about something that they
ha"e on their minds, a highconte&t indi"idual %ill e&pect his interlocutor to /no%
%hatUs bothering him, so that he doesnUt ha"e to be specific. 2he result is that he
%ill tal/ around and around the point, in effect putting all the pieces in place
e&cept the crucial one. ,lacing it properly this /eystone is the role of his
interlocutor. I1H;9, p. H>J
In other %ords, in highconte&t e&changes, much of the Vburden of meaningV
appears to fall on the listener. In lo% conte&t cultures, the burden appears to fall
on the spea/er to accurately and thoroughly con"ey the meaning in her spo/en
or %ritten message.

:ol/c-ronic ? Monoc-ronic
!d%ard #all also introduced the concept of monochronic and polychronic
cultures. 2he concept of chronemics is a non"erbal beha"ior that spea/s to ho%
people use time to communicate. Lateness, for e&ample, can communicate
messages of po%er I%aiting in the doctorUs officeJ, attraction Iarri"ing early for
that first dateJ, or identity Ibeing Ufashionably lateUJ. Chronemics, li/e all other
non"erbal beha"ior is culturally based. *ifferent cultures ha"e different rules
go"erning the use and meaning of time. #allUs distinction bet%een monochronic
and polychronic cultures highlight the different ends of the cultural spectrums of
ho% cultureUs "ie% time.
+onochronic cultures such as the dominant -merican culture tend to "ie% time
as linear IVspread out across time,V Vspanning across generations,V Vthe time lineV
or Vtime frameVJ. 3eing punctual, scheduling, planning tas/s to match time
frames are "alued beha"iors. 2ime is "ie%ed as a commodity IVtime is moneyVJ
that can be bought IVbuying timeVJ, spent IVspending timeVJ or %asted IV%asting
timeVJ. 2hus, although time is technically an abstract phenomena, in the
monochronic "ie% it becomes a concrete reality. 7oe to he %ho has lost time.
6ne of the most outstanding features of monochronic cultures is that because
time is so concrete and segmented, Vonly one thing can be done at a time.V 2o try
to do many things at one time is chaos, that is, negati"e.
,olychronic cultures tend to "ie% time as nonlinear. 2here can be a circular or
cyclical Auality to time IV%hat goes around, comes aroundV, Vlife is a circleVJ.
,unctuality and scheduling is done but rarely %ith the religious fer"or found in
monochronic cultures. 5chedules are not Vetched in stoneV but rather Vpenciled
inVas a matter of cultural habit instead of personal habit. ,eople from polychronic
cultures, as the term VpolyV suggests, find little difficulty doing many things at one
time. 3ecause time is not linear or segmented, matching specific acti"ities %ith
specific time frames is not done. 2imes and acti"ities are fluid.

Collecti0ism ? Indi0idualism
,sychologist and intercultural scholar, #arry 2riandis I1H>9J at the 0ni"ersity of
Illinois, has %ritten e&tensi"ely about indi"iduals define themsel"es in terms of
their social grouping. #e has discussed these differences in terms of collecti"ist
and indi"idualist cultures. )or an e&cellent summary see 2riandis, 3rislin L #ui
I1H>>J.
Indi"idualist cultures are defined as those in %hich the goals of the indi"idual are
"alued o"er any particular group or collecti"e. In indi"idualist cultures, a person
tends to loo/ primarily after his o%n interests or that of his immediate nuclear
family. ,ersonal accomplishments are important and indi"iduals %ill ta/e
ad"antage of opportunities for ad"ancement e"en if it means sacrificing personal
relations. 8elationships tend to be shortterm and transitory. -s a result,
contracts are an important means for defining and binding relationship.
Collecti"ist cultures are defined as those %hich the collecti"e goals are "alued
o"er the indi"idual goals. -s 2riandis L #ui stated about people from collecti"ist
cultures, Vindi"iduals pay primary attention to the needs of their group and %ill
sacrifice opportunities for personal gainV because such sacrifice is tied to their
sense of self as a member of the larger collecti"e. In other %ords, %hat is good
for the collecti"e is good for the selfN the indi"idualUs esteem is tied to the
collecti"eUs esteem. 2he distinction bet%een VingroupsV and VoutgroupsV is
clearly defined. In collecti"ist cultures, a person is assumed to belong to one or
more tight Vingroups.V 2he ingroup protects the interests of its members
collecti"ely. Loyalty to the ingroup is primary. Long term relationships based on
trust are also "ery important.
Indirect ? 4irect
5cholars ha"e also distinguished cultures in terms of direct "ersus indirect
communication styles. Le"ine I1H>1J said that the -merican cultural preference is
for clear and direct communication as e"idenced by their many common
e&pressions: V5ay %hat your mean,V V*onUt beat around the bush,V VGet to the
pointV Ip.2HJ. Le"ineUs description of indirect or ambiguous communication further
underscore the differences:
Indirect "erbal communication is designed to be affecti"ely neutral. It aims for the
precise representation of fact, techniAue, or e&pectation. *irect communication
%or/s to strip language of its e&pressi"e o"ertones and suggesti"e allusions.
-mbiguous communication, by contrast, can pro"ide a superb means for
con"eying affect. 3y alluding to shared e&periences and sentiments "erbal
associations can e&press and e"o/e a %ealth of affecti"e responses. I1H>1, p.
'2J

2hus %here direct communication stri"es for emotional neutrality or ob:ecti"ity. In
contrast, ambiguous communication deliberately uses language to e"o/e an
emotional response. -dditionally, %hereas nonlinear stresses openness,
ambiguous styles %ould be more li/ely to conceal or bury the message. 5imilarly,
direct stresses specific factual and e"en technical aspects of a message that the
ambiguous style %ould omit.

Linear ? Non-linear
5imilar to the oral$literate frame%or/, scholar I*odd, 1H>2N Lee, 1H1FJ suggest
linear "ersus configurational InonlinearJ thought frame%or/. 2he -merican
culture %ould be more representati"e a linear thought frame%or/, and the -rab
culture more configurational or nonlinear. -ccording to *odd, the linear
orientation Vhas transformed auditory and oral communication into "isual
communication by means of %ritten symbols, organized into linear thought
patternsV I1H>2, p. 19'J. 2he linear cultural pattern stresses beginnings and ends
of e"ents, unitary themes, is ob:ect oriented rather than people or e"entoriented,
and is empirical in its use of e"idence.
4onlinear cultures, says *odd are characterized by the Vsimultaneous
bombardment and processing of a "ariety of stimuliV so that people %ould thin/ in
images, not :ust %ords I1H>2,
p. 192J. 2he nonlinear thought frame%or/ normally has multiple themes, is
e&pressed in oral terms and heightened by non"erbal communication. 2ime
orientation is less important than people and e"ents, and time is not segmented.
Oral 0ersus Literate
-nthropologists ha"e long posited the distinctions bet%een oral "ersus literate
dominant societies. 2he print or literate dominant society relies more on the
factual accuracy of a message than its emotional resonance I6ng, 1H>FJ. 2his
may relate to the historical purpose of the %ritten %ord to record, preser"e, and
transmit Isee, 5toc/, 1H>'J. Literate societies also fa"or e"idence, reasoning,
and analysis o"er the less rational, more intuiti"e approach I*enny, 1HH1J. 2his
contrasts to the logic of oral cultures, %here a single anecdote can constitute
adeAuate e"idence for a conclusion and a specific person or act can embody the
beliefs and ideals of the entire community IGold, 1H>>J.
7hereas literate cultures may place a higher premium on accuracy and precision
than on symbolism, in the oral cultures the %eights are re"ersed. In oral cultures
there appears to be greater in"ol"ement on the part of the audience, and this in
turn, affects the importance of style and de"ices that enhance audience rapport.
Citing Cicero, Gold I1H>>J highlights numerous features of the oral tradition,
including repetition as a means for /eeping attention as %ell as ma/ing the
speech Vagreeable to the earV Ip. 19FJ. In terms of message comprehension,
#enle I1H92J noted that auditors %ill Vgo to considerable lengths to ma/e sense
of an oral messageV Ip. ';1J. 2hus listeners play a "aluable part in constructing
meaning %ithin an oral e&change. -s Gold states, Vthe audience cooperates %ith
the spea/er by trying to understand the meaning or UgistU rather than the actual
contentV I1H>>, p. 1;FJ. 2hus, the audience is Auite acti"e.
7ith heightened listener in"ol"ement, the aesthetics of style and audience
relations may supersede the informational aspects of a message. -n oral
message may be "alued more for its affecti"e po%er than its cogniti"e merits.
2annen I1H>2J noted the interpersonal in"ol"ement bet%een spea/er and
audience, as spea/ers stri"e for a more emotional and participatory responses
from their audience. Clearly %ith style o"erriding substance, aural ornaments
such as formulas, humor, e&aggeration, parallelism, phonological elaboration,
special "ocabulary, puns, metaphor, and hedges are critical I)eldman, 1HH1N
Gold, 1H>>J.
$ Culture is %ore often a source of conflict than of snerg# Cultural differences
are a nuisance at &est and often a disaster#$ ,rof. Geert #ofstede, !meritus
,rofessor, +aastricht 0ni"ersity.
*-at are t-e practical applications for Geert 1ofstede@s researc- on
cultural differences>
)or those %ho %or/ in international business, it is sometimes amazing ho%
different people in other cultures beha"e. 7e tend to ha"e a human instinct that
Udeep insideU all people are the same but they are not. 2herefore, if %e go into
another country and ma/e decisions based on ho% %e operate in our o%n home
country the chances are %eUll ma/e some "ery bad decisions.
Geert #ofstedeUs research gi"es us insights into other cultures so that %e can be
more effecti"e %hen interacting %ith people in other countries. If understood and
applied properly, this information should reduce your le"el of frustration, an&iety,
and concern. 3ut most important, Geert #ofstede %ill gi"e you the Uedge of
understandingU %hich translates to more successful results.
2o assist you in better understanding the reno%ned %or/ of ,rof. Geert #ofstede,
5tephen 2aylor has de"eloped a comprehensi"e series of Cultural *imension
analytical graphs.
Can /ou .i0e an example>
6ne e&ample of cultural differences in business is bet%een the +iddle !astern
countries and the 7estern countries, especially the 0nited 5tates.
7hen negotiating in 7estern countries, the ob:ecti"e is to %or/ to%ard a target
of mutual understanding and agreement and Usha/ehandsU %hen that agreement
is reached a cultural signal of the end of negotiations and the start of U%or/ing
togetherU.
In +iddle !astern countries much negotiation ta/es place leading into the
UagreementU, signified by sha/ing hands. #o%e"er, the deal is not complete in the
+iddle !astern culture. In fact, it is a cultural sign that UseriousU negotiations are
:ust beginning.
Imagine the problems this creates %hen each party in a negotiation is operating
under diametrically opposed Urules and con"entions.U
2his is :ust one e&ample %hy it is critical to understand other cultures you may be
doing business %ith %hether on a "acation in a foreign country, or negotiating a
multimillion dollar deal for your company.
#ofstede, Geert. Culture's Consequences , Co%'aring Values, Beha(iors,
)nstitutions, and Organizations *cross +ations 2housand 6a/s C-: 5age
,ublications, 2FF1

#ofstede, Geert. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind# London:
+cGra%#ill 0.K., 1HH1. 4e% Bor/, +cGra%#ill 0.5.-.,1HH;. !ntirely re%ritten
2hird +illennium !dition, by Geert #ofstede and Gert <an #ofstede, forthcoming,
4e% Bor/: +cGra%#ill 0.5.-., 2FF..
7hat are #ofstedeUs fi"e Cultural *imensionsC

:o)er 4istance Index A:4IB focuses on the degree of eAuality, or ineAuality,
bet%een people in the countryUs society. - #igh ,o%er *istance ran/ing indicates
that ineAualities of po%er and %ealth ha"e been allo%ed to gro% %ithin the
society. 2hese societies are more li/ely to follo% a caste system that does not
allo% significant up%ard mobility of its citizens. - Lo% ,o%er *istance ran/ing
indicates the society deemphasizes the differences bet%een citizenUs po%er and
%ealth. In these societies eAuality and opportunity for e"eryone is stressed.

Indi0idualism AI49B focuses on the degree the society reinforces indi"idual or
collecti"e achie"ement and interpersonal relationships. - #igh Indi"idualism
ran/ing indicates that indi"iduality and indi"idual rights are paramount %ithin the
society. Indi"iduals in these societies may tend to form a larger number of looser
relationships. - Lo% Indi"idualism ran/ing typifies societies of a more collecti"ist
nature %ith close ties bet%een indi"iduals. 2hese cultures reinforce e&tended
families and collecti"es %here e"eryone ta/es responsibility for fello% members
of their group.
Masculinit/ AMASB focuses on the degree the society reinforces, or does not
reinforce, the traditional masculine %or/ role model of male achie"ement, control,
and po%er. - #igh +asculinity ran/ing indicates the country e&periences a high
degree of gender differentiation. In these cultures, males dominate a significant
portion of the society and po%er structure, %ith females being controlled by male
domination. - Lo% +asculinity ran/ing indicates the country has a lo% le"el of
differentiation and discrimination bet%een genders. In these cultures, females are
treated eAually to males in all aspects of the society.
Uncertaint/ A0oidance Index AUAIB focuses on the le"el of tolerance for
uncertainty and ambiguity %ithin the society i.e. unstructured situations. - #igh
0ncertainty -"oidance ran/ing indicates the country has a lo% tolerance for
uncertainty and ambiguity. 2his creates a ruleoriented society that institutes
la%s, rules, regulations, and controls in order to reduce the amount of
uncertainty. - Lo% 0ncertainty -"oidance ran/ing indicates the country has less
concern about ambiguity and uncertainty and has more tolerance for a "ariety of
opinions. 2his is reflected in a society that is less ruleoriented, more readily
accepts change, and ta/es more and greater ris/s.
Lon.-Term Orientation ALTOB focuses on the degree the society embraces, or does not
embrace, longterm de"otion to traditional, for%ard thin/ing "alues. #igh Long2erm 6rientation
ran/ing indicates the country prescribes to the "alues of longterm commitments and respect for
tradition. 2his is thought to support a strong %or/ ethic %here longterm re%ards are e&pected as
a result of todayUs hard %or/. #o%e"er, business may ta/e longer to de"elop in this society,
particularly for an VoutsiderV. - Lo% Long2erm 6rientation ran/ing indicates the country does not
reinforce the concept of longterm, traditional orientation. In this culture, change can occur more
rapidly as longterm traditions and commitments do not become impediments to change.



Culture - Geert 1ofstede@s Model
Geert #ofstede s +odel
Ibased on his 1HH1 boo/: Cultures and 6rganizations: 5oft%are of the +ind. 4e%
Bor/, 4B+ +cGra%#ill.J
#ofstede defines culture as the Vsoft%are of the mindV that guides us in our daily
interactions. #ere are some paragraphs from the introduction to his boo/:
Every person carries within him or herself patterns of thinking; feeling; and
potential acting which were learned throughout their lifetime. uch of it
has !een acquired in early childhood" !ecause at that time a person is
most suscepti!le to learning and assimilating. #s soon as certain patterns
of thinking; feeling and acting have esta!lished themselves within a
person s mind; $s%he must unlearn these !efore !eing a!le to learn
something different; and unlearning is more difficult than learning for the
first time.
&sing the analogy of the way in which computers are programmed; this
!ook will call such patterns of thinking; feeling; and acting mental
programs; or; as the su!'title goes: (software of the mind(. )his does not
mean; of course; that people are programmed the way computers are. #
person s !ehavior is only partially predetermined !y her or his mental
programs: $s%he has a !asic a!ility to deviate from them" and to react in
was which are new" creative" destructive" une*pected.
Culture is always a collective phenomenon" !ecause it is at least partly
shared with people who live or lived within the same social environment"
which is where it was learned. +t is the collective programming of the mind
which distinguishes the mem!ers of one group or category of people from
another.
#ostede, Geert I1HH1J Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. 4e%
Bor/, 4B: +cGra%#ill.
3ased on his I3+ study in ;2 different countries, #ofstede identifies fi"e of these
differences in mental programming, %hich he calls fi"e dimensions:
!" :o)er distance
,o%e,o%er distance measures ho% subordinates respond to po%er and
authority. In highpo%er distance countries ILatin -merica, )rance, 5pain, most
-sian and -frican countriesJ, subordinates tend to be afraid of their bosses, and
bosses tend to be paternalistic and autocratic. In lo%po%er distance countries
Ithe 05, 3ritain, most of the rest of !uropeJ, subordinates are more li/ely to
challenge bosses and bosses tend to use a consultati"e management style.
,o%er distance measures ho% subordinates respond to po%er and authority. In
highpo%er distance countries ILatin -merica, )rance, 5pain, most -sian and
-frican countriesJ, subordinates tend to be afraid of their bosses, and bosses
tend to be paternalistic and autocratic. In lo%po%er distance countries Ithe 05,
3ritain, most of the rest of !uropeJ, subordinates are more li/ely to challenge
bosses and bosses tend to use a consultati"e management style.
#" Collecti0ism 0ersus Indi0idualism
In indi"idualistic countries I)rance, Germany, 5outh -frica, Canada, etc.J, people
are e&pected to loo/ out for themsel"es. 5olidarity is organic Iall contribute to a
common goal, but %ith little mutual pressureJ rather than mechanical. 2ypical
"alues are personal time, freedom, and challenge.
In collecti"ist cultures I<apan, +e&ico, Korea, GreeceJ indi"iduals are bounded
through strong personal and protecti"e ties based on loyalty to the group during
one s lifetime and often beyond Imirrored on family tiesJ. Ealues include training,
physical condition, the use of s/ills. 5ee -ppendi& 2 for comments on differences
bet%een -merican and Chinese society on this dimension.
Note: In their boo/, *n )ntroduction to )ntercultural Co%%unication, Condon and
Bousef ma/e a distinction bet%een indi"idualism, pre"alent in the 0nited 5tates,
and indi"iduality, %hich is different and pre"alent in many other parts of the %orld:

,hat %a-es indi(idualis% in the .nited States is not so %uch the 'eculiar
characteristics of each 'erson &ut the sense each 'erson has of ha(ing a
se'arate &ut equal 'lace in societ#### This fusion of indi(idualis% and equalit is
so (alued and so &asic that %an *%ericans find it %ost difficult to relate to
contrasting (alues in other cultures where interde'endence, co%'le%entar
relationshi's, and (alued differences in age and se/ greatl deter%ine a 'erson's
sense of self#
)ndi(idualit is different and a''ears to &e %uch %ore the nor% in the world than
.nited States0stle indi(idualis% is# )ndi(idualit refers to the 'erson's freedo% to
act differentl within the li%its set & the social structure# Co%'ared to the .nited
States, %an other cultures a''ear to &e %uch %ore tolerant of $eccentrics$ and
$local characters#$ This confusion of one -ind of indi(idualis% with indi(idualit at
first a''ears 'arado/ical: ,e %ight su''ose that a societ which 'ro%ises
a''arentl great 'ersonal freedo%s would 'roduce the greatest nu%&er of
o&(iousl unique, e(en 'eculiar 'eo'le, and et for %ore than a centur (isitors
to the .nited States ha(e &een struc- & a -ind of $sa%eness$ or
standardization# *s one writer inter'reted it, .#S# freedo% allows e(er&od to &e
li-e e(er&od else#### ,hile the indi(idual 1glorified as $the rugged indi(idualist$2
is 'raised, historicall indi(iduals in the .nited States ha(e %ade their
achie(e%ents in loose grou'ings# ,hat is different here is that the inde'endent
.#S# self %ust ne(er feel &ound to a 'articular grou'3 he %ust alwas &e free to
change his alliances or, if necessar, to %o(e on#### Cultures &etter characterized
& (alues of indi(idualit are li-el to lac- this -ind of inde'endence fro% the
grou', as well as indi(idual %o&ilit# Thus it %a &e that such cultures allow for
greater di(ersit in 'ersonal &eha(ior in order to gi(e &alance to the indi(idual
(is040(is the grou', whereas the .nited States, characterized & loose grou'ings
and high %o&ilit, does not#

$" 5emininit/ 0ersus Masculinit/
#ofstede s study suggested that men s goals %ere significantly different from
%omen s goals and could therefore be e&pressed on a masculine and a feminine
pole.
7here feminine "alues are more important I5%edenN )rance, Israel, *enmar/,
IndonesiaJ, people tend to "alue a good %or/ing relationship %ith their
super"isorsN %or/ing %ith people %ho cooperate %ell %ith one another, li"ing in
an area desirable to themsel"es and to their families, and ha"ing the security that
they %ill be able to %or/ for their company as long as they %ant.
7here the masculine inde& is high I05, <apan, +e&ico, #ong Kong, Italy, Great
3ritainJ, people tend to "alue ha"ing a high opportunity for earnings, getting the
recognition they deser"e %hen doing a good :ob, ha"ing an opportunity for
ad"ancement to a higherle"el :ob, and ha"ing challenging %or/ to do to deri"e a
sense of accomplishment. Iadapted from #oft, 4ancy I1HH1J )nternational
Technical Co%%unication. 4e% Bor/: <ohn 7iley and 5onsJ
%" Uncertaint/ a0oidance
7hen uncertainty a"oidance is strong, a culture tends to percei"e un/no%n
situations as threatening so that people tend to a"oid them. !&amples include
5outh Korea, <apan, and Latin -merica.
In countries %here uncertainty a"oidance is %ea/ Ithe 05N the 4etherlandsN
5ingaporeN #ong Kong, 3ritainJ people feel less threatened by un/no%n
situations. 2herefore, they tend to be more open to inno"ations, ris/, etc.
&" Lon.-term 0ersus S-ort-term orientation
- long term orientation is characterized by persistence and perse"erance, a
respect for a hierarchy of the status of relationships, thrift, and a sense of shame.
Countries include ChinaN #ong KongN 2ai%an, <apan and India
- shortterm orientation is mar/ed by a sense of security and stability, a
protection of one s reputation, a respect for tradition, and a reciprocation of
greetingsN fa"ors and gifts. Countries include: 3ritain, Canada, the ,hilippinesN
Germany, -ustralia


Indi0idualism 9s" Collecti0ism2
C-ina and t-e United States
1enr/ Steele Comma.er2 American Indi0idualism
Professor "su has traced the influence of the 'rinci'le of indi(idualis% in the
large and in the s%all# "e o&ser(es in the nature of the *%erican 'olitical
sste%, the wor-ings of cri%inal law3 the attitude toward nature, the conduct of
foreign 'olic, and the waging of war# "e e/'lores it in the relations of 'arents
and children, the attitude toward ancestors and 'osterit, the cult of outh and
the fate of age, the role of se/ in literature and art as in life3 in incidence of cri%e,
the conce'ts of success and the ratings of 'restige, the 'scholog of ga%es
and of s'orts, and %an other areas of hu%an endea(or# )n all of these areas he
contrasts *%erican 'ractices and %al'ractices with Chinese: *%erican insecurit
with Chinese securit, *%erican e/clusi(eness with Chinese inclusi(eness,
*%erican worshi' of the ne/t generation with Chinese (eneration for the last#
)ndi(idualis%, he contends, e/'lains wh co%'etition 'er%eates e(er as'ect of
*%erican life: the struggle of children for the attention and affection of their
'arents, and the struggle of 'arents to win the attention and a''ro(al of their
children3 the concern of the *%erican wo%an for such &eaut and stle as will
ena&le her to win her hus&and anew e(er da, the an/iet of the hus&and to
'ro(e that he is a success and thus deser(es the res'ect and affection of his
wife3 the deadl co%'etition for 'lace and recognition within e(er organization
fro% the cor'oration to the uni(ersit3 the readiness of churches to (ie with each
other for %e%&ershi' and contri&utions and for ostentatious dis'las of
'ros'erit %uch as &usiness enter'rises (ie with each other#
)ndi(idualis% e/'lains 0so Professor "su affir%s0 the deter%ination not onl to
-ee' u' with the 5oneses &ut (isi&l to sur'ass the%, that su''orts the whole
ne(er0ne(er world of the ad(ertising industr3 the 'assion for 6oining al%ost
e(erthing, and the readiness to a&andon a clu&, a societ, or a church and 6oin
another that 'roclai%s a higher social status or 'ro%ises quic-er social and
econo%ic rewards3 the constant %o(ing a&out fro% one neigh&orhood to a &etter
one, fro% one su&ur& to a %ore fashiona&le one# )t illu%inates the readiness of
al%ost e(erone to 'artici'ate in 'olitics and the con(iction 0dou&tless at the
(er heart of de%ocrac0that e(er %an and wo%an can e/ert so%e influence
and that e(er one has a right to &e heard0 e(en & the 'resident, who recei(es
e(er da two or three thousand letters of ad(ice and ad%onition# +owhere is
indi(idualis% %ore ostentatious than in the con(iction that e(erone has a right
to ha''iness, a right not onl rooted in the (er laws of nature, &ut actuall
guaranteed in the constitutions of state after state, and that ha''iness consists in
the fulfill%ent of e(er indi(idual wish 0or whi%# )ne(ita&l all of this %eans
constant 'ressure for e/'eri%entation, for change, for 'rogress, for how can ou
attain ha''iness and success without these, and it carries with it, too, the notion
that change is, ine(ita&l, for the &etter#
7(erwhere, as he sur(es the *%erican scene, Professor "su finds e(idence of
dee' insecurit0the insecurit that co%es fro% de'endence on self, or on %erel
the nuclear fa%il# ,hat *%ericans lac- 0so he argues0 is anchorage, the
anchorage that co%es fro% &eing 'art of so%ething &igger than the%sel(es,
fro% a networ- of interde'endencies and associations with fa%il and clan and
(illage and neigh&orhood, and with 'ast and future# )t is &ecause *%ericans lac-
this that the are so restless, so discontented, so unfulfilled and unha'', so
read to a&andon ho%e, fa%il, religion, career, friends, and associates for the
will0o'0the0wis' of success 0a success which, al%ost & definition, the can ne(er
wholl win# )t is &ecause the lac- securit that the feel co%'elled to 'ro(e
the%sel(es, o(er and o(er 0the child to 'ro(e hi%self s%arter or stronger or
%ore 'o'ular than his 'la%ates, the %ale to 'ro(e hi%self irresisti&le to the
fe%ale, the ,hite to 'ro(e hi%self su'erior to the Blac-#
)rom Ir"ing Kathy < I1H>9J Communicating in Conte&t: Intercultural
Communication 5/ills for !5L 5tudents. !ngle%ood Cliffs, 4e% <ersey. pp. 1;>
1;H
Course *are
4oin. usiness )it- Americans AUSAB
2he 05- is a comple& multiethnic, multicultural society. 3ecause of this di"ersity
it is not possible to predict in detail the negotiating and business beha"iour of any
indi"idual -merican. #o%e"er, there is still such a thing as a mainstream 05
business culture. Bou can e&pect most -mericans to be "ery timeconscious
I2ime is moneyJ, dealfocused ILet(s get do%n to businessJ and informal I7hat(s
your first nameCJ. 6n the other hand, an -merican(s degree of e&pressi"eness in
communication is li/ely to be strongly influenced by his or her particular ethnic
bac/ground.
2he language: -merican !nglish.
+a/ing Contact: - referral or introduction is al%ays helpful but in most cases one
can approach the prospecti"e counter part directly.
*ealfocused: 2hey prefer to build trust and rapport %hile the business
discussions are proceeding.
6rientation to time: -mericans are obsessed %ith time. 2hey regard a person,
%ho /eeps them %aiting for longer than ten minutes as either hopelessly
undisciplined, intolerably rude, or both. 5imilarly, once the meeting starts
-mericans e&pect discussions to proceed to conclusion %ithout interruption.
2hey become easily upset %hen discussions are interrupted by phone calls,
dropin "isitors or secretaries bringing in papers to be singed.
Informality: It is meant to sho% friendliness and %armth and not to sho%
disrespect to highstatus persons.
Communication style: *epending on their ethnic bac/ground as %ell as their
indi"iduality -mericans sho% great "ariation in the %ay they communicate.
Compared %ith 4orthern !uropeans and !ast -sians, -mericans may appear
more e&pressi"e, more e&tro"erted. 3ut %hen compared %ith 5outhern
!uropeans and Latin -mericans those same Ban/s seem bland and intro"erted.
Eerbal *irectness: the lo%conte&t -mericans "alue fran/, straightfor%ard
e&change of information and are usually una%are that !ast and 5outheast
-sians for e&ample might be offended by their directness. 2hey may e"en be
suspicious of those %ho prefer indirect, obliAue, ambiguous communication.
Eocal Eolume and Con"ersational 6"erlap: +any -mericans spea/ louder at the
bargaining table. 2hey are uncomfortable %ith silence and may also feel
compelled to Auic/ly fill in any gaps in the con"ersation. 2hey also /no% that it is
rude to interrupt others in mid sentenceN if they do this any%ay in the course of a
li"ely discussion no offense is intended.
Interpersonal *istance: the normal spacing in a business conte&t is about an
arm(s length. -mericans generally stand and sit further apart than -rabs,
5outhern !uropeans and Latin -mericans.
2ouch 3eha"iour: Earies from moderate to relati"ely highcontact. 5ome
-mericans slap each other on the bac/ and grab one another by the elbo% or
upper arm to e&press friendliness.
*ress Code: Earies some%hat according to location and type of businessN
"isitors are %ell ad"ised to %ear a suit and tie to the first meeting %ith a ne%
contact.
+eeting and greeting: !&pect a firm handsha/e and direct eye contact. 5ome
-mericans belie"e that a soft handsha/e reflects %ea/ness and that lac/ of a
direct gaze indicates unreliability or dishonesty. 2hey sha/e hands less often
than most !uropeans and brief.
!&changing 3usiness Cards: -mericans may not initiate the e&change of
business cardsN they sometimes offer their card at the end of the meeting rather
than at the beginning. 6ne should not get offended if his 05 counterpart stuffs
his business card in his poc/et %ithout reading it.
)orms of -ddress: 5tart out %ith +r., +rs., +iss or +s. *o not be surprised if
your counterpart suggests s%itching to a first name basis. +ost -mericans are
uncomfortable using honorifics and titles.
Gift Gi"ing: 2he 05 business %orld is not a giftgi"ing culture. +any -mericans
feel uncomfortable if presented %ith an e&pensi"e gift. Bou can bring something
small, logo or an item your country is famous for. -mericans un%rap the gift in
your presence.
7ining and *ining: -mericans prefer to maintain a separation bet%een their
professional and pri"ate li"es as %ell as bet%een business and pleasure.
+a/ing a ,resentation: -mericans respond best to bris/, factual presentations
deli"ered by a competent spea/er of !nglish and enli"ened by "isual aids %here
appropriate. 2hey may interrupt %ith Auestions rather than hold their Auestions
until the end.
3argaining 8ange: 05 negotiators are used to a %ide "ariations in bargaining
ranges. !&pect them to test your opening offer for fle&ibility. 2hey respond better
to realistic Auotations. 3uild a safety margin to co"er une&pected de"elopments.
Concession 3eha"iour: 3e prepared for some hard bargaining. 2a/e care to
ma/e each concession %ith great reluctance and demand something of
eAui"alent "alue in return.
*ecision +a/ing: -mericans are probably the fastest decision ma/ers in the
%orld. I8ight or %rong, but ne"er in doubtJ !&pect e&pressions of impatience if
your decisionma/ing process seems to be ta/ing too much time.
8ole of the Contract: #ea"y emphasis on the legal aspects and the fine points of
the %ritten agreement. 2hey may e"en include la%yers in the discussions from
the start until the signing ceremony. 2hey often bring a draft agreement to the
bargaining table and proceed to negotiate clause by clause. In case of dispute or
disagreement -merican may rely strictly on the terms of the contract and not on
the importance of longterm relationship.
4oin. usiness )it- Latin Americans
2he Language: 2he national language of different countries "aries from
,ortuguese I3razilJ 5panish I+ost of the Latin -merica D -rgentina, Chile,
3oli"ia, ,eru, Colombia, EenezuelaJ to !nglish ICaribbean IslandsJ to *utch and
)rench I5mall island countriesJ. Bou may need an interpreter.
Initial Contact: Local contacts are essential. ,lan to attend a trade sho% or :oin a
trade mission. Bou can also arrange for a chamber of commerce, trade
association, go"ernment agency, ban/ or business associate for an introduction.
8eAuest an appointment about t%o %ee/s in ad"ance. !&pect to meet in an
office rather than in a restaurant or bar. 5chedule only t%o meetings a day, one
bet%een 1F and 11.'F and the second at '. *on(t e&pect to get do%n to business
Auic/ly. 2hey need time to get to /no% you.
Importance of 8elationship: 2hey "alue longlasting relationships. In"est a
considerable amount of time de"eloping good rapport and a pleasant, rela&ed
relationship before discussing business. Good topics for small tal/ are football,
history, literature and places to "isit as %ell as information about your home to%n
and region.
6rientation to 2ime: In some parts people increasingly "alue firm schedules and
punctuality e.g. 5ao ,aulo. 7hereas in some places cloc/ tic/s at a different
speed for the funlo"ing people of 8io. #o%e"er business "isitors are e&pected to
be punctual.
#ierarchy, 5tatus and 8espect: 2hese aspects are "ery important in most of Latin
-merica.
!&pressi"e Communication 5tyle: +ost Latin -mericans are tal/ati"e,
non"erbally e&pressi"e and open about sho%ing emotions in public. Bou may be
interrupted in midsentence. -"oid direct confrontation during negotiations.
4on"erbal 3eha"iour: +en and %omen sha/e hands %armly %hen introduced
and again %hen departing. Eisiting men should e&pect to sha/e hands %ith
another male for a considerable length of time D ta/e care not to %ithdra% you
hand prematurely. -fter they get to /no% each other t%o men %ill sha/e hands
and touch each other on the elbo% or forearm, perhaps slap each other on the
bac/ or shoulder. +ale friends may embrace %hile %omen friends brush chee/s
%ith a /issing motion of the lips. 2hey stand "ery close to each other %hen
tal/ing and maintain strong eye contact %ith the person they are con"ersing %ith.
*ress Code: +ale e&ecuti"es tend to %ear fashionable threepiece suits. 6ffice
%or/ers %ear the t%opiece "ersion. +ale "isitors should note that proper
business attire al%ays includes longslee"ed shirts, e"en in hot %eather. 7omen
in business %ear elegant suits or dresses as %ell as blouses and s/irts. 3louses
and :ac/ets may ha"e short slee"es. I-"oid %earing green and yello% in 3razil D
the colors of the 3razilian flagJ
+eeting and Greeting: )ormal to begin %ith.
7ining and *ining: %omen drin/ %ine, spirit and liAueurs %hile beer is
considered a man(s drin/.
2able +anners: -"oid using your hands and %ait until coffee is ser"ed before
tal/ing business.
Gift Gi"ing: Good gifts to bring from abroad for men are music and small
electronic gadgets and for %omen, perfume. If in"ited to dinner at home bring
chocolates, champagne or a container of fresh stra%berries. I-"oid purple
flo%ers in 3razil, %hich are associated %ith funeralsJ
4egotiating 5tyle: +ost of them are tough bargainers. 3udget enough time for a
lengthy negotiating process and include a substantial margin in your opening
offer so as to lea"e room for concessions. 7ise negotiators include plenty of time
for socializing during these dra%nout discussions. If you %ish to entertain a high
le"el e&ecuti"e, as/ his secretary to recommend a restaurant. It is important to
host your counterpart only at elegant, prestigious establishments. 5imilarly,
business "isitors should only stay in top hotels.
4oin. usiness )it- C-inese
Language: 2hough many Chinese spea/ foreign languages, especially !nglish,
you may need to employ an interpreter.
Concern %ith )ace: )ace has to do %ith selfrespect, dignity and reputation. Bou
can lose face by appearing childish or lac/ing in selfcontrol D for e&ample by
losing your temper. Bou can cause your counterpart lose face by e&pressing
sharp disagreement, embarrassing them, criticizing them in public or by sho%ing
disrespect. Bou can gi"e your counterpart face by using polite forms of address
and obser"ing local customers and traditions. Gi"ing face is an effecti"e %ay to
build a solid relationship. If you ma/e a mista/e you may be able to sa"e your
face %ith a humble apology.
*ress Code: 5uit, %hite shirt, conser"ati"e tie for men. Conser"ati"e suit or dress
for %omen.
+eeting and Greeting: !&pect a soft handsha/e and moderate eye contact. -"oid
a bonecrushing handsha/e or an o"erly direct gaze.
4ames and 2itles: use the person(s family name or organizational title. -"oid
Chinese person by his or her gi"en name. 6n business cards printed in Chinese
the family name comes first, follo%ed by t%o gi"en names. 3ut on cards printed
in 7estern languages some Chinese re"erse the order. 7hen in doubt, as/
%hich is the family name.
!&changing 3usiness Cards: 2he e&change of name cards is done using both
hands. 7hen you recei"e your counterpart(s card, read it and then put the card
a%ay in a leather card case or place it on the table in front of you. *o not %rite on
someone(s name card in the presence of the gi"er.
!&changing Gifts: It is an important part of the business culture, contribution to
relationship building. 3e prepared %ith appropriate gifts for your counterparts. -
good choice should be an e&pensi"e cognac I3randy from )ranceJ. 6ther ideas
are typical of your o%n country or tasteful logo gifts. ,resent the gift %ith both the
hands. 2he recipient %ill probably put it aside and open it after the meeting. Bou
should also recei"e a gift %ith both hands and open it later.
7ining and *ining: !ntertaining and being entertained is an essential part of
building a close relationship %ith your counterpart. In China you may be in"ited to
one or more formal banAuets, depending on the length of your stay. #a"e your
local contact or your hotel help you reciprocate %ith an appropriate banAuet. In
your homeland or in a third country, a restaurant offering local specialties is
usually a good choice. 2hey also appreciate a good Chinese meal as %ell. 2o
sho% your commitment to Chinese customs, master the fine arts of eating %ith
chopstic/s and toasting your counterparts appropriately. 7omen are not
e&pected to /eep up %ith the rounds of banAuet toasts and they are definitely not
e&pected to get drun/. +ales %ho prefer not to drin/ alcohol can legitimately
e&cuse themsel"es on the grounds of religious ob:ection or ill health.
5ales ,romotion: -"oid opening %ith a :o/e or humorous anecdote. 2a/e care not
to o"erpraise your product or company, instead offer testimonials or articles
%ritten about your firm. Let others praise your products. Li/e%ise, a"oid ma/ing
negati"e comments about your competitors.
3argaining 8ange: 2he bargain "igorously and e&pect their counterparts to grant
ma:or concessions on price and terms. 3uild some margin %ith opening offer.
*ecision +a/ing: 4egotiations in China tends to be long, timeconsuming
process reAuiring patience and a clam disposition. 2his is especially true %hen
doing business %ith a go"ernment entity or a public sector company. *ecisions
ta/e time.
8ole of Contract: Chinese may regard the final %ritten agreement as less
important than the strength of the relationship but do be sure to get e"erything in
%riting any%ay. 2hey may e&pect to renegotiate the contract if circumstances
change.
Legal -d"iser: Keep the legal ad"iser in the bac/ground until to%ards the end of
negotiations. 2he presence of the la%yers may be percei"ed as a sign of
mistrust.
4oin. usiness )it- Capanese

Language: many <apanese spea/ !nglish but you should as/ your counterpart
%hether an interpreter %ould be needed.
#ierarchy, 5tatus and 8espect: In <apan the buyer automatically en:oy higher
status than seller. +ost <apanese are not used to dealing %ith females on the
basis of eAuality in a business conte&t as fe% %omen ha"e reached positions of
authority in this traditional hierarchical society. #ere are four %ays to o"ercome
cultural obstacles:
3e introduced by the eldest, most senior male colleague a"ailable. 5tatus
is a transferable asset.
Learn the "erbal, para"erbal and non"erbal %ays of sho%ing proper
respect. 5ho%ing respect gains you respect.
Gradually establish your professional or technical credentials, ta/ing care
not to appear coc/y or boastful. !&pertise confers status.
7omen are often more s/illed than males in reading body language. 2his
ability is particularly "aluable %hen dealing %ith <apanese, %ho rely hea"ily
on non"erbal communication.
)ormality and 8ituals: 2o maintain surface harmony and pre"ent loss of face,
<apanese rely on codes of beha"iour. <apanese dress and beha"e formally and
are more comfortable %ith "isitors %ho do li/e%ise.
*ress Code: *ar/ suit, %hite shirt, conser"ati"e tie for men. Conser"ati"e suit or
dress for %omen.
+eeting and Greeting: !&pect to bo% and a soft handsha/e. -"oid an
e&cessi"ely firm handsha/e or o"erly direct eye contact.
!&changing 3usiness Cards: It is polite to master the ritual of the meishi or
business card. 6ffer your card using both hands, holding it bet%een thumb and
forefinger %ith the side sho%ing the <apanese printing facing up. 5ha/e hands
%ith a slight bo% and state your name and your company(s name. 8ecei"e your
counterpart(s card %ith both hands, study it for se"eral seconds and then place it
respectfully on the conference table in front of you or in your leather Inot plasticJ
card holder.
)orms of address: -ddress your counterpart %ith his or her family name plus the
suffi&. In <apan the family name comes first, follo%ed by gi"en names. 3ut in
business cards meant for foreigners they may re"erse the order, so %hen in
doubt as/ %hich is the family name.
Gift gi"ing and 8ecei"ing: !&changing gifts is an important part of the business
culture, contributing to relationship building. 3e prepared %ith appropriate gifts. -
good choice is an e&pensi"e cognac, a good single malt %his/y or a tasteful item,
%hich is typical of your city, region or country. 4ote that the %rapping and
presenting of the gift are more important than the contents. #a"e your gifts
%rapped in <apan or by someone /no%ledgeable of <apanese customs. ,resent
the gift %ith both hands. 2he recipient %ill probably put it aside and open it later.
Bour should also recei"e a gift %ith both hands and open it later.
7ining and *ining: !ntertaining and being entertained are essential parts of
building a close relationship %ith your counterparts. In <apan you may %ish to
reciprocate %ith an in"itation to a 7estern style restaurant ser"ing for e&ample
)rench or Italian cuisine. In your homeland or in a third country, a restaurant
offering local specialties is usually a good choice. +aster the art of eating %ith
chopstic/s and toasting appropriately. )or males, at times it is appropriate to
drin/ hea"ily, e"en to get drun/. I2his is helpful to /no% them %ellJ. 7omen are
generally not e&pected to drin/. Bou may e&cuse yourself on the grounds of
illness or religion.
+a/ing your presentation: -"oid opening %ith a :o/e or humorous anecdote.
5pea/ clearly and simply. -"oid using double negati"es and con"oluted
sentences, :argons, slang or unusual %ords. 2a/e care not to o"erpraise your
product or company. Instead use testimonials or articles %ritten about your firm.
0se "isual aids, especially for numbers and pro"ide copies of the presentation.
3argaining 8ange: In some cultures, starting off %ith a high price so as to lea"e
room for bargaining is an effecti"e strategy. 2his approach may bac/fire %ith the
<apanese. Bou should ha"e a cogent reason for any ma:or concession on price
or terms.
*ecision+a/ing: +any <apanese companies still ma/e decisions by consensus.
2his is timeconsuming process, another reason to bring patience to the
negotiating table.
8ole of Contract: 5ame as Chinese.
4oin. usiness )it- Middle Easterners
Language: +any -rabs spea/ !nglish fluently, but be prepared to employ an
interpreter in case of need.
!&change )a"ours: 2he e&change of mutual fa"ours is the cornerstone of any
relationship %ith an -rab. If as/ed for a fa"our, agree to do it e"en if you thin/
you may not be able or %illing to do it. Bour arab friend %ill understand if
circumstances later ma/e it impossible to fulfill his reAuest and %ill appreciate the
fact that you agreed to try to help.
#ierarchy, 5tatus and Gender: -n -rab(s status is determined primarily by his or
her social class and family bac/ground. 5audis and many other -rabs are not
used to seeing %omen in business. )or this reason they may ha"e difficulty
relating to female e&ecuti"es. 2ips for %omen %ishing to do business in the -rab
7orld:
3e introduced by an older, highran/ing male. #is gender and status can
rub off on you.
Gradually establish your professional or technical credentials, %ithout
appearing coc/y or boastful. !&pertise confers status.
7ith luc/ you may be regarded as a foreigner %ho happens to be female.
2he 8ole of Islam: 2he -rab %orld is a conser"ati"e, traditional society strongly
influenced by Islam, %hich per"ades e"ery aspect of life. Eisitors are ad"ised to
learn as much as possible about -rab customs, practices and taboos before
arri"ing.
#onour and the )amily: -n -rab(s honour, dignity and reputation are precious to
him and must be protected at all cost. Loyalty to the family is a paramount "alue.
)amily needs often come before indi"idual needs.
!&pressi"e, Indirect Communication 5tyle: -rabs readily e&press emotion and
use elaborate "erbal language mar/ed by freAuent e&aggeration for effect.
3ecause -rabs try to a"oid confrontation, they usually a"oid saying ?no@ to your
face. Bou %ill do %ell to a"oid o"erly blunt language.
+eeting and Greeting: !&pect a gentle handsha/e and strong, direct eye contact.
-rabs of the same se& li/e to stand or sit "ery close to each other, closer than
many foreigners are accustomed to. 2ry not to mo"e a%ay, since this %ould
signal coldness to your -rab counterpart.
2ouch 3eha"iour: -s representati"es of an e&pressi"e culture, -rabs engage in
freAuent touching among friends. 2he amount of physical contact bet%een
business acAuaintances "aries %ithin the -rab %orld. 6bser"e those around you
and ta/e your cue from your local counterparts.
2aboos: -l%ays use your right hand only %hen eating or %hen passing something
to an -rab. 2he left hand is considered unclean. If you are lefthanded, train
yourself to use your right hand as much as possible. 7hen seated, a"oid
sho%ing the soles to an -rab. 2he feet and shoes are considered unclean.
*ress Code: Conser"ati"e suit and tie. -ccessories such as %atch, pens and
briefcase should be of high Auality. 5ome -rab business people :udge foreign
counterparts by ho% they dress.
)orms of -ddress: -ddress your -rab counterpart by the first of his three names,
preceded by ?+r.@ 2itles are important, more %idely used in -rabic than in
!nglish. ?5hei/h@ is a title of respect for a %ealthy, influential or elderly man.
-ddress go"ernment ministers as ?!&cellency.@ It is a good idea to find out any
titles a person may ha"e and use them.
!&changing 3usiness Cards: ,resent your business card %ith your right hand
only. 8ecei"e your counterpart(s card in the same %ay.
8efreshments: Bou %ill freAuently be offered tea or coffee. 2his is an important
feature of -rab hospitalityN it is impolite not to accept.
Gift Gi"ing: gifts are al%ays %elcome but not e&pected. Choose something for
%hich your o%n country is %ell/no%n, but a"oid gi"ing alcohol or any other item
forbidden to +uslims. 3e careful about admiring any of your counterpart(s
possessions. #e might present you %ith the ob:ect of your admiration and feel
insulted if you decline.
!ntertaining: !ntertaining and being entertained is an essential part of building a
close relationship %ith your counterpart. If in"ited to dinner at an -rab
businessman(s home e&pect to eat a great deal as a %ay of sho%ing your
appreciation. Bour host %ill press you to eat more you than really %ant to. !at as
much as you can. 7hen you ha"e reached your limit, you may ha"e to decline
further helpings three times, emphatically, in order to ma/e the point. 5imilarly,
%hen hosing -rabs you must /eep pushing them to eat and drin/. 3ut remember
that alcoholic be"erages and por/ products are forbidden to +uslims.
3argaining 8ange: -rab negotiators tend to be enthusiastic bargainers and may
e&pect their counterparts to grant ma:or concessions on price and terms during
the course of the negotiation. 5ome -rab businessmen measure their success at
the bargaining table by ho% far they are able to mo"e you a%ay from your
opening offer. 2hey thin/ of negotiating as a challenging contest, a competiti"e
sport. )or this reason it is %ise to build plenty of margin into your initial offer,
lea"ing room for maneu"er during the lengthy negotiating process.
Concession 3eha"iour: 3e prepared for ?3azaar haggling@ D hard bargaining.
2a/e care to ma/e each concession %ith great reluctance and only on a strict ?if
W then,@ conditional basis. -l%ays demand something in return for each
concession in price, terms or other issues.
*ecision +a/ing: 4egotiating in the -rab %orld tends to be proceed at a leisurely
pace. It %ould be tactical error to press hard for a Auic/ decision. Go %ith the flo%. *ecisions ta/e
time, so ad:ust your e&pectations accordingly.
2he Contract: Get e"erything in %riting to a"oid future misunderstandings.
4oin. usiness )it- Russians
Chaos, crime and corruption D along %ith capricious regulations and bureaucratic
red tape D continue to present real barriers to trade. 8ussia is a tempting mar/et
for those %ho /no% ho% to o"ercome those barriers. I!"en +u/esh -mbani and
-nand +ahindra %ere refused business "isa to 8ussia recentlyJ
,ersonal 8elationships: -s is the case in other relationship focused mar/ets
around the %orld, you need personal relationships to get things done. It(s %ho
you /no% that counts. +ost business here is done facetoface. )reAuent "isits to
the mar/et and freAuent phone calls are essential. 7hile %ritten contacts are as
important as any%here else in today(s global mar/etplace, be prepared for your
8ussian counterparts to renegotiate the agreement not long after it %as singed.
*irect, Lo%Conte&t Communication: 8ussia(s "ersion of relationshipfocus does
ho%e"er differ from most other 8) cultures in an important respect: "erbal
communication. 0nli/e !ast and 5outheast -sians for e&ample, 8ussians
negotiators tend to be direct, e"en blunt, saying pretty much %hat they mean and
meaning %hat they say.
)ormality, 5tatus and #ierarchies: #ere again %e ha"e special case. 8ussians
belong to the more formal %ing of !uropeans, closer to Germans and )rench
than to informal *anes. Eisitors are e&pected to obser"e a certain degree of
formality in dress and in public beha"iour. #ierarchical attitudes affect business
"isitors in to% %ays. )irst, %hile "isiting female e&ecuti"es %ill be treated %ith
delightful old %orld gallantry, they can also e&pect to be patronized. 5econd, both
male and female "isitors %ill note that all important decisions are reser"ed for the
top man in the organization. +a/e sure that one is negotiating %ith the real
decisionma/er.
2ime 3eha"iour: +ost 8ussian managers admit that %hile they are usually
unconcerned %ith punctuality, they try hard to be on time %hen meeting %ith
foreigners. !&pect meetings to start late, to run on %ell beyond the anticipated
ending time and to be freAuently interrupted.
Eariable !&pressi"eness: -t the first meeting, e&pect a Auiet, restrained mannerN
at subseAuent sessions be prepared for more demonstrati"e beha"iour. 3e ready
for emotional outbursts and displays of temper at critical points in the
discussions.
Eoice Eolume: Eisitors should a"oid loud, boisterous con"ersation in public.
Interpersonal *istance: )rom close to medium D 12 to 1> inches.
2ouch 3eha"iour: -mong friends, freAuent touching, bear hugs and chee/
/issing.
!ye Contact: *irect gaze across the negotiating table.
2aboo Gestures: 2he ?-6K@ thumbandforefinger sign is obscene. 5tanding
%ith hands in one(s poc/ets is rude.
*ress Code: Conser"ati"e. In %inter, adopt the layered loo/. !&pect to chec/
your o"ercoat in most public buildings.
+eeting and Greeting: 5ha/e hands and state your name. )ormulas such as
Mho% are youC@ are unnecessary.
)orms of -ddress: 7hen introduced, use title plus last name, not first names.
Later you might mo"e to suing the first name plus patronymic, but %ait until your
counterpart suggests it.
!&changing Cards: 3ring plenty of cards %hich sho% your organizational title and
any ad"anced degrees. *o not be surprised if your 8ussian counterpart does not
ha"e a card.
2opics of Con"ersation: -"oid discussions of %ar, politics and religion. -nd
remember, 8ussians tend to sensiti"e about their country(s recent loss of
superpo%er status.
3usiness Gifts: Puality pens, boo/s, music C*s, solar po%ered calculators,
liAuor, card %allets, gift soaps, 2shirts.
3usiness !ntertainment: It is a signal honour to be in"ited to a 8ussian home. 3e
sure to accept. +ost business entertaining is done at restaurants.
*rin/ing: 8ussians seem to ha"e high tolerance for alcohol. )e% foreigners
succeed in staying %ith the locals drin/ for drin/. 2o limit your inta/e, drin/ only
%hen someone proposes a toast. If there are many toasts, s%itching to sipping is
better idea. 3e prepared to drin/ at least one or t%o small "od/as.
+a/ing a ,resentation: !specially at the first meeting, a"oid starting off %ith a
:o/e. 5ho% that you are ta/ing business seriously. ,ac/ your presentation %ith
facts and technical details.
Local 5ensiti"ities: -"oid statements such as ?7e are planning a really
a..ressi0e mar/eting campaign. 2he %ord a..ressi0e has a negati"e
connotation in 8ussia. -lso a"oid proposing a Compromise during the
negotiation D most 8ussians regard a Compromise as morally %rong. Instead,
suggest meeting each other half%ay, or ma/e your proposal conditional on an
eAui"alent concession from your counterparts.
3argaining 5tyle: 3e ready for hardball tactics D a tough, sometimes
confrontational approach, possibly punctuated %ith tablepounding, temper
tantrums, emotional outbursts, brin/manship, loud threats and %al/outs. 7ith
some 8ussians these components of the ?5o"iet@ style of bargaining ha"e
sur"i"ed into the post5o"iet era. Counter these tactics by staying calm. +ore
often, your counterparts %ill simply try to out%ait you, e&ploiting your presumed
impatience. Counter this %ith patience, patience and more patience.
8esol"ing *isputes: Insist on a clause calling for arbitration in a third country.
5%eden is currently a popular choice.
4oin. usiness )it- Australians and Ne) Dealanders
2he Language: !nglish
+a/ing the first contact: *irect contact by letter, fa& or email %ith rele"ant
information about your company and product, then follo% up %ith a phone call
reAuesting a meeting. 2hey usually get do%n to business shortly after meeting
for the first time. 2he elaborate preliminaries and e&tensi"e small tal/ are out of
place. - fe% beers at a pub smooths the %ay to getting to /no% each other.
Communication 5tyle: 2hey tend to be less tal/ati"e and less demonstrati"e.
Eerbal *irectness: -t times they are more direct than the Germans and the
*utch, not to mention -mericans. 2hey "alue straightfor%ard and fran/ speech.
Informality: 2his may be the only culture in the %orld %here business people
interact e"en more informally than in *enmar/, the +id%estern 05 or %estern
Canada. Eisitors should a"oid trying to impress them %ith their titles and
accomplishments. -nything smac/ing of boastfulness or sho%ing off gi"es a
negati"e impression. I-s in the case of *enmar/, male passengers tra"eling
alone are e&pected to sit ne&t to the ImaleJ dri"er as a sign that they do not
regard themsel"es as abo"e the ta&i dri"er in social status. 7omen are e&empt
from the frontseat rule unless the dri"er is also femaleJ
5pea/ing of gender: In contrast to 5candina"ia, they do not necessarily e&tend
the same respect to %omen in business. )emale "isitors should be prepared for
beha"iour, %hich they may percei"e as chau"inistic or patronizing.
6rientation to 2ime: 2hey are a bit less obsessed %ith time and schedules.
Eisitors are e&pected to be roughly on time for meetings, but fe% minutes late is
tolerated. Local business people are li/ely to resent foreigner, %ho try to hurry
things along.
2hey "ary from "ery e&pressi"e to Auite reser"ed depending partly on their
particular ethnic bac/ground.
Interpersonal *istance: 2hey generally stand or sit an arm(s apart in a business
situation.
2ouch beha"iour: !&pect less physical contact than is the case %ith Latin and
+editerranean cultures but more than those if !ast and 5outheast -sia.
!ye Contact: use steady eye contact %hen con"ersing %ith your counterparts
across the bargaining table. Good eye contact indicates interest and sincerity.
2aboos: 2he ?2humbsup@ sign is considered obscene by most. -lso rude is
e&tending one(s first and middle fingers %ith the palm facing in. It is impolite to
point at someone %ith the inde& finger D use the %hole hand instead. 7hen you
ha"e a cold, a"oid blo%ing your nose loudly. It is also impolite to sniffle
repeatedly. 2he solution is to lea"e the room and blo% your nose in pri"acy.
Pueue beha"iour: 2hey ha"e inherited the 3ritish custom of forming lines and
politely %aiting one(s turn.
*ress Code: )or business, men %ear a dar/ suit and tie, often remo"ing the
:ac/et in the summer. 3usiness%omen %ear dress or s/irt and blouse.
+eeting and Greeting: !&pect a firm handsha/e and direct eye contact. 4ote that
some of them belie"e a soft handsha/e reflects %ea/ness and that lac/ of direct
gaze indicates unreliability or e"en dishonesty. - man should %ait for a %oman to
offer her hand rather than holding out his hand.
)orms of -ddress: 0se full names %hen you first meet but e&pect to mo"e
Auic/ly to first names. 2o be polite, %ait for your local counterpart to suggest
s%itching to gi"en names.
3usiness Cards: 7hile it is customary to e&change cards, do not e&pect the t%o
handed ritual.
2opics of Con"ersation: 2he best choice is sports D especially %ater sports,
football, golf, tennis and in some cases cric/et. ,ositi"e comments on local food,
beer and %ine are al%ays %elcome. Eisitors should a"oid in"idious comparisons
%ith elements of their o%n cultures. -lso to be a"oided are comments about hard
one %or/sN %or/aholics are pitied in this delightfully laidbac/ society.
Gift Gi"ing: they don not ha"e a giftgi"ing business culture. If in"ited to dinner at
home consider either an item for %hich your city or region is famous or %ine,
flo%ers or chocolates.
7ining and dining: 2ea is the e"ening meal and supper a latenigh snac/. *on(s
e&pect to be in"ited to someone(s home until you /no% them fairly %ell. -fter a
big meal, a"oid saying you are ?stuffed@( this %ord has a "ulgar connotation.
,ub !tiAuette: Bou are e&pected to pay for a round for the group you are drin/ing
%ith %hen it(s your turn. #o%e"er, a"oid paying for a round out of turn. ,eople
%ho do this are regarded as pretentious sho%offs.
5ales ,resentations: 2he general ad"ice that modesty is the best policy applies
especially to ma/ing sales presentations. +ar/eters find that the soft sell %or/s
better. 7hene"er possible, let your documentation, testimonials and thirdparty
reports spea/ for you.
3argaining 5tyle: 5ince they disli/e bazaar haggling, Eisiting negotiators %ill get
better results by opening discussions %ith a realistic bid. 2he negotiating process
may ta/e more time than it %ould in some other dealfocused business cultures,
though less than in strongly relationshipfocused mar/ets.
4oin. usiness )it- Canadians
2he multicultural mosaic that is Canada complicates things a bit for "isitors. Bou
need to be a%are of the cultural bac/ground of the business people you %ill be
dealing %ith, be it -nglophone, francophone, 4e% Canadian or other. 4e%
Canadians are recent immigrants from #ong Kong, !astern !urope and many
other parts of the %orld.
-nglophone Canadian negotiators tend to be dealfocused, direct, moderately
informal, "ery egalitarian, reser"ed and relati"ely timeconscious. In contrast,
)rench Canadians tend to be more formal, relationshipfocused, hierarchical,
e&pressi"e and moderately polychronic. -s a general rule, Canadians are usually
less e&pressi"e, less asserti"e and a bit more formal and conser"ati"e than for
e&ample 05 -mericans.
Language: !nglish. )luency in )rench is an asset for those doing business in
Puebec.
+a/ing Contact: In )rench Canada it is important to ha"e connections, to be
properly introduced. Cold calls are unli/ely to get good results in Puebec. In
!nglish Canada business people are more open to a direct approach.
)irst meeting: !nglish Canadians D straight on business, %hereas francophones
normally prefer lengthier preliminaries.
6rientation to 2ime: In both of Canada(s mainstream business cultures "isitors
are e&pected to be on time for appointment.
)ormality and Informality: !nglish Canadians are uncomfortable %ith status
distinction and class differences %here as francophones in contrast tend to be
some%hat more hierarchical.
Eerbal *irectness: Lo%conte&t !nglish Canadians tend to be more direct than
highconte&t francophones.
Eariable !&pressi"eness: !nglish Canadians are more reser"ed as compared to
francophones.
*ress code: +ale "isitors should %ear a suit or blazer %ith tie. 7omen may %ear
a suit, dress or s/irt and blouse.
)orm of -ddress: In !nglish Canada start out %ith *r, +r, +rs, +iss or +5. 3ut
be prepared for your counterpart to suggest s%itching to a first name basis "ery
soon after meeting you. !&pect more formality in Puebec but still a bit less than
in )rance.
+eeting and Greeting: Eisitors should e&pect a firm handsha/e and direct eye
contact. 5ome Canadians belie"e that a soft handsha/e reflects %ea/ness and
that lac/ of direct eye contact signifies shifting shiftiness or dishonesty.
!nglish Canadians sha/e hands less often and are Auite brief.
)rench Canadians sha/e hands more often than -nglophonesN %hen being
introduced, %hen saying hello and %hen saying goodbye.
Gift Gi"ing: 3usiness gifts are gi"en after a deal has been closed. 3ut remember
that e&pensi"e, ostentatious gifts are out of place in Canada. 3etter choices are
tasteful logo gifts or an item your city, country or region is famous for. 2hey may
un%rap the gift in front of you. Good hostess gifts are flo%ers, candy, %ine and
special items from your country.
7ining and *ining: -ccording to 4orth -merican custom it is rude and aggressi"e
to repeatedly insist that a guest eat and drin/. 2his can be a problem for "isitors
from the +iddle !ast and other parts of the %orld %here the custom is to say no
than/ you t%o or three times before Mreluctantly( accepting the proffered food or
drin/. Bou should respond in the affirmati"e if you %ish to ha"e something that is
offered D do not assume you %ill be as/ed t%ice.
+a/ing a ,resentation: Canadians prefer softsell approach. 2hey are li/ely to
resent an o"erlyaggressi"e, pushy sales presentation. -"oid hype and
o"erblo%n product claims.
3argaining 8ange: 2a/e care not to o"erinflate your initial offer. +any Canadian
buyers are turned off by the classic ?highlo%@ tactic. Instead, build a certain
safety margin into your opening bid to co"er une&pected de"elopments, but a"oid
o"erdoing it.
4oin. usiness )it- 5renc-
I3elgium, Italy, 5pain, #ungaryJ
Language: )rench. ,arisians especially seem to find it physically painful to hear
their language spo/en poorly. 7ritten correspondence should be in )rench and
the /ey parts of your product literature should be translated as %ell. Good
interpreters are easy to find.
+a/ing the Initial Contact: Connections count hea"ily in this mar/et. 2rade sho%s
and official trade promotion missions are good %ays to ma/e initial contact. 2he
alternati"e is to arrange for a formal introduction to potential customers,
distributors or partners. -s/ your country(s embassy to introduce you. 6ther
useful intermediaries are chambers of commerce, trade associations and
international ban/s, la% and accounting firms. Bour letter reAuesting a meeting
should be in fla%less business )rench. -s in other hierarchical cultures, it is %ise
to start at the top. -ddress the letter to the president$*irector General and if you
are a senior person in your company reAuest a meeting %ith him.
Importance of 8elationships: )rance is definitely a country of personal net%or/s.
Bou get things done more Auic/ly by %or/ing through inside contacts than by
Mgoing through channels.( 2he )rench %ant to /no% a good deal about you before
discussing business, but building rapport in"ol"es less small tal/ than in some
other cultures. 5ho%ing a /no%ledge of )rench history, literature, art and
philosophy is a good %ay to build rapport. *iscussing )rench cuisine and %ine
o"er a meal is another good %ay.
6rientation to 2ime: Eisitors are e&pected to be roughly on time for business
meetings. +eetings don not follo% fi&ed agenda.
#ierarchy and 5tatus: Le"el of education along %ith family bac/ground and
%ealth determine status in )rance. )rench bosses tend to run their companies in
an authoritarian style. +anagers are e&pected to be highly competent and to
/no% the ans%er to "irtually e"ery Auestion that arises. 2hey are often reluctant
to delegate authority.
Communication style: 2he )rench are "erbally and non"erbally e&pressi"e. 2hey
lo"e to argue, often engaging in spirited debate during business meetings.
Eerbal Communication: 2hey tend to fa"our subtle, indirect language and li/e to
present their point of "ie% %ith Cartesian logic, elegant phrasing and "erbal
flourishes.
4on"erbal Communication: -l%ays sha/e hands both %hen meeting and %hen
lea"ing someone. 2he )rench use many more hand and arm gestures. 2he
thumband forefinger circle signifies Mzero( in )rance. 2o indicate ?-6K@ they
flash the thumbsup sign instead. 2aboos include standing or spea/ing %ith
hands in one(s poc/ets and slapping the palm of one hand o"er a closed fist.
*ress Code: +ale business "isitors should %ear a dar/ suitN %omen should
choose tasteful, some%hat conser"ati"e clothing and accessories.
+eeting and greeting: handsha/e %ith moderate pressure and steady eye
contact. -mong ma/es the older or higher status person should initiate the
handsha/e. 7omen of any ran/ can decide %hether or not to offer their hand.
)orms of address: Greet your local counterparts %ith monsieur, madame or
mademoiselle %ithout the person(s name.
7omen in 3usiness: 3ecause relati"ely fe% %omen ha"e reached high positions
in )rench companies, female business "isitors may occasionally feel some%hat
out of place.
7ining and *ining: !ntertaining and being entertained is an important %ay to
build rapport. 2here is certain ceremonial aspect to dining in )rance. +any
7estern ideas of proper table manners originated in )rance, so "isitors are
ad"ised to obser"e some /ey rules of etiAuette. 3usiness lunches often last t%o
to three hours o"er at least that many glasses of %ine. In some cultures it is a
sign of generosity to fill a %ine glass to the brim. In )rance D as else%here in
!urope and 4orth -merica D %hen pouring %ine for your neighbour at table
remember to fill the glass only t%othird full. -"oid discussing business at least
until dessert is ser"ed unless your host broaches the sub:ect earlier.
*inner at #ome: such in"itations are more common in the pro"inces than in
,aris. -l%ays accept and plan to arri"e about 11 minutes after the appointed
time.
#ostess Gift: )lo%ers may not be your best choice. Bour hostess may not
appreciate ha"ing to search for the right size "ase in the midst of all her other
duties. -nd then you %ould ha"e to remember to bring an une"en number Ibut
ne"er 1'J, to a"oid chrysanthemums Ifunerals onlyJ, red roses Ithey signify you
are ha"ing an affair %ith your hostessJ and yello% flo%ers Ithey imply your host is
ha"ing an affair %ith someone elseJ. 4or is %ine a better choice. - bottle of
undistinguished plon/ brands your as ignorant or cheap %hile %ith the good stuff
you run the ris/ of insulting your host by insinuating that his cellar is inadeAuate.
2he best solution therefore is usually a bo& of the "ery best chocolates you can
find. 7ait at the door until the host or hostess in"ites you in. +en should not ta/e
off their :ac/et unless encouraged to do so by the host. 7ait for your host or
hostess to start eating. If you are accustomed to /eeping one hand in your lap,
lea"e this custom behind. Bour table companions are liable to roll their eyes and
as/ each other %hat you are doing under the table.
2able +anners: 7hen the salad arri"es, do not cut your lettuce %ith a /nife.
Instead fold it into small pieces %ith your for/. ,eel the fruit %ith a /nife and eat it
%ith a for/. It is impolite to ta/e t%o ser"ings of cheese, and e&tremely gauche to
slice the tip from a %edge of cheese.
5ales presentation: -"oid hardsell tactics, hyperbole and flippant humor.
,repare a sober presentation %ith logical seAuence of arrangements. If you
encounter forceful disagreement on some point, be prepared to respond %ith
factual counterarguments. Eigorous disagreement %ith specific issues does not
necessarily signal lac/ of interest in your o"erall proposal.
3argaining 5tyle: 3e prepared for long, relati"ely unstructured negotiating
sessions punctuated freAuently %ith "erbal confrontation. Bour counterpart may
also attac/ the though process behind your bargaining position. !&pect decision
ma/ing to ta/e longer.
4oin. usiness )it- ritis-
I*enmar/, )inland, Germany, 2he 4etherlands, Czech 8epublicJ
2he Language: !nglish
+a/ing Contact: It is mar/et %here referrals, recommendations and testimonials
are e&tremely useful. 7rite in !nglish %ith basic information about your company
and products, adding that you %ill contact them soon to set up an appointment.
)ollo% this %ith a phone call reAuesting a meeting t%o or three %ee/s hence.
Bour 3ritish counterpart %ill suggest the time and place.
6rientation to 2ime: 7hile "isitors are e&pected to be on time, locals are often a
fe% minutes late for meetings. 5till, the 3ritish are definitely cloc/obsessed.
)ormality, #ierarchies and 5tatus *ifferences: 5tatus in !ngland is largely
determined by one(s regional origin, social class, family bac/ground and accent.
!nglish usually prefer to stay %ith +r or +rs until at least the second or third
meeting. Eisitors find that younger !nglish people are becoming less formal. 2he
rapidly gro%ing use of electronic mail has informalized the communication
process.
Communication 5tyle: !nglish are reser"ed rather than e&pressi"e or
demonstrati"e in the %ay they communicate. 2his is e"ident in their use of
understatement, large space bubble, lo%contact body language, restrained
gestures and in their preference for al%ays /eeping a ?stiff upper lip.@
Eerbal Communication: 2he 3ritish also occupy an inbet%een position among
the %orld(s cultures %hen it comes to "erbal directness. 0pperclass 3rits fa"our
"ague, obliAue language %hile others spea/ more directly.
,ara"erbal Communication: 3ritish negotiators rarely interrupt their counterparts
across the bargaining table. 2hey are also less li/ely to raise their "oice than are
negotiators from more e&pressi"e societies such as those in 5outhern !urope
and Latin -merica.
2he handsha/e: 7hen meeting and greeting, a light handsha/e is common. 2he
3ritish normally do not sha/e hands %ith colleagues upon meeting in the morning
and again %hen lea"ing the office, as is common practice in some Continental
cultures.
Interpersonal *istance: 2he normal interpersonal distance in a business conte&t
is about an arm(s length. 2he 3ritish tend to stand and sit further apart than the
-rabs and the Latins. +oreo"er, t%o !nglishmen in con"ersation %ill often stand
at a HF degree angle to each other rather than facing each other directly. )ace
toface con"ersation seems to ma/e some 3rits uncomfortable.
Gaze 3eha"iour: !ye contact tends to be less direct than in e&pressi"e cultures.
- "ery direct gaze may be interpreted as rude and intrusi"e.
2ouch 3eha"iour: 2his is a lo%contact culture. !&cept for the handsha/e, most
!nglish people a"oid touching others in public. )or e&ample, the -merican
custom of bac/slapping, elbo%grabbing and armaround Dtheshoulder is
considered slightly "ulgar.
Gestures: -s in the case %ith other reser"ed cultures, the 3ritish use relati"ely
fe% hand and arm gestures. 7hen flashing the t%ofinger ?peace@ sing, ma/e
sure your palm is facing out%ard. 7ith palm in%ard this is an obscene gesture.
-"oid pointing %ith your inde& fingerN instead indicate direction %ith a nod of your
head.
*ress Code: +en %ear a dar/ suit, plain shirt, conser"ati"e tie and polished
blac/ shoes. -"oid striped ties D they can be seen as imitating prestigious 3ritish
regimental ties. 2he blac/ shoes should be of the laced type rather than loafers,
%hich are considered too casual. 4atural fibers are considered much more
acceptable than synthetics. 7omen should li/e%ise dress conser"ati"ely,
a"oiding garish colours and too much :e%elry.
+eeting and Greeting: %hile men e&change light to moderate handsha/es, some
%omen chose not to offer their hand. +en should al%ays %ait for the %oman to
e&tend her hand.
)orm of -ddress: use +r., +rs., +iss or +s. 0ntil your counterpart suggests
s%itching to gi"en names. +edical doctors, dentists and clergy e&pect to be
addressed %ith their titles, but a male surgeon is plain +ister. Eisitors
accustomed to saying ?Bes sir@ and ?4o sir@ as sign of respect to older or senior
people should a"oid this practice in 3ritain.
3usiness Gifts: 2his is not a giftgi"ing culture. - better idea is to in"ite your
counterparts to dinner.
#ostess Gifts: If in"ited to an !nglish home, bring chocolates, liAuor, champagne
or flo%ers. -"oid %hite lilies IfuneralsJ and red roses. 3e sure to send along a
hand%ritten than/you note the ne&t day. *uring the meal /eep both hands on
the table but both elbo%s off the table.
7ining and *ining: ,ub lunches are customary for business entertainmentN
dinners tend to be more of a social e"ent. -"oid tal/ing business unless your
3ritish counterpart clearly initiates such a discussion.
,ub !tiAuette: patrons ta/e turn ordering drin/s. 7hen ordering drin/s at the bar,
catch the publican(s eye and say, ?-nother pint, pleaseT@ rather than shouting or
silently holding up your glass for a refill. In fact, ?please@ and ?than/ you@ are "ery
important %ords throughout 3ritain.
+a/ing a presentation: -ccustomed to understatement, 3ritish buyers are turned
off by hype and e&aggerated claims. ,resentations should be straightfor%ard
and factual. #umor is acceptable, but "isitors from abroad should remember that
it rarely translates %ell.
3argaining 8ange: !nglish negotiators ha"e been doing business all o"er the
%orld for hundreds of years. 2hey may put a %ide safety margin in their opening
position so as to lea"e room for substantial concessions during the bargaining
process. 2his practice may put off negotiators from Germany and 5%eden, %here
the ?highlo%@ tactic is fro%ned upon.
*ecision+a/ing: 2imeismoney -mericans may find the 3ritish process too
timeconsuming, but for the rest of the %orld(s business cultures it is Auite
normal.
8ole of Contract: !&cept emphasis on the legal aspects and the fine points of the
%ritten agreement. 5hould a dispute or disagreement arise later the 3ritish tend
to rely on the terms of the contract and could become suspicious if their
counterpart in"o/es noncontract issues such as the importance of the longterm
relationship.
Group 1 8elationshipfocused, )ormal, ,olychronic and 8eser"ed
1.
2.
'.
..
1.
9.
;.
India
3angladesh
Indonesia
+alaysia
Eietnam
2hailand
,hilippines
Group 2 8elationship)ocused, )ormal, +onochronic and 8eser"ed
1.
2.
'.
..
<apan
China
5outh Korea
5ingapore
Group ' 8elationship)ocused, )ormal, ,olychronic and !&pressi"e
1.
2.
'.
..
1.
5audi -rabia
!gypt
Greece
3razil
+e&ico
Group . 8elationship)ocused, )ormal, ,olychronic and Eariably
!&pressi"e
1.
2.
'.
8ussia
,oland
8umania
Group 1 +oderately *eal)ocused, )ormal, Eariably +onochronic and
!&pressi"e
1.
2.
'.
..
1.
)rance
3elgium
Italy
5pain
#ungary
Group 9 +oderately *eal)ocused, )ormal, Eariably +onochronic and
8eser"ed
2he 3altic 5tates
Group ; *ealfocused, +oderately )ormal, +onochronic and
8eser"ed
1.
2.
'.
..
1.
9.
3ritain
*enmar/
)inland
Germany
2he 4etherlands
Czech 8epublic
Group > *eal)ocused, Informal, +onochronic and Eariably
!&pressi"e
1.
2.
'.
-ustralia and 4e% =ealand
Canada
05-
4oin. usiness )it- Europeans
#a%aii. #e is an honorary professor of the 0ni"ersity of
#ong Kong.
Geert #ofstede is the founder and first director of the
Institute for 8esearch on Intercultural Cooperation II8ICJ
at the 0ni"ersity of Limburg, and an internationally
recognized e&pert in the field of national and
organizational culture research and theory. #e has been
a consultant to national and international business and
go"ernment organizations. #e %rote a pathbrea/ing boo/
Culture's Consequences I5age, 1H>FJ. - more popular
boo/ Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind
appeared in 1HH1N translations ha"e appeared or are
under %ay into ten other languages. #is articles more
than a hundred ha"e been published in the :ournals
and readers of different countries of !urope, -sia, and
4orth -merica.

O0er0ie)2 Cultural Continuums
8.5. =aharna, !d.*.
2here are se"eral %ays in %hich scholars ha"e distinguished cultures. 2his
section briefly re"ie%s theoretical frame%or/s useful in highlighting the salient
differences among cultures. 3ecause of ethnocentricism, %e may tend to "ie%
Vour %ayV (ersus Vthe other %ayV or, one side of the continuum (ersus the other
side of the continuum. - more helpful approach is to thin/ of cultural differences
as "ariations spread out across a continuum. 6ne may "ie% the cultural
"ariations of a cultural continuums in much the same %ay as one %ould "ie% the
different colors %ithin a spectrum. <ust as %e tend to ha"e Vfa"orite colors,V %e
tend to ha"e cultural preferences %ithin a cultural continuum that %e fa"or.
I should note that although -merica is rapidly becoming a more multicultural
society, the cultural features highlighted here characterized the dominant cultural
pattern of -merican cultural history and are still Auite prominent in the -merican
media Ia ma:or force in shaping the ne% members of -merican societyJ. 2able ':
Cultural Continuums pro"ides an o"er"ie% of the different %ays of loo/ing at
cultures.
1i.--context ? Lo)-context
,erhaps the most %ell/no%n cultural continuum is #allUs I1H;9J discussion of
highconte&t and lo%conte&t cultures. #all "ie%s meaning and conte&t as
Vine&tricably bound up %ith each otherV I1H>2, p. 1>J. 2he difference bet%een
high and lo% conte&t cultures depends on ho% much meaning is found in the
conte&t "ersus in the code. Bou can thin/ of VcodeV as the message. Bou can
thin/ of Vconte&tV as setting or circumstance, including the people, in %hich the
message appeared.
Lo%conte&t cultures, such as the -merican culture, tend to place more meaning
in the language code and "ery little meaning in the conte&t. )or this reason,
communication tends to be specific, e&plicit, and analytical I2ing2oomey, 1H>1J.
In analyzing messages, lo%conte&t cultures tend to focus on V%hat %as saidV
and gi"e literal meaning to each %ord. )or this reason, the %ords or %hat %as
said can ta/e on a po%er of their o%n. Chen L 5tarosta pointed out that lo%
conte&t cultures tend to use a direct "erbale&pression style in %hich the situation
conte&t is not emphasized, important information is usually carried in e&plicit
"erbal messages, people tend to directly e&press their opinions and intend to
persuade others to accept their "ie%points, and selfe&pression, "erbal fluency,
and eloAuent speech are "alued I1HH>, p. 1FJ.
In highconte&t cultures, meaning is embedded more in the conte&t rather than
the code. In this case, V%hat %as saidV cannot be understood by the %ords alone
one has to loo/ at %ho said it, %hen they said it, %here they said it, ho% they
said it, the circumstances in %hich they said it, to %hom they said it, etc. !ach
"ariable %ill help define the meaning of V%hat %as said.V
In spea/ing of highconte&t cultures, #all states, Vmost of the information is either
in the physical conte&t or internalized in the person, %hile "ery little is in the
coded, e&plicit, transmitted part of the messageV I1H>2, p.1>J. 2hus the listener
must understand the conte&tual cues in order to grasp the full meaning of the
message. -s #all says:
,eople raised in highconte&t systems e&pect more from others than do the
participants in lo%conte&t systems. 7hen tal/ing about something that they
ha"e on their minds, a highconte&t indi"idual %ill e&pect his interlocutor to /no%
%hatUs bothering him, so that he doesnUt ha"e to be specific. 2he result is that he
%ill tal/ around and around the point, in effect putting all the pieces in place
e&cept the crucial one. ,lacing it properly this /eystone is the role of his
interlocutor. I1H;9, p. H>J
In other %ords, in highconte&t e&changes, much of the Vburden of meaningV
appears to fall on the listener. In lo% conte&t cultures, the burden appears to fall
on the spea/er to accurately and thoroughly con"ey the meaning in her spo/en
or %ritten message.

:ol/c-ronic ? Monoc-ronic
!d%ard #all also introduced the concept of monochronic and polychronic
cultures. 2he concept of chronemics is a non"erbal beha"ior that spea/s to ho%
people use time to communicate. Lateness, for e&ample, can communicate
messages of po%er I%aiting in the doctorUs officeJ, attraction Iarri"ing early for
that first dateJ, or identity Ibeing Ufashionably lateUJ. Chronemics, li/e all other
non"erbal beha"ior is culturally based. *ifferent cultures ha"e different rules
go"erning the use and meaning of time. #allUs distinction bet%een monochronic
and polychronic cultures highlight the different ends of the cultural spectrums of
ho% cultureUs "ie% time.
+onochronic cultures such as the dominant -merican culture tend to "ie% time
as linear IVspread out across time,V Vspanning across generations,V Vthe time lineV
or Vtime frameVJ. 3eing punctual, scheduling, planning tas/s to match time
frames are "alued beha"iors. 2ime is "ie%ed as a commodity IVtime is moneyVJ
that can be bought IVbuying timeVJ, spent IVspending timeVJ or %asted IV%asting
timeVJ. 2hus, although time is technically an abstract phenomena, in the
monochronic "ie% it becomes a concrete reality. 7oe to he %ho has lost time.
6ne of the most outstanding features of monochronic cultures is that because
time is so concrete and segmented, Vonly one thing can be done at a time.V 2o try
to do many things at one time is chaos, that is, negati"e.
,olychronic cultures tend to "ie% time as nonlinear. 2here can be a circular or
cyclical Auality to time IV%hat goes around, comes aroundV, Vlife is a circleVJ.
,unctuality and scheduling is done but rarely %ith the religious fer"or found in
monochronic cultures. 5chedules are not Vetched in stoneV but rather Vpenciled
inVas a matter of cultural habit instead of personal habit. ,eople from polychronic
cultures, as the term VpolyV suggests, find little difficulty doing many things at one
time. 3ecause time is not linear or segmented, matching specific acti"ities %ith
specific time frames is not done. 2imes and acti"ities are fluid.

Collecti0ism ? Indi0idualism
,sychologist and intercultural scholar, #arry 2riandis I1H>9J at the 0ni"ersity of
Illinois, has %ritten e&tensi"ely about indi"iduals define themsel"es in terms of
their social grouping. #e has discussed these differences in terms of collecti"ist
and indi"idualist cultures. )or an e&cellent summary see 2riandis, 3rislin L #ui
I1H>>J.
Indi"idualist cultures are defined as those in %hich the goals of the indi"idual are
"alued o"er any particular group or collecti"e. In indi"idualist cultures, a person
tends to loo/ primarily after his o%n interests or that of his immediate nuclear
family. ,ersonal accomplishments are important and indi"iduals %ill ta/e
ad"antage of opportunities for ad"ancement e"en if it means sacrificing personal
relations. 8elationships tend to be shortterm and transitory. -s a result,
contracts are an important means for defining and binding relationship.
Collecti"ist cultures are defined as those %hich the collecti"e goals are "alued
o"er the indi"idual goals. -s 2riandis L #ui stated about people from collecti"ist
cultures, Vindi"iduals pay primary attention to the needs of their group and %ill
sacrifice opportunities for personal gainV because such sacrifice is tied to their
sense of self as a member of the larger collecti"e. In other %ords, %hat is good
for the collecti"e is good for the selfN the indi"idualUs esteem is tied to the
collecti"eUs esteem. 2he distinction bet%een VingroupsV and VoutgroupsV is
clearly defined. In collecti"ist cultures, a person is assumed to belong to one or
more tight Vingroups.V 2he ingroup protects the interests of its members
collecti"ely. Loyalty to the ingroup is primary. Long term relationships based on
trust are also "ery important.
Indirect ? 4irect
5cholars ha"e also distinguished cultures in terms of direct "ersus indirect
communication styles. Le"ine I1H>1J said that the -merican cultural preference is
for clear and direct communication as e"idenced by their many common
e&pressions: V5ay %hat your mean,V V*onUt beat around the bush,V VGet to the
pointV Ip.2HJ. Le"ineUs description of indirect or ambiguous communication further
underscore the differences:
Indirect "erbal communication is designed to be affecti"ely neutral. It aims for the
precise representation of fact, techniAue, or e&pectation. *irect communication
%or/s to strip language of its e&pressi"e o"ertones and suggesti"e allusions.
-mbiguous communication, by contrast, can pro"ide a superb means for
con"eying affect. 3y alluding to shared e&periences and sentiments "erbal
associations can e&press and e"o/e a %ealth of affecti"e responses. I1H>1, p.
'2J

2hus %here direct communication stri"es for emotional neutrality or ob:ecti"ity. In
contrast, ambiguous communication deliberately uses language to e"o/e an
emotional response. -dditionally, %hereas nonlinear stresses openness,
ambiguous styles %ould be more li/ely to conceal or bury the message. 5imilarly,
direct stresses specific factual and e"en technical aspects of a message that the
ambiguous style %ould omit.

Linear ? Non-linear
5imilar to the oral$literate frame%or/, scholar I*odd, 1H>2N Lee, 1H1FJ suggest
linear "ersus configurational InonlinearJ thought frame%or/. 2he -merican
culture %ould be more representati"e a linear thought frame%or/, and the -rab
culture more configurational or nonlinear. -ccording to *odd, the linear
orientation Vhas transformed auditory and oral communication into "isual
communication by means of %ritten symbols, organized into linear thought
patternsV I1H>2, p. 19'J. 2he linear cultural pattern stresses beginnings and ends
of e"ents, unitary themes, is ob:ect oriented rather than people or e"entoriented,
and is empirical in its use of e"idence.
4onlinear cultures, says *odd are characterized by the Vsimultaneous
bombardment and processing of a "ariety of stimuliV so that people %ould thin/ in
images, not :ust %ords I1H>2,
p. 192J. 2he nonlinear thought frame%or/ normally has multiple themes, is
e&pressed in oral terms and heightened by non"erbal communication. 2ime
orientation is less important than people and e"ents, and time is not segmented.
Oral 0ersus Literate
-nthropologists ha"e long posited the distinctions bet%een oral "ersus literate
dominant societies. 2he print or literate dominant society relies more on the
factual accuracy of a message than its emotional resonance I6ng, 1H>FJ. 2his
may relate to the historical purpose of the %ritten %ord to record, preser"e, and
transmit Isee, 5toc/, 1H>'J. Literate societies also fa"or e"idence, reasoning,
and analysis o"er the less rational, more intuiti"e approach I*enny, 1HH1J. 2his
contrasts to the logic of oral cultures, %here a single anecdote can constitute
adeAuate e"idence for a conclusion and a specific person or act can embody the
beliefs and ideals of the entire community IGold, 1H>>J.
7hereas literate cultures may place a higher premium on accuracy and precision
than on symbolism, in the oral cultures the %eights are re"ersed. In oral cultures
there appears to be greater in"ol"ement on the part of the audience, and this in
turn, affects the importance of style and de"ices that enhance audience rapport.
Citing Cicero, Gold I1H>>J highlights numerous features of the oral tradition,
including repetition as a means for /eeping attention as %ell as ma/ing the
speech Vagreeable to the earV Ip. 19FJ. In terms of message comprehension,
#enle I1H92J noted that auditors %ill Vgo to considerable lengths to ma/e sense
of an oral messageV Ip. ';1J. 2hus listeners play a "aluable part in constructing
meaning %ithin an oral e&change. -s Gold states, Vthe audience cooperates %ith
the spea/er by trying to understand the meaning or UgistU rather than the actual
contentV I1H>>, p. 1;FJ. 2hus, the audience is Auite acti"e.
7ith heightened listener in"ol"ement, the aesthetics of style and audience
relations may supersede the informational aspects of a message. -n oral
message may be "alued more for its affecti"e po%er than its cogniti"e merits.
2annen I1H>2J noted the interpersonal in"ol"ement bet%een spea/er and
audience, as spea/ers stri"e for a more emotional and participatory responses
from their audience. Clearly %ith style o"erriding substance, aural ornaments
such as formulas, humor, e&aggeration, parallelism, phonological elaboration,
special "ocabulary, puns, metaphor, and hedges are critical I)eldman, 1HH1N
Gold, 1H>>J.
RE5ERENCES
Learnin. Cur0e
l Implications of crosscultural differences on
business transactions
*i"ersity of business cultures across nations
and its peoples
6"ercoming cultural barriers through effecti"e communication
-fter ha"ing agreed on all the financial, legal and technical issues, the
regional manager of 2rans6ceanic, +r 2ed Goodfello%, %ent to 8iyadh to
%rap up the final details and to sign the contract %ith -rabco. *uring the
meeting %ith the top -rabco e&ecuti"es Goodfello% said casually, V7e, at
2rans6ceanic, are really loo/ing for%ard to %or/ing %ith you here in the
,ersian GulfTV -t that there %as a moment of shoc/ed silence on the -rabco
side of the conference table. 2hen the three senior e&ecuti"es arose and
strode angrily out of the room, brea/ing off negotiations. 3e%ildered
Goodfello% loo/ed at the t%o :unior 5audis %ho had remained behind. V7hat
happened hereCV he as/ed the young -rabs across the table. V*id I say
something %rongCV -fter some hesitation one of the -rabco employees
e&plained that in 5audi -rabia, the body of %ater in Auestion is called -rabian
Gulf. 3y misnaming it Goodfello% had unintentionally implied that the gulf
belonged to Iran a country %hich 5audi -rabia at that time considered
hostile and threatening.
5uch misunderstandings are rampant %hen companies do business globally.
-nd to iron out such creases in the fabric of relationships it is essential for
the e&ecuti"es to be alert to the crosscultural differences that can %rec/
e"en the most promising business deals.
Culture differs across the globe along %ith the shift of latitudes and
longitudes, along %ith the "ariations of the hair colour and changes of the
bone structures. 2hus, in 5ingapore, if the lift operator as/s you at ;.'F -+,
V#a"e you had your lunchV, politely ans%er VBes, than/ you. #a"e you had
yoursCV 2o site an e&ample of such a cultural "ariation, if you go to 8ussia,
do not feel uncomfortable if a fello% 8ussian enfolds you in a great bear hug
and /isses you on your lips. 7hile thumbsup sign is slo%ly emerging as a
uni"ersal sign for VgreatV, to many !uropeans and in the +iddle !ast, it is an
obscene sign. 2al/ing loudly, using hand gestures and facial e&pressions,
%hich comes Auite normally to many, can easily ma/e the 2hai %omen feel
that you are furious or insane. 2hus, beha"ior that is proper and familiar in
one culture may be rude, offensi"e and strange at the other. -nd these
contrasting "alues may cause conflict at the conference table. 2o a"oid such
blunders, it is absolutely essential for the international business tra"elers to
go through the tra"ails of learning the cultural basics of the country %ith
%hich they are e&pected to interact. 5ome of the aspects of the "aried
patterns and hues of crosscultural beha"iors ha"e been described
hereunder.
T-e EGreat 4i0ideE +et)een cultures
2he differences bet%een the dealfocused I*)J people %ho are
fundamentally tas/oriented and relationshipfocused I8)J fol/s, %ho are
more peopleoriented is considered to be the VGreat *i"ideV bet%een
business cultures. Conflicts are common %hen *) e&port mar/eters ma/e an
effort to do business %ith the 8) mar/ets. 7hile the 8) people find the *)
types aggressi"e, authoritati"e and offensi"ely blunt, the latter find the former
dilatory, "ague and inscrutable.
-ttributes of those for %hom deal comes first:
Q Common in only a small part of the %orld. 5trongly *) cultures are found in
4orthern !urope, 4orth -merica, -ustralia and 4e% =ealand, %here people
are relati"ely open to doing business %ith strangers I5ee 3o& 1J.
Q 8elati"ely open to dealing %ith strangersN e&port mar/eters can normally
Ed)ard T" 1all
!F!%-
Ed)ard T" 1all )as +orn on Ma/ !'= !F!% in *e+ster Gro0es=
Missouri" 1e recei0ed -is A"" de.ree at t-e Uni0ersit/ of 4en0er
in !F$'" 1e t-en )ent to t-e Uni0ersit/ of Ari,ona in !F$G and .ot
-is Masters of Arts 4e.ree" T-en -e )ent to Colum+ia Uni0ersit/
)-ere -e recei0ed -is :-"4" in !F%#" 5rom !F%# until !F%'= 1all
ser0ed in t-e U"S" Arm/ Corp of En.ineers in Europe and t-e
:acific" In !F%'= -e married Mildred Ellis Reed" T-e/H0e li0ed
-appil/ e0er after in Santa 5e= Ne) Mexico e0er since" Ernest T"
1all made man/ disco0eries in -o) people learn lan.ua.e" 1e
anal/,es t-e le0els of learnin." 1e found t-at t-ere )ere t-ree
le0els of learnin.= t-e Informal le0el= t-e 5ormal le0el= and t-e
Tec-nical le0el"
T-e Informal le0el is defined as t-e le0el )it- t-e most affect"
Informal learnin. is learnin. +/ example= +/ modelin.= often out of
a)areness" It ta6es no conscious focus on learnin." An example
)ould +e concerns a+out .rades t-at mi.-t include a .eneral
sense t-at /ou )or6 -ard and t-at t-at s-ould earn .ood .rades
for /ou" T-ere )ould also +e a sense t-at .rades are important for
later )or6 promotion= and t-at CHs no lon.er represent 7a0era.e8
to man/ people"
T-e 5ormal le0el of learnin. is t-e middle le0el of affect" 5ormal
learnin. is learned +/ rules" 5or a .eneral student a formal le0el of
learnin. could include= +ein. on time= loo6in. attenti0e= readin.
all assi.nments= and passin. tests )it- -i.- .rades" T-ese rules
arenHt usuall/ exclusi0e" T-e/ depend on )-at t-e person -as
learned as to )-at t-e rule means to t-em" 5or example it could
+e muc- more important to one person to +e to class on time t-an
anot-er" T-is us +ecause of )-at t-e/ -a0e formall/ learned"
T-e ot-er le0el is t-e Tec-nical le0el" T-is is t-e le0el )it- t-e
least affect" Tec-nical learnin. is learnin. +/ discussion of t-e
reasons for t-e rules" T-is is )-ere /ou learn most of /our
opinions" An example )ould +e discussin. t-e t-eor/ t-at
manners pro0ide t-e .lue for societ/Hs rou.- spots in
interpersonal relations-ips= so t-at our polic/ is to rel/ on
manners to 6eep t-ose relations-ips smoot-" Ed)ard T" 1all did
most of -is )or6 on Silent Lan.ua.es" 1e used t-ese t-eories as
)ell as man/ ot-ers to explain -o) people )ould communicate
)it-out t-e use of an ela+orate lan.ua.e" 1e -as made man/
disco0eries in t-e Ant-ropolo./ field dealin. )it- t-e lan.ua.e of
pre-istoric people" 1e -as )ritten t-e +oo6sI )he ,ilent Language,
Beond Culture, The !ance of Life, and "idden !ifferences#
8eferences:
?5ynchrony and Group Cohesion@ I)ri 21 6ct. 1HH.J
http:$$%%%.ratical.org$manyR%orlds$5yn8yth.html 2 +ay 2FFF.
?Intercultural Communication@
http:$$%%%2.soc.ha%aii.edu$css$dept$com$resources$intercultural$#all.ht
ml 2 +ay 2FFF.
7ritten by <a/e 7ischmeier