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Qualitative - Quantitative
Research
Dr. Asim Nisar
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Aims
Become Become familiar familiar with with the the utility utility and and
limitations limitations of of qualitative qualitative && quantitative quantitative limitations limitations of of qualitative qualitative && quantitative quantitative
research research
Become Become familiar familiar with with qualitative qualitative research research
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After After the the lecture lecture and and discussions discussions the the PhD PhD
student student should should be be able able to to explain explain the the major major
differences differences
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Structure of presentation
11 Introduction Introduction 1. 1. Introduction Introduction
2. 2. Approaches Approaches -- Choices to make Choices to make
3. 3. Contrasting Qualitative & Quantitative Contrasting Qualitative & Quantitative
4. 4. Next lecture: Methods Next lecture: Methods
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1 Introduction
Major Major source source:: Major Major source source::
Creswell, J .W.; 2003, Research Design:
Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches, 2
nd
Edition, London, Sage
Publications
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Components of research proposal ?
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Pro memo: The research process
Define Problem, Title, Rationale
Define Objectives &Questions Define Objectives & Questions
Limitations
Concepts, definitions
(Literature review)
Approach (Strategies or:
Design), Information, Sources,
Data Forms, Sampling
Collect Data
Analyse Data
Write & Publish findings
Proposal
Research process
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Basic and Applied Research
Basic Research Basic Research aims to expand the frontiers of science and knowledge by aims to expand the frontiers of science and knowledge by
verifying or disproving the acceptability of a given theory or attempting to verifying or disproving the acceptability of a given theory or attempting to
discover more about a certain concept (non discover more about a certain concept (non specificity) specificity) discover more about a certain concept (non discover more about a certain concept (non--specificity) specificity)
Example Example: How does motivation affect employee performance? : How does motivation affect employee performance?
Applied Research Applied Research focuses focuses on a real on a real--life problem or situation with a view to life problem or situation with a view to
helping reach a decision howto deal with it (Specificity) helping reach a decision howto deal with it (Specificity) helping reach a decision how to deal with it (Specificity) helping reach a decision how to deal with it (Specificity)
Example Example: Should Corporation X adopt a paperless office environment? : Should Corporation X adopt a paperless office environment?
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Science and the Scientific Method
Science has been defined as the methodological and Science has been defined as the methodological and
systematic approach to acquisition of new knowledge systematic approach to acquisition of new knowledge
((G ff G ff M k M k D id D id D M tt D M tt D id D id F ti F ti E ti l f E ti l f ((Geoffrey Geoffrey Marcyzk Marcyzk, David , David DeMatteo DeMatteo, David , David Festinger Festinger, , Essentials of Essentials of
Research Design and Methodology Research Design and Methodology, J ohn Wiley & Sons, 2005, p. 4 , J ohn Wiley & Sons, 2005, p. 4))
The scientific method, which has evolved since the 13 The scientific method, which has evolved since the 13
th th
century, concerns the set of tools, techniques and century, concerns the set of tools, techniques and
procedures used by basic and applied researchers to procedures used by basic and applied researchers to
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procedures used by basic and applied researchers to procedures used by basic and applied researchers to
analyze and understand phenomena and prove or analyze and understand phenomena and prove or
disprove prior conceptions disprove prior conceptions
The Essence of the Scientific Method
Characteristics of the Scientific Method
Elements of the
Objectivity
Systematic Analysis
Logical Interpretation of Results
Scientific Method
Empirical Approach
Observations
Questions
Hypotheses
E i t
Basic
Experiments
Analysis
Conclusion
Replication
Basic
Research
Applied
Research
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Information or
Ideas for alternative
Courses of action
General Laws
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Creswell suggests
Real world problems mean there often is no Real world problems mean there often is no Real world problems mean there often is no Real world problems mean there often is no
controlled environment controlled environment
The researcher must be flexible, patient, The researcher must be flexible, patient,
mindful, creative, resourceful and adaptable mindful, creative, resourceful and adaptable
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Creswell: Become clear
What knowledge claims are being made by What knowledge claims are being made by What knowledge claims are being made by What knowledge claims are being made by
the researcher? the researcher?
What strategies of inquiry will inform the What strategies of inquiry will inform the
procedures? procedures?
What methods of data collection and What methods of data collection and
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a e ods o da a co ec o a d a e ods o da a co ec o a d
analysis will be used? analysis will be used?
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Creswell: What to clarify
Elements of Inquiry Elements of Inquiry Approaches to Research Approaches to Research Design Process Design Process
of Research of Research
Alternative
knowledge claims
Strategies of Inquiry
Qualitative
Quantitative
Mixed Methods
Questions
Theoretical
Lens
Data
Collection
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Methods
Conceptualized by
the researcher
Translated
into Practice
Collection
Data Analysis
Write-Up
Validation
Key importance: Define the problem and
(Prof. Speece)
review what is known about the problem review what is known about the problem
develop a framework develop a framework develop a framework develop a framework
for dealing with the problem for dealing with the problem
maybe formal hypotheses if deductive maybe formal hypotheses if deductive
define the concepts define the concepts
define the relationships between concepts define the relationships between concepts
set research objectives set research objectives
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develop a list of information needs develop a list of information needs
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Note: We cannot make any decisions
about the rest of the researchprocess and about the rest of the researchprocess and about the rest of the research process and about the rest of the research process and
the approach (qualitative/quantitative) the approach (qualitative/quantitative)
until after we have clarified these issues until after we have clarified these issues
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When we made a list of information
needs (Prof. Speece)
We did not consider howto get the We did not consider howto get the We did not consider how to get the We did not consider how to get the
information information
This is part of the research design This is part of the research design
And specific wishes (mandate ) And specific wishes (mandate )
And budgeting And budgeting
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g g g g
8
2 Research design
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Research design is mainly about:
What kind of researchis appropriate? What kind of researchis appropriate? What kind of research is appropriate? What kind of research is appropriate?
What is the best way to get the information? What is the best way to get the information?
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Qualitative / quantitative (Prof. Speece)
Refers Refers to to how howwe we organize organize data data Refers Refers to to how howwe we organize organize data data
not not mainly mainly whether whether there there are are numbers numbers
involved involved
organize organize with with the the
brain brain ==qualitative qualitative
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brain brain qualitative qualitative
computer computer (statistics, (statistics, math math models) models) ==
quantitative quantitative
Overview of Research
Methodologies
Qualitative Research Qualitative Research Qualitative Research Qualitative Research
Ethnography, Case Study, Grounded Theory, Ethnography, Case Study, Grounded Theory,
Autobiography, Participatory Action Research, Autobiography, Participatory Action Research,
Phenomenology (each grounded in a specific discipline Phenomenology (each grounded in a specific discipline
and philosophical assumptions) and philosophical assumptions)
Quantitative Research Quantitative Research
Survey methods Experiments Survey methods Experiments Survey methods, Experiments Survey methods, Experiments
Mixed Methods Mixed Methods
Draw from qualitative and quantitative methods Draw from qualitative and quantitative methods
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Quantitative
A quantitative approachis one in which the A quantitative approachis one in which the A quantitative approach is one in which the A quantitative approach is one in which the
investigator primarily uses post investigator primarily uses post--positivist positivist
claims for developing knowledge (i.e. cause claims for developing knowledge (i.e. cause
and effect thinking, reduction to specific and effect thinking, reduction to specific
variables and hypotheses and questions, variables and hypotheses and questions,
f d b i d f d b i d use of measurement and observation, and use of measurement and observation, and
the test of theories). the test of theories). (Creswell, 2003, p.19) (Creswell, 2003, p.19)
Qualitative - Definition
qualitative researchers study things in qualitative researchers study things in qualitative researchers study things in qualitative researchers study things in
their natural settings, attempting to make their natural settings, attempting to make
sense of or interpret phenomenon in terms sense of or interpret phenomenon in terms
of the meanings people bring to them. of the meanings people bring to them. (Denzin (Denzin
& Lincoln, 2000, p.3). & Lincoln, 2000, p.3).
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Qualitative - Definition
A qualitative approach is one in which the inquirer A qualitative approach is one in which the inquirer A qualitative approach is one in which the inquirer A qualitative approach is one in which the inquirer
often makes knowledge claims based primarily on often makes knowledge claims based primarily on
constructivist perspectives (i.e. the multiple constructivist perspectives (i.e. the multiple
meanings of individual experiences, meanings meanings of individual experiences, meanings
socially and historically constructed, with an intent socially and historically constructed, with an intent
of developing a theory or pattern) or of developing a theory or pattern) or
advocacy/participatory perspectives (i e political advocacy/participatory perspectives (i e political advocacy/participatory perspectives (i.e. political, advocacy/participatory perspectives (i.e. political,
issue issue--oriented, collaborative or change oriented) oriented, collaborative or change oriented)
or both. or both. (Creswell, 2003, p.18) (Creswell, 2003, p.18)
Research Questions
Qualitative Qualitative Qualitative Qualitative
In qualitative study inquirers state research In qualitative study inquirers state research
questions, not objectives (i.e. specific goals for questions, not objectives (i.e. specific goals for
the research) or hypotheses (i.e. predictions the research) or hypotheses (i.e. predictions
that involve variables and statistical tests). that involve variables and statistical tests). (C., (C.,
2003, p.105) 2003, p.105) , p ) , p )
Example: How do students use program Example: How do students use program
development tools? development tools?
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Characteristics of
Qualitative Research
Takes place in the natural setting Takes place in the natural setting p g p g
Uses multiple methods that are interpretive Uses multiple methods that are interpretive
Is emergent rather than tightly prefigured Is emergent rather than tightly prefigured
Fundamentally interpretive (role of researcher as Fundamentally interpretive (role of researcher as
interpreter) interpreter)
Researcher views social phenomena holistically Researcher views social phenomena holistically
Researcher systematically reflects on who he or she is in Researcher systematically reflects on who he or she is in
the inquiry and is sensitive to hiwor her personal the inquiry and is sensitive to hiwor her personal the inquiry and is sensitive to hiw or her personal the inquiry and is sensitive to hiw or her personal
biography and how it shapes the study biography and how it shapes the study
Researcher uses complex reasoning that is multifaceted, Researcher uses complex reasoning that is multifaceted,
iterative, and simultaneous iterative, and simultaneous
Researcher adopts and uses one or more strategies of Researcher adopts and uses one or more strategies of
inquiry inquiry
Research Methods
Interviews Interviews Interviews Interviews
Focusgroups Focusgroups
Participant observation (field notes) Participant observation (field notes)
Video Video
Text and Image analysis (documents Text and Image analysis (documents Text and Image analysis (documents, Text and Image analysis (documents,
media data) media data)
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Data Analysis (C., p.191)
Organize and prepare the data for analysis Organize and prepare the data for analysis Organize and prepare the data for analysis Organize and prepare the data for analysis
Read all data, get a sense of the whole Read all data, get a sense of the whole
Begin detailed analysis with coding process Begin detailed analysis with coding process
Generate a description of the setting/people as Generate a description of the setting/people as
well as categories or themes for analysis well as categories or themes for analysis
Represent themes (writing, visual, etc.) Represent themes (writing, visual, etc.) Represent themes (writing, visual, etc.) Represent themes (writing, visual, etc.)
Interpret and make meaning out of data Interpret and make meaning out of data
*iterative, non *iterative, non--linear process linear process
Research Methodologies
Ethnography Ethnography Ethnography Ethnography
An ethnography is a description and An ethnography is a description and
interpretation of a cultural or social group or interpretation of a cultural or social group or
system. The research examines the groups system. The research examines the groups
observable and learned patterns of behaviour, observable and learned patterns of behaviour,
customs and ways of life customs and ways of life (C 1998 p 58) (C 1998 p 58) customs, and ways of life. customs, and ways of life. (C., 1998,p.58) (C., 1998,p.58)
Rapid Ethnography Rapid Ethnography
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Research Methodologies
Case Study Case Study Case Study Case Study
a case study is an exploration of a bounded a case study is an exploration of a bounded
system over time through detailed, in system over time through detailed, in--depth depth
data collection involving multiple sources of data collection involving multiple sources of
information rich in context. This bounded information rich in context. This bounded
systemis bounded by time and place and it is systemis bounded by time and place and it is system is bounded by time and place, and it is system is bounded by time and place, and it is
the case being studied the case being studied a program, an event, a program, an event,
an activity, or individuals. an activity, or individuals. (C., 1999, p.61) (C., 1999, p.61)
Useful Methods
Participant observation Participant observation Participant observation Participant observation
Gains insight into understanding cultural patterns to Gains insight into understanding cultural patterns to
determine whats necessary and needed in tool determine whats necessary and needed in tool
development (complementary to interviews) development (complementary to interviews)
Interviews/Focusgroups with stakeholders Interviews/Focusgroups with stakeholders
Explores how tools are used and could be used in a Explores how tools are used and could be used in a
novice programming course novice programming course
Gains insight into the meaning of tools for students for Gains insight into the meaning of tools for students for
learning to program learning to program
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Useful Methods
Data analysis Data analysis Data analysis Data analysis
Themes arising from data would provide insight into Themes arising from data would provide insight into
current learning to program issues and see what is current learning to program issues and see what is
important to students / teachers / administrators important to students / teachers / administrators
Survey Survey
Useful for verifying results on a larger scale Useful for verifying results on a larger scale
User Testing User Testing
Useful for triangulating results Useful for triangulating results
Triangulation
Triangulation is a powerful technique that facilitates validation of data through
cross verification from more than two sources. In particular, it refers to the
application and combination of several research methodologies in the study of pp g y
the same phenomenon
It can be employed in both quantitative (validation) and qualitative (inquiry)
studies.
It is a method-appropriate strategy of founding the credibility of qualitative
analyses.
It becomes an alternative to traditional criteria like reliability and validity. y y
It is the preferred line in the social sciences.
By combining multiple observers, theories, methods, and empirical materials,
researchers can hope to overcome the weakness or intrinsic biases and the
problems that come from single method, single-observer and single-theory
studies
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Choice of
Methodology & Methods
Depends on Depends on Depends on Depends on
Research Questions Research Questions
Research Goals Research Goals
Researcher Beliefs and Values Researcher Beliefs and Values
Researcher Skills Researcher Skills
Time and Funds Time and Funds
Qualitative or Quantitative ?
When When do do we we have have to to make make the the decision? decision? When When do do we we have have to to make make the the decision? decision?
After After we we are are sure sure
what what we we want want to to focus focus on on
about about what what information information we we need need
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When do Qualitative Research Overview
(Prof. Speece)
New New area area not not much much is is known known or or you you want want to to New New area area,, not not much much is is known known or or you you want want to to
understand understand well well -- basic basic exploratory exploratory studies studies
Ideas Ideas research research -- new new product product development development product product
concepts, concepts, understanding understanding how howcustomers customers react react to to them, them,
ideas ideas for for advertising advertising campaigns, campaigns, etc etc..
Deep Deep understanding understanding of of attitudes, attitudes, decision decision process process
Di ti Di ti l ti l ti t di t di hh d t di d t di
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Diagnostics, Diagnostics, evaluation evaluation studies studies where where understanding understanding
not not measurement, measurement, is is key key issue issue
Qualitative Research Designs - In
Case of (Prof. Speece)
small population small population small population, small population,
small sample situations small sample situations
where it is not possible to get large samples where it is not possible to get large samples
then, one cannot do reliable statistics then, one cannot do reliable statistics
It is better to get deeper understanding It is better to get deeper understanding
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g p g g p g
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3 Contrasting Qualitative &
Quantitative
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Creswell: Match between problem and
approach
Certain types of problems call for certain types of Certain types of problems call for certain types of Certain types of problems call for certain types of Certain types of problems call for certain types of
approaches approaches
Identifying factors that influence an outcome, utility of an Identifying factors that influence an outcome, utility of an
intervention, best predictors of outcomes, test theory or intervention, best predictors of outcomes, test theory or
explanation = explanation =quantitative quantitative
Concept/phenomenon with little understanding= Concept/phenomenon with little understanding=qualitative qualitative
When researcher wants to both generalize findings and When researcher wants to both generalize findings and
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understand a phenomenon in depth= understand a phenomenon in depth=mixed mixed
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Qualitative research Quantitative research
Construct meaning Measure facts
Focus on interactive processes Focus on variables
Authenticity Reliability
Deep understanding Profiles
Numbers play minor role Numbers are important
Situation/context important Independent of context
Fe cases Man cases
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Few cases Many cases
In form of thematic analysis In form of statistical analysis
Learning Confirming
Researcher is involved Researcher is detached
Characteristics: Qualitative - Quantitative Research
(Merriam 2009, p. 19)
Comparison Qualitative Quantitative
Focus Focus Quality (nature essence) Quality (nature essence) Quantity (howmany ) Quantity (howmany ) Focus Focus Quality (nature, essence) Quality (nature, essence) Quantity (how many ..) Quantity (how many ..)
Philosophical roots Philosophical roots Phenomenology, Phenomenology,
Symbolic interactionism Symbolic interactionism
Constructivism Constructivism
Positivism, Positivism,
Logical empiricism Logical empiricism
Realism Realism
Associated phrases Associated phrases Fieldwork Fieldwork
Ethnographic Ethnographic
Naturalistic Naturalistic
Experimental Experimental
Empirical Empirical
Statistical Statistical
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Naturalistic Naturalistic
Grounded Grounded
Constructivist Constructivist
Statistical Statistical
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Characteristics: Qualitative - Quantitative Research
(Merriam 2009, p. 19)
Comparison Qualitative Quantitative
Goal of investigation Goal of investigation Understanding Understanding Prediction Prediction Goal of investigation Goal of investigation Understanding Understanding
Description Description
Discovery Discovery
Meaning Meaning
Hypothesis generating Hypothesis generating
Prediction Prediction
Control Control
Description Description
Confirmation Confirmation
Hypothesis testing Hypothesis testing
Design characteristics Design characteristics Flexible Flexible
Evolving Evolving
E i E i
Predetermined Predetermined
Structured Structured
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Emerging Emerging
Sample Sample Small Small
Non Non--random random
Purposeful Purposeful
Theoretical Theoretical
Large Large
Random Random
Representative Representative
Characteristics: Qualitative - Quantitative Research
(Merriam 2009, p. 19)
Comparison Qualitative Quantitative
Data collection Data collection Researcher is primary Researcher is primary Inanimate instruments Inanimate instruments Data collection Data collection Researcher is primary Researcher is primary
instrument instrument
Interviews Interviews
Observation Observation
Documents Documents
Inanimate instruments Inanimate instruments
(scales, tests, surveys) (scales, tests, surveys)
Primary mode of Primary mode of
analysis analysis
Inductive
Constant comparative
method
Deductive Deductive
Statistical Statistical
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method
Findings Findings Comprehensive Comprehensive
Holistic Holistic
Expansive Expansive
Richly descriptive Richly descriptive
Precise Precise
Nummerical Nummerical
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Qualitative vs. Quantitative Qualitative vs. Quantitative
or or
Positivist vs. interpretive/critical Positivist vs. interpretive/critical
Very often qualitative and quantitative research are set Very often qualitative and quantitative research are set
Introduction Introduction. Problem. Literature . Data . Quantitative . Qualitative . Presentation . Cases .
y q q y q q
against each other as polar opposites. However these against each other as polar opposites. However these
are really discussions based at the method level. are really discussions based at the method level.
Theories
The Research Process
Generalisations
Hypotheses
Observations
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Four elements of
research
What do we recognise as
knowledge
How do we know what we
know?
What is true
Objectivist =meaning and reality exist apart from
anybody being conscious of them
Constructivist =meaning derives from our
interaction with the world
Subjectivist =meaning is imposed on an object by
the subject
Epistemology

Theoretical perspective

Positivist
Interpretive
Critical
The philosphical
stance that underlies
our chosen
methodology our
assumptions
Introduction . Problem . Literature . Data . Quantitative . Qualitative . Presentation . Cases .
Methodology

Methods
Plan of action,
research design and
why
Techniques
Surveys
Interviews
observation
Contrasting Approaches
Inductive vs Deductive Inductive vs Deductive Inductive vs. Deductive Inductive vs. Deductive
Inductive research comes to a general Inductive research comes to a general
conclusion through the observation of multiple conclusion through the observation of multiple
instances. instances.
Example: I have seen many white swans, but never Example: I have seen many white swans, but never
a black swan; therefore, all swans are white. a black swan; therefore, all swans are white.
D d i h i i D d i h i i Deductive research tests an existing Deductive research tests an existing
conclusion through the observation of a conclusion through the observation of a
specific instance. specific instance.
Example: All mortal things die. All men are mortal Example: All mortal things die. All men are mortal
things. All men die. things. All men die.
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Contrasting Approaches
Administrative vs Critical Administrative vs Critical Administrative vs. Critical Administrative vs. Critical
Administrative research is performed to Administrative research is performed to
increase the efficiency of existing social increase the efficiency of existing social
structures. structures.
Example: Research on the effectiveness of Example: Research on the effectiveness of
magazine advertising. magazine advertising.
C i i l h i i h f d l C i i l h i i h f d l Critical research investigates the fundamental Critical research investigates the fundamental
inequities and injustices of the existing social inequities and injustices of the existing social
structure. structure.
Example: Research on sexist imagery themes in Example: Research on sexist imagery themes in
network television programs. network television programs.
Contrasting Approaches
Quantitative vs Qualitative Quantitative vs Qualitative Quantitative vs. Qualitative Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Quantitative research reduces all phenomena Quantitative research reduces all phenomena
to numbers to enable management and to numbers to enable management and
comparison of data. comparison of data.
Techniques: Experimentation, Field Observation, Techniques: Experimentation, Field Observation,
Survey Content Analysis Survey Content Analysis Survey, Content Analysis. Survey, Content Analysis.
Example: Men outnumber women on television by a Example: Men outnumber women on television by a
margin of 3:1. margin of 3:1.
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Contrasting Approaches
Quantitative vs Qualitative Quantitative vs Qualitative Quantitative vs. Qualitative Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Qualitative research attempts to uncover a Qualitative research attempts to uncover a
deep understanding of phenomenon through deep understanding of phenomenon through
the first the first- -hand involvement and interaction of hand involvement and interaction of
the researcher. the researcher.
Techniques: Ethnography and Participant Techniques: Ethnography and Participant Techniques: Ethnography and Participant Techniques: Ethnography and Participant
Observation, Open Interview, Textual Analysis. Observation, Open Interview, Textual Analysis.
Example: Many people that I spoke to saw no Example: Many people that I spoke to saw no
conflict between their religious beliefs and their conflict between their religious beliefs and their
behavior at Mardi Gras. behavior at Mardi Gras.
Quantitative Research
Experiments Experiments Experiments Experiments
Experiments measure the effect of one or more Experiments measure the effect of one or more
independent variables on one or more dependent independent variables on one or more dependent
variables under controlled conditions. variables under controlled conditions.
Components: Components:
Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated to Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated to
produce change in the Dependent Variable (DV). produce change in the Dependent Variable (DV). p g p ( ) p g p ( )
Dependent Variable (DV): The variable being measured in Dependent Variable (DV): The variable being measured in
response to the effects of the Independent Variable. response to the effects of the Independent Variable.
Confounding Variable: Any additional variable which might Confounding Variable: Any additional variable which might
influence the DV but is not accounted for. influence the DV but is not accounted for.
Participants: Volunteers who choose to participate in the Participants: Volunteers who choose to participate in the
experiment. experiment.
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Quantitative Research
Experiments Experiments Experiments Experiments
Components (cont.) Components (cont.)
Design: The grouping of participants based on exposure to the Design: The grouping of participants based on exposure to the
IV. (e.g. IV. (e.g. Pretest Pretest Treatment Treatment Posttest Posttest: Participants are : Participants are
tested and exposed to the treatment (IV) before being tested tested and exposed to the treatment (IV) before being tested
again to measure the effect of the treatment (IV) on the again to measure the effect of the treatment (IV) on the
posttest results (DV). posttest results (DV).
Treatment: The stimulus that is exposed to participants. Treatment: The stimulus that is exposed to participants. p p p p p p
Procedure: Step Procedure: Step--by by--step instructions for how to perform the step instructions for how to perform the
experiment. experiment.
Apparatus: Device used to present the treatment to the Apparatus: Device used to present the treatment to the
participant. participant.
Instrumentation: Device used to measure the DV. Instrumentation: Device used to measure the DV.
Quantitative Research
Field Observation Field Observation Field Observation Field Observation
Field observation is the systematic counting Field observation is the systematic counting
and recording of events in a natural and recording of events in a natural
(uncontrolled) setting. (uncontrolled) setting.
Example: Observing the amount of time men and Example: Observing the amount of time men and
women spend on cellular phones while in the women spend on cellular phones while in the women spend on cellular phones while in the women spend on cellular phones while in the
airport. airport.
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Quantitative Research
Survey Survey Survey Survey
A survey is a series of questions used to gather A survey is a series of questions used to gather
data from a sample that can be generalized to data from a sample that can be generalized to
a population. a population.
If selected randomly (every individual in a population If selected randomly (every individual in a population
has an equally likely chance of being selected) has an equally likely chance of being selected) has an equally likely chance of being selected), has an equally likely chance of being selected),
survey results can be generalized to the populations survey results can be generalized to the populations
from which they were taken. from which they were taken.
Quantitative Research
Survey(cont ) Survey(cont ) Survey (cont.) Survey (cont.)
Unlike experiments, surveys Unlike experiments, surveys do not do not establish establish
causality; instead, they can reveal correlations causality; instead, they can reveal correlations
between variables. between variables.
Example: A survey revealed that men who report Example: A survey revealed that men who report
negative relationships with their father also have negative relationships with their father also have negative relationships with their father also have negative relationships with their father also have
higher levels of unemployment. higher levels of unemployment.
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Quantitative Research
Content Analysis Content Analysis Content Analysis Content Analysis
Content analysis systematically accounts for Content analysis systematically accounts for
specified content within a particular text or set specified content within a particular text or set
of texts. of texts.
Components: Components:
CodingBooklet: Contains instructions for coding CodingBooklet: Contains instructions for coding Coding Booklet: Contains instructions for coding. Coding Booklet: Contains instructions for coding.
Coding Sheet: Instrument used to record the data. Coding Sheet: Instrument used to record the data.
Independent Coders: People (other than the researcher) Independent Coders: People (other than the researcher)
who records the data on the coding sheet. who records the data on the coding sheet.
Quantitative Research
Content Analysis (cont ) Content Analysis (cont ) Content Analysis (cont.) Content Analysis (cont.)
Example: To find out how many acts of Example: To find out how many acts of
violence occur during a particular television violence occur during a particular television
program, a researcher would define violence program, a researcher would define violence
carefully in a coding booklet before training carefully in a coding booklet before training
independent coders to viewthe programand independent coders to viewthe programand independent coders to view the program and independent coders to view the program and
record each instance of violence on a coding record each instance of violence on a coding
sheet according to the definition. sheet according to the definition.
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Qualitative Research
Ethnography Ethnography Ethnography Ethnography
Ethnography is a qualitative research technique in Ethnography is a qualitative research technique in
which the researcher immerses him or herself in the which the researcher immerses him or herself in the
surroundings of the environment under investigation. surroundings of the environment under investigation.
Instead of reducing data to numbers, ethnographers Instead of reducing data to numbers, ethnographers
tend to describe and interpret their experience tend to describe and interpret their experience
subjectively subjectively subjectively. subjectively.
Example: A researcher interested in how internet chat Example: A researcher interested in how internet chat--room room
users form relationships may take on a chat identity and users form relationships may take on a chat identity and
attempt to interact with the people he is studying. attempt to interact with the people he is studying.
Qualitative Research
Participant Observation Participant Observation Participant Observation Participant Observation
Participant observation uses the methods of Participant observation uses the methods of
ethnography, but less time is spent in the ethnography, but less time is spent in the
research setting. research setting.
Open Interviews Open Interviews
In open interviews, the researcher asks In open interviews, the researcher asks
questions, but encourages the interviewee questions, but encourages the interviewee
(called an informant) to structure his or her own (called an informant) to structure his or her own
response without much interference. response without much interference.
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Qualitative Research
Textual Analysis Textual Analysis Textual Analysis Textual Analysis
In textual analysis, researchers analyze a In textual analysis, researchers analyze a
media text (e.g. television program, comic book media text (e.g. television program, comic book
series, etc.) through the identification, series, etc.) through the identification,
description, and interaction of themes. description, and interaction of themes.
Contrasting positivist and interpretive Contrasting positivist and interpretive
approaches approaches
Positivist
Reality is real exists
independent of human
Interpretive
Reality is in the minds of people
Human beings are actors who
consciousness
Human beings are rational
creatures governed by social laws
Science is based on strict rules
based on universal causal laws
Science is value free
g
create social reality by assigning
meaning systems to events
Science represents reality
symbolically in a descriptive way
Science is not value free, value
neutrality is neither necessary or
Introduction Introduction. Problem. Literature . Data . Quantitative . Qualitative . Presentation . Cases .
Science is value free neutrality is neither necessary or
possible
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Contrasting positivist and interpretive Contrasting positivist and interpretive
approaches approaches
Positivist
C ll d i f h
Interpretive
C l l ld i f Controlled setting for research
Subject is an object in the
research
Research design fixed
Researcher outside
Emphasis on reliability
Complex, real world setting for
research
Subject is a participant in the
research process
Research design evolving
Researcher inside
Introduction Introduction. Problem. Literature . Data . Quantitative . Qualitative . Presentation . Cases .
Emphasis on reliability
Emphasis on validity
Critique of quantitative methodology Critique of quantitative methodology
Reality cannot be defined objectively, it is Reality cannot be defined objectively, it is
interpreted social interaction interpreted social interaction
Quantification can result in meanings that are Quantification can result in meanings that are Quantification can result in meanings that are Quantification can result in meanings that are
closer to the beliefs of the researcher than the closer to the beliefs of the researcher than the
respondents respondents
Hypotheses determines the course of the study Hypotheses determines the course of the study
Methods become overridingly important Methods become overridingly important
The quantitative model is the natural sciences, The quantitative model is the natural sciences,
Introduction Introduction. Problem. Literature . Data . Quantitative . Qualitative . Presentation . Cases .
q , q ,
this model may not be relevant for the social this model may not be relevant for the social
sciences sciences
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Theory building in quantitative and Theory building in quantitative and
qualitative research qualitative research
Quant Qual
Logic of theory Deductive Inductive
Direction of
theory building
Begins from
theory
Begins from
observation of
reality
Verification Takes place after Data generation,
theory building is
complete
analysis and
theory
verification
concurrent
Quant Qual
C t D i d B i ith Concepts Designed
before
research
begins
Begins with
flexible
concepts
Sarantakos, S. (1998). Social research. South Melbourne, Macmillan
Education Australia.
32
So, what is qualitative research So, what is qualitative research??
Emerged fromthe social sciences Emerged fromthe social sciences Emerged from the social sciences Emerged from the social sciences
Provides researchers with methodologies and Provides researchers with methodologies and
methods for understanding people and their actions methods for understanding people and their actions
within social and organisational settings within social and organisational settings
Usually very contextual, focussed on the Usually very contextual, focussed on the
understanding of the richness and complexity of the understanding of the richness and complexity of the
settings within which people live, learn and work settings within which people live, learn and work
Some features of qualitative research Some features of qualitative research
Purpose is to understandrather than Purpose is to understandrather than Purpose is to understand rather than Purpose is to understand rather than
measure measure
Is holistic and accommodates the Is holistic and accommodates the
emergent properties of real emergent properties of real--world world
situations situations
Places findings in context Places findings in context historical, historical,
cultural, political cultural, political
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Is interpretive, ie social reality is Is interpretive, ie social reality is
constructed through interpretation constructed through interpretation
Uses naturalistic methods such as Uses naturalistic methods such as
fieldwork fieldwork
Is communicative: is understood and Is communicative: is understood and
operates in the context of the process operates in the context of the process
of communication, of which it is part of communication, of which it is part , p , p
Some definitions Some definitions
Positivism Positivism -- knowledge can be obtained through knowledge can be obtained through
observation through the senses rather than observation through the senses rather than
through belief, applying scientific approach to through belief, applying scientific approach to
social phenomena social phenomena social phenomena social phenomena
Symbolic interactionism Symbolic interactionism meaning is gained meaning is gained
through social interaction eg concept of beauty. through social interaction eg concept of beauty.
Individuals reach common understanding through Individuals reach common understanding through
language and other symbolic systems language and other symbolic systems
Structural functionalism Structural functionalism (social systems theory) (social systems theory)
i t i lik i d b i t i lik i d b society is like an organism and can be seen as a society is like an organism and can be seen as a
system an set of subsystems system an set of subsystems
Phenomenology Phenomenology there is an objective world but it there is an objective world but it
can only be known through our perceptions of it. can only be known through our perceptions of it.
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Hermeneutics Hermeneutics gaining understanding through analysing gaining understanding through analysing
and interpreting texts and interpreting texts Content analysis Content analysis is a form of this is a form of this
Ethnography Ethnography detailed description rather than detailed description rather than
explanation, study of whole cultures as systems from explanation, study of whole cultures as systems from
the informants point of view the informants point of view
Ethnomethodology Ethnomethodology making sense out of the informants making sense out of the informants Ethnomethodology Ethnomethodology making sense out of the informants making sense out of the informants
perceptions perceptions
Grounded theory Grounded theory derives theories from observational derives theories from observational
data, emphasises systematic coding, achieving validity data, emphasises systematic coding, achieving validity
and reliability; combines qualitative and quantitative and reliability; combines qualitative and quantitative
methods methods
Action research Action research applying fact finding to pracital applying fact finding to pracital
problem solving in a social situation with a view to problem solving in a social situation with a view to
improving the quality of action within it; involves improving the quality of action within it; involves
collaboration of researchers and practitioners. collaboration of researchers and practitioners.
Grounded theory (GT)
Grounded theory (GT) is a systematic qualitative research
th d l i th i l i h i i ti f th methodology in the social sciences emphasizing generation of theory
fromdata in the process of conductingresearch.
It is a research method that operates almost in a reverse fashion from
traditional research and at first may appear to be in contradiction of
the scientific method. Rather than beginning by researching and
developing a hypothesis, the first step is data collection, through a
variety of methods. From the data collected, the key points are
marked with a series of codes, which are extracted fromthe text. The
codes are grouped into similar concepts in order to make themmore
workable. Fromthese concepts, categories are formed, which are the
basis for the creation of a theory, or a reverse engineered hypothesis.
This contradicts the traditional model of research, where the
researcher chooses a theoretical framework, and only then applies
this model to the studiedphenomenon.
35
Qualitative data Qualitative data
Sources of data include: Sources of data include:
-- participant observation participant observation
-- interviews interviews
--documentary analysis documentary analysis
Types of data: Types of data:
-- semantic analysis (elicited data) semantic analysis (elicited data) data we acquire in response to data we acquire in response to questions questions
we ask we ask
-- observational data observational data data acquired through observation of the data acquired through observation of the phenomenon phenomenon q g q g pp
of interest (researchers perceptions, video tapes, field notes...) of interest (researchers perceptions, video tapes, field notes...)
-- Emic Emic data data collected and described in categories relevant to the collected and described in categories relevant to the participants participants
-- Etic Etic data data - - collected and described in categories defined by the researcher collected and described in categories defined by the researcher
Example of quantitative research 1
Long-term limited illness in UK: 12.4%
Analysis indicates considerable geographical
variation.
Pattern persists when age and sex are
controlled for.
36
Example of quantitative research 1
People in Torry are far more likely to report long-term limited
illness in 1991 Census than in Ferryhill
8
10
12
14
Ferryhill
0
2
4
6
8
limiting illness
Ferryhill
UK
Torry
Example of quantitative research 1
Possible explanations for results:
37
Exercise
Research showed that peanuts cause
brain damage. Discuss.
How to use qualitative methods
Definitions: It
involves methods of data collection and
analysis that are nonquantitative (Lofland &
Lofland 1984).
focuses on " quality" , a term referring to
the essence or ambience of something (Berg
1989).
38
What are qualitative methods?
Observation
In-depth interviews
Focus groups
Discourse/content analysis
Case studies
Oral history
Qualitative methods
Purpose:
Quality rather than quantity
Why do people do the things they do?
Offer insight into how behaviours, systems and Offer insight into how behaviours, systems and
relationships are maintained or change
Understanding how organisations function (case
study)
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When to use qualitative methods
Searching for meaning:
Why do students do BSc Sports Studies,
rather than how many do it?
How does disability affect students
academic performance?
When to use qualitative methods
1. Preparing for quantitative studies
2. In parallel with quantitative studies:
Explain findings of quantitative studies
examine in-depth the meaning of quantitative findings (the
meaning behind the causal relationships)
as part of triangulation
3. Complement quantitative studies/search for meaning
40
Qualitative methods
Strengths:
Adds quality (The why question)?
Respondent-centred approach
Context
Meaning
Theory development
Qualitative methods
Weaknesses:
Non-generalisable (small sample)
Reliability issue
Validity issue (under or overreporting)
Cant normally use statistical techniques
Expensive
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Example qualitative research
Performance Related Emotional States in Sport: A
Qualitative Analysis http://www.qualitative-
research.net/fqs-texte/1-03/1-03hanin-e.pdf
Divers/rowers Individual Zones of Optimal
Functioning and their anxiety state.
Qualitative methods to study performance in
terms of emotion
Quality because you cannot measure emotion
Individualised emotion profiling
Athletes were asked to generate individually
relevant emotion words that best describe their
optimal (helpful) and dysfunctional (harmful)
positive and negative emotions. pos t e a d egat e e ot o s
42
Performance Related Emotional
St t i S t States in Sport
Differences between divers and
rowers. Results?
Concluding comments
No research method is better than another,
they are geared towards answering different
kinds of questions.
Selecting methods rests on the kinds of Selecting methods rests on the kinds of
knowledge you want to acquire (qualitative
for meaning, quantitative for measurement).
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Concluding comments
Methods chosen to tackle research questions
or problems (part of an overall research
strategy).
Researcher must always specifically justify y p y j y
the research techniques, and the relationship
of these to the research problem.
4 Next lecture :Common Qualitative
Methods
Individual Individual interviews interviews Individual Individual interviews interviews
Focus Focus group group interviews interviews
Observation Observation
Case Case study study research research
etc etc
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etc etc