Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
november 2009
2100 m st nw • ste 610 • washington, dc 20037 • rooseveltcampusnetwork.org
Editorial Board
Awais Khaleel
National Policy Director
Editors
Kevin Chang, UGA
Rocky Cole, UGA
Patrick Dever, Jr., UGA
Aaron Sayama, UGA
The opinions expressed within this volume are entirely and exclusively those of the
individual authors and do not represent the views of the editorial board, the Roosevelt
Institute, or any of the Roosevelt Institute Campus Network’s chapters, centers, advi-
sors, or affiliates.
Solutions for the South
Letter from the Editor
During the 2008 Roosevelt summit in Hyde Park, New York, the
Southern chapter leaders I met were a passionate and brilliant
group. Though we had to go our separate ways after the confer-
ence, we wanted to continue working together in order to create
something greater than any one of our chapters could create on
its own.
The policies you are about to read meet the challenges confront-
ing the American South with solutions deeply informed by an un-
derstanding of local realities. These ideas need to be heard. And
I hope the bonds we built between Southern chapters in draft-
ing this journal will continue facilitating productive collaborations
into the future.
Sincerely,
Jeet Guram
Editor in Chief
The Roosevelt Institute Campus Network, a national student initiative, en-
gages young people in a unique form of progressive activism that empowers
them as leaders and promotes their ideas for change. Through communica-
tion and coordination with political actors and community members, students
identify pressing issues facing their towns, counties and states. Taking advan-
tage of the unique resources on their college campuses, they engage in policy
research and writing and then connect the fruits of that work to the political
process, delivering sound, progressive proposals to policymakers and advoca-
cy groups. We call our unique model of policy activism Think Impact. Adding
policy papers to picket signs, Think Impact engages young people in activism
fueled by innovative, student ideas.
Founded in the wake of the 2004 election, the Campus Network was formed
in order to strengthen the progressive movement by meaningfully engaging
young people in politics. Young people can do far more than participate in
campaigns; here, students are asked to take action on their ideas and cre-
ate an impact in their communities. It encourages them to campaign for the
progressive policies that they have written. It gives them an opportunity to
reshape their communities. It allows them to experience, first-hand, the power
of progressive thought in creating positive change. And the Network empow-
ers students to see themselves as progressive leaders in their own right.
Today, the Campus Network boasts more than 7,000 members organized at
approximately 80 chapters across the country. Chapters foster debate and
dialogue on campus, teach policy courses, engage with local policymakers,
generate policy, and promote student ideas through conferences and publica-
tions. Since it’s founding, Roosevelt members have presented student policies
on Capitol Hill, testified to city council, implemented legislation, and worked
directly in their communities.
The Internet and other electronic resources are increasingly used to access the
news. In his book, The Vanishing Newspaper, pioneer journalist and University
of North Carolina-Chapel Hill professor Philip Meyer calculates that print news
will die in America by 2043. In response, papers are downsizing and cutting
staff who provide valuable coverage, diminishing the ability of sources to cover
important local issues. According to the Newspaper Association of America,
the number of people employed in the industry fell by 18% between 1990 and
2004.1 Small, local newspapers are in an especially difficult situation, lacking
the resources and funding to compete with larger companies in a shrinking
market. As news organizations lose resources to cover county and municipal
governments, local citizens run the risk of being uninformed about local issues
that affect them profoundly. A student-run wire service at North Carolina sys-
tem universities would provide a way to get facts and firsthand accounts about
local issues to the public.
Background
The North Carolina Policy Information Network (NCPIN), an online news server,
would provide a central database for information on local news.2 It would offer
a crucial resource for citizens who are otherwise ill informed about local mat-
ters because of the decrease in community coverage, thus enabling the citizens
to play a greater, more knowledgeable role in their communities.
Analysis
News organizations and the general public would have access to the NCPIN.6
It would also be of use to University of North Carolina system schools, other
private colleges, central information-technology organizations, and public, ed-
ucational television. It is in the best interest of these organizations to become
involved with the service if they are to maximize community outreach.7 A pro-
posed budget for the program calculates the cost of a professional to oversee
the operation of the newswire to be from $22,000 to $28,000. Additionally,
start-up costs, which include the promotion of NCPIN to news media and local
governments across the state, are around $50,000.8 University support is also
needed to establish a pilot program at a UNC system school. The “home” or-
ganization should have a significant and stable information-technology organi-
zation, and based on every day observations of classroom and extracurricular
excellence, the students at UNC-Chapel Hill are well prepared to carry out the
mission of the newswire. The long-term benefits of direct community involve-
ment for UNC system students, faculty, and other organizations involved would
far outweigh the start-up costs.
Works Cited
1. “Who Killed the Newspaper?” The Economist 24 Aug. 2006. 31 Mar. 2009 <http://
www.economist.com/opinion/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=7830218>.
2. Each story would include a template with relevant documents and a student-writ-
ten article. Corrado, Gail. Carolina Wire Service Document.
3. Fifth Point Consulting Group. NCPIN.
4. “About CNS.” VCU College of Humanities & Sciences. 17 Mar. 2009 <http://www.
has.vcu.edu/mac/cns/about.htm>.
5. “Capital News Service.” CNS | Philip Merrill College of Journalism. University of
Maryland. 16 Mar. 2009 <http://www.journalism.umd.edu/cns/>.
6. Fifth Point Consulting Group. NCPIN.
7. A partnership has already been established with the North Carolina Center for
Voter Education in Raleigh, and the Policy Department at UNC has conducted a
survey to discover what kind of news local newspapers need.
8. Start-up costs would include website creation, database acquisition, media liability
insurance.
9
Food Security in Durham, NC
Laurel Averett, Rainbo Hultman, Jeslyn Keziah,
Sara Mishamandani, and Lauren Peterson
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Impact studies executed prior to new construction in Durham, NC,
should include provisions that address the food security of the af-
fected community as defined by United States Department of Agri-
culture (USDA) guidelines.
Key Points
• Adequate access to nutritious, culturally appropriate, and affordable
food is critical for the health of every community member.
• Food insecurity is the lack of access to nutritional food and effects
11.1% of households in the US.1
• Grocery stores catalyze local economic growth through job creation,
taxes, and multiplier effects.
• When authorizing construction, the local government should con-
sider its impact on food security.
• Food security should be assessed with the USDA Food Security As-
sessment Toolkit readily available on the USDA website.2
• This policy would be the first legislation in the south designed to pre-
vent new construction from causing food insecurity.
Background
Food security entails access to sufficient food to live a healthy life at a cost that
does not put a family in economic risk.3 Food insecurity - the inability to reach
and afford fresh, nutritious food - is on the rise in many urban areas across the
South.4 The consequences of food insecurity are dire, as food-poor areas have
been linked to higher rates of obesity and diet-related illnesses,5,6,7 lower cog-
nitive development in children,8 and higher rates of crime and violence.9 Gro-
cery stores are more reluctant to open in urban areas due to the perception
of crime, economic hardship, and lack of transportation for locals.10 Therefore,
closing an urban grocery store eliminates a valuable economic asset that is
not likely to return. With socio-economic pressure on grocers to leave, and few
benefits for returning, grocery stores are precious to urban areas and should
be protected.
In Durham, NC, the Durham Town Council recently decided to widen Alston
Ave in order to alleviate traffic in the area. The construction will result in the
destruction of Los Primos, the primary grocery store in the area.11 This situation,
which will leave many already struggling families without adequate food op-
11
tions, is one example of food insecurity impacted by construction and reflects
the need for future protection of this area’s food supply.
The Durham city commissioner must consider including a food security provi-
sion in future impact studies for construction and development projects. Con-
siderations of food security would fit well into previously established environ-
mental impact studies. Data on food security should be gathered annually and
included in models developed for transportation assessment.
Analysis
The urgency of diminishing food security in the country has led to several initia-
tives seeking to increase access to food through various outlets such as com-
munity gardens, farmers’ markets, and nutrition programs in schools. However,
most US government programs addressing the needs of households with low
food security focus on the ability to pay for groceries rather than how to access
healthy food. No policies currently exist in the south that protects the food
security of a community from construction threats.
The current state of food security in Durham should be determined using guide-
lines outlined by the USDA Community Food Security Assessment Toolkit.2
Many of the aspects of this assessment, such as transportation patterns and
community demographics, are readily available to the county commissioner.
Other aspects, such as collection of community surveys, require minimal time
and training from a small number of individuals. Generally speaking, when
construction causes the elimination of a food supply in an area, food security
risk should be measured with and without the presence of the provider using
the guidelines set out by the USDA. The impact on food security in Durham
must be weighed against the improvements in traffic congestion of the pro-
posed construction.
13
Funding Richland Co. Buses
Ryan Shelton-Benson
University of South Carolina
The Richland County Council should place a referendum on the No-
vember 2, 2010 general election ballot to increase the county sales
tax by 0.25% in order to permanently fund the Central Midlands Re-
gional Transit Authority’s bus system.
Key Points
• The Central Midlands Regional Transit Authority (CMRTA) public
bus system is committed to providing safe, dependable and acces-
sible public transit in Columbia, S.C., and surrounding areas.
• The CMRTA only has temporary funding through the year 2010.
• In November 2004, residents of the nearby city of Charleston, S.C.,
voted for a sales tax increase after the Charleston Area Regional
Transit Authority’s service was cut by 75%.
• Up to 85% of the CMRTA system could be shut down if permanent
funding is not established.
• The CMRTA operates on an annual budget of $11 million.
• Public transportation benefits the community by reducing traffic con-
gestion, facilitating economic development, reducing greenhouse
gas emissions and lessening dependence on oil.
Background
South Carolina Electric & Gas’ parent company SCANA, a public utility, pro-
vided bus service to the midlands of South Carolina under an 85 year-old court
order as part of their license agreement to operate in the Midlands.
In 2002, the City of Columbia agreed to relieve SCANA of its obligation for a
financial package valued at $71 million over 30 years. The package included a
$15 million payment to the city and a subsidy of $2.47 million per year for seven
years, expiring in 2009.1
The City of Columbia has not developed permanent funding for the CMRTA
since. In August 2008, the CMRTA faced the possibility of ceasing service after
Richland County Council did not renew an unpopular vehicle registration tax
that charged $16 for private cars and $24 for commercial vehicles. This tax was
used to fund the CMRTA. Not renewing the vehicle registration tax led to a
substantial decrease in CMRTA service.
In February 2009 Richland County Council voted to temporarily fund the CM-
15
RTA through 2010 by reinstating a vehicle registration tax. This will fund the
CMRTA through 2010 but will not provide funding afterward.2
Analysis
In 2005 Richland County projected that a one percent increase in the county
sales tax would generate $62 million a year in revenue.3 Raising the sales tax
.25% could provide $15 million per year of funding for CMRTA.
CMRTA operates on an annual budget of $11 million. Increasing the sales tax
could permanently fund the CMRTA.4 The excess funding could then be used to
enhance the bus system by adding additional routes and stops and by upgrad-
ing equipment.
Charleston, S.C., has shown that using sales tax is a viable method for funding
a bus system. Voters in Charleston approved a half percent increase in sales
tax that should generate $1.3 billion over 25 years. Eighteen percent of roughly
$234 million will be used for mass transit.5
One shortfall of using a sales tax system is that income may vary from year to
year. Therefore, Richland County would need to set aside a rainy day fund to fill
budget gaps when revenue is down.
A sales tax is the most equitable way to tax for the bus system. Everyone ben-
efits from mass transit because mass transit eases traffic congestion, improves
air quality and reduces energy consumption. According to American Public
Transit Association, for every $10 million invested in public transportation, more
than $15 million is saved in costs to both highway and public transportation
users. Buses emit about 80 percent less carbon monoxide than the cars neces-
sary to transport the same number of people. Public transit reduces auto fuel
consumption by 1.5 billion gallons annually.6
The previous vehicle registration tax only taxed people with registered vehicles
in Richland County, excluding commuters who live outside but work in the city. A
sales tax would generate revenue from these people who frequent the city but
do not have cars registered inside Richland County.
“As industries look to move into the area they need their employees to have ac-
cess,” he said. “You cannot expect business to run that way. Look at the retail
sector and their ability to get customers to the store. You’re not only losing
employees.”
Next Steps
The referendum could be voted on in the November 2, 2010 General Election. If
approved, the tax could begin collection on January 2, 2011. The cost of placing
this referendum on the ballot and collecting the tax would be minimal. Busi-
nesses within the county are already required to collect sales tax, and the pro-
posal would only change the percentage collected.
However, voters may oppose an increase in the county sales tax. For example,
voters in Charleston opposed such an increase when it was initially proposed.
Fortunately, an increase in the sales tax to fund the bus system has a strong ally
in popular five-term Columbia Mayor Bob Coble. Having an influential propo-
nent would likely build support for the referendum.
Works Cited
1. Ward, Eric. “Comparing Bus Deals: Columbia v. Charleston” Free Times. 27
Aug. 2008. Free-times.com 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.free-times.com/index.
php?cat=121304064644348&z_Issue_ID=11012708083079347&ShowArchiveArticle_ID
=11012708083953609&Year=2008>.
2. Ward, Eric. “Bus-Funding Plan Heading for Approval” Free Times. 11 Feb. 2009.
Free-times.com 2 Mar. 2009 < http://www.free-times.com/index.php?cat=199291206
4017974&ShowArticle_ID=11011102093769899>.
3. “Local Sales Tax option” Richland County, South Carolina. Richlandonline.com 2
Mar. 2009 <http://www.richlandonline.com/Information/Forms/LocalOption.asp>
4. “Lack of Leadership Brings Bus System” CMRTA 20 June 2006. GoCMRTA.com
2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.gocmrta.com/content/pdf/6.20.06_Lack_%of_%20leader-
ship.pdf>
5. Knich, Diane. “Funds Cut For CARTA, TriCounty” The Post and Courier 18 Feb.
2009. Charleston.net 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.charleston.net/news/2009/feb/18/
funds_cut_carta_tricounty72072/>.
6. Weyrich, Paul. “How Transit Benefits People who Do Not Ride” American Pub-
lic Transportation Association Oct 2003 APTA.com 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.apta.
com/research/info/online/how_transit_benefits.cfm#tac
17
Subsidizing Alternative Biofuel
Peter Schaeffing
University of South Carolina
Key Points
• Jatropha curcas, a weed native to Central America, produces oil in
its fruit that has been successfully used in the production of biodie-
sel.
• Much of the American South has poor soil due to previous use of the
land. Jatropha can grow in nearly any soil in warm climates.
• Jatropha is completely inedible, meaning it avoids the “food or fuel”
controversy.
• Many rural Southerners would require temporary subsidies in order
to start farming jatropha.
Background
In 2003, the most recent year for which the United States Department of Agri-
culture has statistics, the rural poverty rate in the South was 17.7%, the highest
rate of any region in the country and nearly 5% higher than the urban poverty
rate in the south.1 That figure is 3.5% higher than the nation’s rural poverty rate.
The same study shows that the South has the highest concentration of counties
with persistent poverty (defined as more than 20% of the population in poverty
since 1970). The vast majority of these counties denoted as having persistent
poverty are non-metropolitan.
One contributor to the South’s rural poverty is soil exhaustion. Due to past
agricultural practices, particularly the overplanting of crops such as cotton and
tobacco as well as the use of harmful fertilizers, large sections of the South’s
farmland are not suitable for traditional crops.2 Jatropha has been cultivated
with tremendous results in soil that is otherwise not arable. Its only inhibitor to
growth is cold climates, which makes much of the South, particularly Texas, Lou-
isiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida an ideal location for it.3 Additionally,
the weed’s fruit has already been used in the production of biodiesel, as several
airlines have run successful test flights using jatropha jet fuel.4 Thanks to these
favorable results, Goldman Sachs has called it “one of the best candidates for
future biodiesel production.”5 These positive indicators make jatropha an excel-
lent alternative energy source in which the United States should invest.
19
The proposed subsidy for farmers wishing to cultivate jatropha would be vari-
able and would depend on the cost and the financial situation of the farmer.
Priority funding would be given to applicants living in counties marked with
persistent poverty and whose average income is less than 200% of the poverty
line, and who own at least 20 acres of farmable land. After these applicants
receive funding, the remaining allotment would go to applicants meeting the
above requirements in other counties, and then to any applicant with at least
20 acres of farmable land until the funding allotment is exhausted. This would
ensure that low-income farmers can take advantage of this program and that
only those with adequate acreage receive funding. Subsidies would be avail-
able on a decreasing scale for ten years, at which point the operation will either
be profitable or will fail.
Analysis
This policy has historical precedent in public subsidies to farmers. These sub-
sidies amounted to $13.4 billion in 20066 and could easily be extended to farm-
ers cultivating jatropha. Furthermore, the federal government has subsidized
the production and development of alternative energy sources since 1980.7 The
substantial cost that this policy would incur could be paid by reducing subsi-
dies to other farmers, as they disproportionately and unfairly benefit corporate
farming operations. A portion of the subsidies given to other alternative ener-
gy producers could be diverted to cover the costs as well. Moreover, decreased
reliance on foreign oil and increased incomes in rural communities in the South
would positively impact the economy and counterbalance costs.
A possible barrier to this policy is the potential difficulty in processing and dis-
tributing biodiesel made from an unconventional source. However, each state
in the South already contains at least two biodiesel production facilities8 and
three biodiesel distributors.9 Any modifications necessary to these facilities to
prepare them to process jatropha could be paid for through the subsidy pro-
gram or by the facility itself if it is economically viable option. Initial costs to
this program would not be a major concern because of its great profit potential,
as biodiesel contains more than three times the amount of energy that it takes
to produce.10
Investing in biodiesel production from jatropha in the South could increase in-
comes and land values in poor rural communities.
Works Cited
1. United States Department of Agriculture. “Rural Income, Poverty, and Welfare: Ru-
ral Poverty.” 10 November 2004. <http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/incomepover-
tywelfare/RuralPoverty/>
2. Byres, Terence J. “Book Reviews.” Journal of Agrarian Change. Vol. 5, Issue 2. P281-
297. April 2005.
3. National Biodiesel Board. “Feedstock Fact Sheet.” 12 June 2009. <http://www.biod-
iesel.org/resources/ sustainability/pdfs/feedstockfactsheet.pdf>
4. Padgett, Tim. “The Next Big Biofuel?” Time. Feb. 9 2009. Vol. 173, No. 5.
5. Barta, Patrick. “Jatropha Plant Gains Steam in Global Race for Biofuels.” Wall
Street Journal. 31 August 2007.
6. “In Recession, Modest Help for Most Americans, But Big Bucks for Big Farms.” Envi-
ronmental Working Group. 14 April 2008. < http://farm.ewg.org/farm/newsrelease.
php>
7. “Article 29: The Alternative Fuel Production Credit.” Energy Information Agency. 10
December 2000. < http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/subsidy/box_txt.html>
8. “Biodiesel Production.” U.S. Department of Energy. 10 July 2009. <http://www.afdc.
energy.gov/afdc/fuels /biodiesel_production.html>
9. “Buying Biodiesel.” National Biodiesel Board. 12 July 2009. <http://www.biodiesel.
org/buyingbiodiesel/ distributors/biomaps/biomaps.shtm#>
10. “Biodiesel Benefits.” U.S. Department of Energy. 10 July 2009 <http://www.afdc.en-
ergy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel _benefits.html>
21
Health IT for Southern CHCs
Jeremy Ford
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Key Points
• Electronic medical records in CHCs have the potential to mitigate
health disparities for rural uninsured patients.1
• Southern state legislatures must increase their financial support of
EMRs in rural CHCs to supplement recent federal legislation.2
• Legislation on both the state and federal level must do more to en-
courage the adoption of proven EMR systems.
Background
Community health centers serve as a medical safety net for low-income and
uninsured populations.3 People who earn moderate incomes are increasingly
likely to be uninsured.4 Therefore, with the persisting economic crisis, it is more
likely that people of middle-class backgrounds will also find themselves in the
CHC system as the number of uninsured will continue to increase.
This presents problems for the already underfunded CHCs of southern states.
For example, there are 26 federally funded CHCs in Boston but only 28 CHCs
in the entire state of North Carolina.5,6 Due to the lower population density,
people often from rural areas are often required to travel long distances, creat-
ing major accessibility issues.7
Given the growing number of uninsured individuals and the problems faced
by southern clinics, CHCs must be as efficient as possible. In ambulatory care,
an accepted method for improving efficiency and health outcomes is the utili-
zation of electronic medical records. The potential benefits include reduced
operational costs, improved preventive care, and fewer adverse drug events.8
However, the capital costs of EMRs for cash-strapped CHCs are prohibitive.9
Federal and state governments should therefore provide support for CHCs to
implement effective EMR systems to offset the problems these clinics face in
rural settings.
Analysis
According to a survey by the Commonwealth Fund, Florida was the only south-
ern state that identified EMRs as a significant issue.10 However, there has been
23
legislative activity regarding EMRs throughout the south. Support has typically
been in the form of tax credits for clinics that have already implemented EMR
systems. Unfortunately this is not helpful to CHCs, which usually do not have
the financial resources to implement EMRs. Therefore, they are unable to re-
ceive a tax credit post investment. Some states have stressed standardization
and interoperability, an essential element of a usable EMR system, but only the
Florida legislature has directly addressed low-income patients by funding EMR
development for Medicaid providers.11
On the federal level, the first major success in EMR legislation was an attach-
ment on President Obama’s economic recovery package – $19 billion for as-
sistance in implementing EMRs in doctor’s offices. This bill included $40,000 in
incentives for physicians who use EMRs, the creation of grant programs, and
resources to promote interoperability.12
This multi-faceted approach to support EMR policies is a step in the right direc-
tion. However, future policy regarding EMRs must be informed by proven EMR
systems that have worked for both patients and practitioners. This will allow
federal legislation to optimize the effect of its incentives by allocating more
funds for clinics that have or will adopt a proven model of EMR utilization. Giv-
en technology’s ability to offset the inefficiencies faced by rural CHCs, southern
state legislatures should supplement federal support with grants directed to-
ward rural EMR development. EMR systems throughout the rural south would
improve clinic efficiency and health outcomes.
Works Cited
1. Fiscella, K and Geiger, HJ (2006) Health Information Technology and Quality Im-
provement for Community Health Centers. Health Affairs 25:405-412.
2. http://waysandmeans.house.gov/media/pdf/110/sbill.pdf
3. National Association of Community Health Centers, “The Safety Net on the Edge,”
August 2005, http://www.nachc.org/research/Files/SNreport2005.pdf; and J. Tay-
lor, “The Fundamentals of Community Health Centers,” NHPF Background Paper, 31
August 2004, http://www.gwumc.edu/sphhs/healthpolicy/ggprogram/BP_CHC_08-
31-04.pdf
4. Tanne, JH (2006) Number of Uninsured US Citizens Grows. BMJ 332:1047.
5. Community Health Centers in North Carolina. The North Carolina Community
Health Center Association. http://www.ncchca.org/page.aspx?id=177278
6. Community Health Centers by Boston Neighborhood. Massachusetts League of
Community Health Centers. http://www.massleague.org/HealthCenters-ByBos-
tonNeighborhood.htm
7. Thomas, AA (2005) Access to Transportation and Health Care Utilization in a Rural
Region. Journal of Rural Health 21:31-38.
8. Hillestad, R, et al. (2005) Can Electronic Medical Records Transform Health Care?
Potential Health Benefits, Savings, and Costs. Health Affairs 24:1103-1117.
9. Shields, AE, et al. (2007) Adoption of HIT in Community Health Centers: A National
Survey. Health Affairs 26:1374-1383.
10. V. K. Smith, K. Gifford, S. Kramer, et al. (2008) State E-Health Activities in 2007:
Findings From a State Survey, The Commonwealth Fund.
11. National Conference of State Legislators (2007) 2007 State Legislation on Elec-
tronic Health Records and Personal Health Records. http://www.ncsl.org/pro-
grams/health/forum/07EHRChart.htm
12. http://waysandmeans.house.gov/media/pdf/110/sbill.pdf
25
LEED Certification in Schools
Michael Levy and Tyler O’Connor
Emory University
Key Facts
• The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Certification is
a building standard developed by the United States Green Building
Council, judging the energy efficiency of new buildings.1
• A typical LEED certified school saves an average of $100,000 per
year in reduced operational costs due to energy efficiency.2
• Study of Chicago and DC area schools found documented increase
of 3-4 points on standardized test scores with environmentally sus-
tainable facilities.3
• Dekalb County Schools can partake in this sustainability venture and
improve the student health while simultaneously reducing the long-
term utility costs of all their facilities.
Background
Current building codes in Dekalb County, Georgia focus on limiting short-term
construction costs but neglect the significantly higher long-term operational
costs resulting from inefficient energy consumption. To encourage the con-
struction of both sustainable and economical buildings, the U.S. Green Build-
ing Council established the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED) Certification, which provides guidelines for the construction of all new
buildings.4 LEED Certification decreases costs by employing environmental
standards that recognize and eliminate energy inefficiencies.5 Although sever-
al public schools in Georgia (as well as buildings at Emory University in Atlanta)
have been built to meet LEED requirements, the recently finished Arabia Moun-
tain High School is the first LEED Certified public school in the Dekalb County
School District.6 The chief architect of Arabia Mountain, Sean Hamlin, expects
significant savings resulting from less energy use.7 Although LEED schools ini-
tially cost marginally more than non-LEED schools, the decreased operational
costs associated with sustainable schools make them a less expensive long-term
investment.8 In addition to the economic benefits, sustainable public schools
have seen educational and health benefits relative to their traditionally con-
structed peers.9 Because of the benefits associated with LEED Certified public
27
schools, many public officials around the country have joined efforts to promote
sustainability initiatives in the nations’ public school systems.10
Analysis
The primary challenge confronting the sustainable schools movement is the no-
tion that buildings designed to environmental standards incur severe construc-
tion cost premiums. However, improvements in technology have reduced the
average premium on LEED certified schools to only $3 per square foot, or about
1.7% of project costs.11 This initial cost premium is defrayed by reduced life-cycle
costs as well as economies of scale when environmental standards are widely
adopted, enabling the bulk purchase of LEED compatible construction materi-
als.12 The average LEED Certified school saves an average of $100,000 per
year in reduced operational costs due to decreased energy and water con-
sumption.13 The benefits of LEED Certification are already being seen in Dekalb
County, where Arabia Mountain High School, the first LEED certified school
built in the school district, is expected to see a 25% savings on energy costs.
The school also finished six months ahead of schedule and resulted in a minimal
cost premium relative to other non-LEED projects.14 Similarly, the state of Ohio
has calculated savings of $1.4 billion over the next 40 years due to implementa-
tion of environmental standards in public schools.15
Works Cited
1. “What LEED Is.” Intro- What LEED Is. 2008. United States Green Building Council.
19 July 2009 <http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1988>.
2. Burnham, Michael. “‘Green Schools’ Caucus Sprouts on Capitol Hill.” U.S. Green
.Building Council. 17 November 2007. http://www.buildgreenschools.org/news/
news_story_1.html
3. Schneider, Mark. “Public School Facilities and Teaching: Washington, DC and Chi-
cago,” November 2002.
4. “What LEED Is.” Intro- What LEED Is. 2008. United States Green Building Council.
19 July 2009 <http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1988>.
5. “What LEED Measures.” Intro- What LEED Measures. 2008. U.S. Green Building Coun-
cil. 19 July 2009 <http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1989>.
6. Katz, Gregory. “Greening America’s Schools: Costs and Benefits.” October
2006. A Capital E Report. 20 March 2009. http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.
aspx?DocumentID=2908
7. Hamlin/Perkins and Will Architects, Sean. “Interview with Sean Hamlin.” Telephone
interview. 25 Feb. 2009.
8. “Green Schools 101.” Build Green Schools. 2009. U.S. Green Building Council. 20
Mar. 2009 <http://www.buildgreenschools.org/gs101/save.html>.
9. Katz, Gregory. “Greening America’s Schools: Costs and Benefits.” October
2006. A Capital E Report. 20 March 2009. http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.
aspx?DocumentID=2908
10. Burnham, Michael. “‘Green Schools’ Caucus Sprouts on Capitol Hill.” U.S. Green
.Building Council. 17 November 2007.
11. Katz, Gregory. “Greening America’s Schools: Costs and Benefits.” October
2006. A Capital E Report. 20 March 2009. http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.
aspx?DocumentID=2908
12. Hamlin/Perkins and Will Architects, Sean. “Interview with Sean Hamlin.” Telephone
interview. 25 Feb. 2009
13. Burnham, Michael. “‘Green Schools’ Caucus Sprouts on Capitol Hill.” U.S. Green
.Building Council. 17 November 2007.
14. Hamlin/Perkins and Will Architects, Sean. “Interview with Sean Hamlin.” Telephone
interview. 25 Feb. 2009
15. King, Ledyard. “Cost, Concerns Push Schools to Use Eco-friendly Elements.” USA
Today [Mclean, Virginia] 30 July 2008: .
16. Hamlin/Perkins and Will Architects, Sean. “Interview with Sean Hamlin.” Telephone
interview. 25 Feb. 2009
17. Katz, Gregory. “Greening America’s Schools: Costs and Benefits.” October
2006. A Capital E Report. 20 March 2009. http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.
aspx?DocumentID=2908
18. Ibid.
19. Schneider, Mark. “Public School Facilities and Teaching: Washington, DC and Chi-
cago,” November 2002.
20. “Mayors’ Alliance for Green Schools Announced.” U.S. Green Builiding Council. 16,
October 2008. http://www.usgbc.org/News/PressReleaseDetails.aspx?ID=3855. 21
March 2009.
21. “Green Schools Caucus: Making the Case on Capitol Hill.” U.S. Green Building
Council. http://www.buildgreenschools.org/action/green_schools_caucus.html 21,
March 2009.
22. Newkirk, Margaret. “Stimulus Sparks Surge in Energy Conservation Industry.” At-
lanta Journal Constitution. Atlanta,, Georgia. 29, March 2009. http://www.ajc.com/
business/content/business/stories/2009/03/29/georgia_energy_stimulus.html
29
Inclusionary Zoning in Athens, GA
Ellyn Echols
University of Georgia
Key Points
• As new or renovated housing caters to students in ACC, some rent
and homeownership costs rise in the area and many residents can no
longer afford housing.
• ACC has identified a specific population that can no longer afford
housing and defines this low-income group as families earning 30
percent or less of the median income of the area.
• Inclusionary zoning not only costs little to the local government in
administrative costs, but can also produce mixed-income neighbor-
hoods and provides high quality, affordable homes.
Background
Historically, the federal government has been the foremost enactor of policy
for affordable housing across the country. Currently, however, local govern-
ments are taking a much more active role in constructing policies that directly
impact the availability of quality, affordable units in the community. In 2002,
the Department of Human and Economic Development (HED) in ACC released
a comprehensive study on housing concluding that, while Athens has sufficient
housing in terms of true numbers of available units, most of these units were in-
accessible for those earning less than 30 percent of the median income for this
area.1 Furthermore, not unlike other communities in the South, ACC faces the
problem of supplying quality, affordable units for homeownership to individuals
who lie between low-income and upper middle class populations. These people
are sometimes known as the public service demographic, as a significant per-
centage of them are employed as teachers, policemen, and firemen. This group
presents a need for high quality, affordable housing in a location near bus lines
or conducive to a short commute. In order to promote this kind of development,
the local government could adopt a policy of inclusionary zoning, requiring de-
velopers to include a certain percentage of affordable housing in new develop-
ments. This policy approach costs little to the local government in administra-
31
tive costs while potentially providing mixed income neighborhoods and good
quality, affordable houses and townhouses in new developments. ACC should
adopt this approach to promote affordable housing for the community and to
provide sustainable housing for future generations.
Analysis
In recent years, inclusionary zoning (IZ) has been used to promote integration of
affordable housing units in residential development in cities like Boston, Wash-
ington, DC and San Francisco. IZ ordinances either permit or require builders
of new developments to devote a percentage of their projects to affordable
housing in exchange for some non-monetary incentives. These ordinances are
flexible and thus adaptable to different communities’ housing trends. Further-
more, IZ allows new, full price development to continue while simultaneously
producing quality, affordable units for medium to low-income populations.
For Athens specifically, inclusionary zoning offers the chance for increasingly
scarce land to be used in a way that is beneficial to all members of the com-
munity. Since research shows that mandatory programs are far more effec-
tive at producing affordable units, the governing body should adopt a policy
of mandatory inclusionary zoning. This policy would be administered by the
planning department, which can then specify terms for builder compensation
(unless already designated in the governing ordinance.)
The larger benefits of inclusionary zoning are two-fold. First, inclusionary zoning
relies less on monetary support from the public than other tactics to promote
affordable housing and is seen as more fiscally sustainable for a community.
Although developers may realize less profit or even lose money on affordable
units, incentives, such as density bonuses, help avoid negative financial impact.
Second, IZ promotes socio-economic and racial integration within new devel-
opments, as well as the school systems that serve these areas.2
Critics argue that with mandatory IZ ordinances, developers will simply build
elsewhere. However, making the program mandatory levels the playing field
for all developers within the community, allowing the land and housing market
to adjust for this element.
There is little research to date about how IZ ordinances affect housing markets
of communities that employ them in the long term. The research that is avail-
able indicates that these programs must be tailored city by city to be effective.
The ability for customization is a unique and positive quality of adopting IZ
ordinances in Athens-Clarke County and across the South.
Works Cited
1. W. Keith McNeely, “Affordable Housing Survey, 25 September 2002,” Human Eco-
nomic Development Department, Athens-Clarke County, Georgia.
2. Shuetz, Jenny et al. “The Effects of Inclusionary Zoning on Local Housing Markets:
Lessons from the San Francisco, Washington DC and Suburban Boston areas.”
Furman Center for Real Estate and Urban Policy, New York University. 19 Novem-
ber 2007.
33
Raising Taxes on GA Cigarettes
Lucas Puente
University of Georgia
Key Points
• The State of Georgia faces a budget deficit of $2.2 billion for FY
2010.
• 20 percent of Georgians smoke cigarettes, costing the state $1.8 bil-
lion annually in medical costs and $3.3 billion in lost productivity from
morbidity and mortality.
• The current average for state cigarette excise tax rates is $1.21 per
pack, while Georgia’s excise tax on cigarettes of $0.37 is the 43rd
lowest rate in the country.
• Raising the Georgia excise tax on cigarettes would yield hundreds of
millions of dollar in revenue, erode detrimental cigarette consump-
tion among Georgians, and reflect the will of Georgians according
to public opinion surveys.
Background
The State of Georgia currently faces an unprecedented budget shortfall of
$2.2 billion for FY 2010.1 Although the American Recovery and Reinvestment
Act has partially helped address Georgia’s budgetary challenges, state legisla-
tors must take additional measures to ensure a properly funded government.
Moreover, twenty percent of adults and high school students in Georgia smoke
cigarettes, a trend estimated to lead to lethal cases of lung cancer for 180,000
current middle school students in Georgia.2 Unfortunately, budgetary shortfalls
and public health concerns attributed to smoking are not unique to Georgia;
throughout the South, states are struggling to balance their books and reduce
health expenditures directly related to smoking. State policy makers must ad-
dress these challenges. Raising the state excise tax on cigarettes is one of the
most effective tools in combating the public health concerns of cigarette con-
sumption and raising revenue for state governments. Although Georgia was
the second state to originally adopt this fiscal instrument, its current cigarette
excise tax is the forty-third lowest in the nation at $0.37 per pack, well below the
national average of $1.21.3 This trend is common across the South, with an aver-
age excise tax of merely $0.38.5 in Kentucky, Virginia, North and South Caro-
lina, Georgia, and Tennessee.4 Thus, Georgia, like all southern states, should
35
raise its excise tax on cigarettes to $1.21, thus placing it on par with the national
average.
Analysis
The benefits of implementing this policy are remarkably positive as a rise in
cigarette excise taxes nearly always results in increased fiscal revenues and
diminished consumption.5 To quantify the former, a $1 excise tax increase would
provide the state of Georgia with an estimated $450 million annually.1 For the
latter, the benefits are even more unambiguously positive; for every 10 percent
increase in price, overall cigarette consumption will fall 3-5 percent and smok-
ing among children will drop 6-7 percent.6 This reduction in consumption would
substantially alleviate the $1.8 billion annually that the state directly bears in
cigarette-related health costs, as well as the $3.3 billion in lost productivity due
to morbidity and mortality.1 Politically, this initiative is viable, as 79 percent of
Democrats and 73 percent of Republicans in Georgia supporting an excise tax
increase of $1.00.7
Despite the obvious benefits, a few predictable skeptics remain, notably the
National Association of Tobacco Outlets. The organization argues that this tax
increase will lead to approximately 117,000 job losses in the tobacco industry
as consumption drops and profit margins shrink.9 However, several sources of
academic literature attest that any decrease in tobacco industry employment
could easily be offset by a labor-market expansion in other consumable goods
industries that would be catalyzed by a more efficient allocation of resources.10
Overall, Georgia would be wise to raise its excise tax on cigarettes to $1.21. Al-
though legislation advocating a $1.00 increase failed to pass through the state
House earlier this year, many state policy makers remain committed to enacting
this meritorious legislation.12 Such a move would simultaneously address state
budgetary and public health concerns, place Georgia on par with its peers, and
more accurately reflect public sentiment in the state.
Works Cited
1. “Tax Reform: A Reality Check.” Georgia Budget and Policy Institute. 20 Jan. 2009.
<http://www.gbpi.org/documents/20090120.pdf>.
2. Jones, Walter C. “Doctors Seek Higher Tax on Cigarettes.” Augusta Chronicle. 6
Feb. 2009. <http://chronicle.augusta.com/stories/2009/02/06/met_510430.shtml>.
3. “Reducing Tobacco Use:
4. Lindlom, Eric. “State Cigarette Excise Tax Rates and Rankings.” Campaign for
Tobacco Free Kids. 15 Oct. 2008. <http://www.tobaccofreekids.org/research/fact-
sheets/pdf/0097.pdf>.
5. McKay, Betsy. “Cigarette Tax Clouds Boosts Among States.” Wall Street Journal. 8
Feb. 2009 <http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123414187016161821.html>.
6. Lindlom, Eric and Boonn, Ann. “Raising Cigarette Taxes Reduces Smoking, Espe-
cially Among Kids.” Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids. 9 Jan. 2009. <http://tobac-
cofreekids.org/research/factsheets/pdf/0146.pdf>.
7. “Voters in All States Support Significant Increases in State Cigarette Taxes.” Cam-
paign for Tobacco-Free Kids. July 2008. <http://tobaccofreekids.org/research/fact-
sheets/pdf/0309.pdf>.
8. Baxter, Tom. “New Tobacco Tests Meaning of ‘Inelastic Demand.’” Southern Politi-
cal Report. 1 April 2009. < http://www.southernpoliticalreport.com/storylink_41_823.
aspx>.
9. Briant, Thomas. “Massive Tobacco Tax Increase by Congress Spells Even More
Economic Disaster for Jobs.” National Association of Tobacco Outlets. 12
Jan. 2009. <http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS197335+12-Jan-
2009+PRN20090112>.
10. Chaloupka, Frank J et. al. “The Economics of Tobacco Control.” Briefing Notes
in Economics. Dec. 2004. < http://www.richmond.ac.uk/bne/63_Frank_Chaloupka.
pdf>.
11. Stephens, Ron, et. al. House Bill 39. H.B. 39. 2009. <http://www.legis.ga.gov/le-
gis/2009_10/search/hb39.htm>.
37
Curbing Dropouts with P.A.R.K.
Katherine Bogle, Andrew Burnett, Karie Cross, Neely Hewes, Kathleen
Larkin, Amy Littleton, Tiffany Parrish, and Bobby Wilkinson
Harding University
Executive Summary
• Positive role models, supplemental academic assistance, and healthy
recreational activities are not often available to at-risk youth in
Southern urban areas, leading to alarmingly high drop-out rates
from high school.
• Positive Atmosphere Reaches Kids, or P.A.R.K., serves as a supple-
mental education and character development program for high
school students deemed at-risk due to having GPAs below 2.5.
• P.A.R.K. provides a safe environment for students to gain scholastic
assistance and engage in positive activities while attaining key life
skills such as practices for a healthy lifestyle and appropriate social
interaction. In 2009, the program’s tenth graduating class included
twenty-five graduates who had formerly been at-risk.
• Programs similar to P.A.R.K. should be developed in other Southern
cities to help address education problems and high drop-out rates.
Funding could be provided by local businesses and universities or
celebrities and sports figures native to the area.
• In order to be successfuln other urban areas in the South, the P.A.R.K.
model must be tailored to the specific needs of each community.
To illustrate the P.A.R.K. model’s ability to adapt to specific needs
in various urban communities, we analyze the educational needs in
Texas, Louisiana, and Georgia.
• The PARK model can address region specific issues such as inad-
equate academics, language and cultural diversity, and nutritional
and health concerns. P.A.R.K.’s method of helping young people in
every aspect of their lives allows it to address each of these specific
issues.
Introduction
Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Texas, North
Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia make up ten of the eighteen states whose
public high school graduation rates fell below the 2006 national average of
68.6 percent.1 The disproportionate number of Southern states that fall into
this category raises a red flag for policy makers across the region. Failure to
address the socioeconomic disparities in the South has led to the loss of poten-
tial intellectual capital. Due to the lack of mental stimulation and a community
environment conducive to education, at-risk Southern youth often fail to realize
39
their full potential.
The organization Positive Atmosphere Reaches Kids, or P.A.R.K., serves the Lit-
tle Rock, Arkansas, area by providing various programs to address the issues
facing such students. The implementation of programs like P.A.R.K. will not only
reduce drop out rates, but also lower crime rates and create a better-educated
workforce. This will in turn raise the income of those participating, as well as
benefit each state by those individuals paying higher income taxes. In order to
make educational disparities a part of Southern history, community initiatives
such as P.A.R.K. must be implemented in urban areas throughout the South to
lay the foundation for a more promising future.
Background
The Associated Press released an article on April 1, 2008, describing the dis-
turbing circumstances of the education system in the United States. In the ar-
ticle, former secretary of state Colin Powell, states, “When more than 1 million
students a year drop out of high school, it’s more than a problem, it’s a ca-
tastrophe.”2 Further, a disproportionately high amount of low-income students
drop out of school, and the South contains nearly half, 41 percent or 10.5 million
children, of the United State’s low-income families.3
Schools in the South have standardized test scores, particularly on the ACT
and SAT, which fall below the national average.4 In addition to disadvantages
stemming from regional and historical education problems, Southern schools
also suffer from racial gaps in achievement. African-American and Hispanic
students consistently score lower than white students on standardized tests,
a factor which contributes to the educational plight in the South.5 Southern
students, and especially southern minority students, need outside assistance to
help them bridge the gap between their level of achievement and that of the
rest of the United States.
A startlingly large number of students in the South fail to emerge from the
formative high school years with the knowledge and skills necessary to equip
themselves to be productive citizens, many of whom do not even receive a high
school diploma. Programs must be developed to target those students who are
in danger of failing to graduate. One such initiative is P.A.R.K., an after-school
and summer program targeting at-risk students. According to the P.A.R.K. pro-
gram, almost a third of all public high school students do not graduate.6 The
graduation rates of ten Southern states fall even lower than the 2006 national
average of 68.6.7 A central tenet to the PARK program is that problems within
school systems, homes, and communities contribute to a lack of support for
struggling students.
The P.A.R.K. program reports that students from historically disadvantaged mi-
nority groups, including American Indians, Hispanics, and African Americans,
have barely a 50 percent chance of graduating with a high school diploma.
Students who attend schools in areas characterized by high poverty rates and
racial segregation are 15 percent to 18 percent less likely to graduate than stu-
dents attending schools that are relatively free from those problems.8 Hispanic
youth are more at risk than other students, comprising 41 percent of high school
dropouts in 2005 even though they accounted for only 17 percent of the popula-
tion.9
P.A.R.K. has found a way to bridge the educational gap that is created by eco-
nomic, racial, and ethnic backgrounds, as well as a plethora of other factors.
The program targets all students with a GPA of 2.5 or less, largely due to the
fact that these students are ineligible for after-school sports and clubs. P.A.R.K.
is a non-profit organization founded by Keith Jackson, an Arkansas native and
former NFL football player. The Little Rock facility has a capacity of 250 stu-
dents and an annual budget of $1 million with a mission “to provide high-risk stu-
dents the opportunity to further their education by completing high school so
they can attend college.”11 It pursues a three-fold goal: encouraging academic
achievement that will open up new opportunities, instilling a concept of intrin-
sic self worth and spirituality, and teaching discipline of service and helping
others. P.A.R.K. believes that students whose minds are fostered in this type of
environment will become active, contributing members of society.
The strongest, and often toughest critics of P.A.R.K., the students themselves,
have indicated that they are very supportive of the program. According to a
survey taken of 116 P.A.R.K. participants, 87 percent of students are glad they
participated and say that the program has helped them with their study skills.
Seventy-five percent of students’ grades improved, and 97 percent of students
advocated participation in a program similar to P.A.R.K. to address academic
concerns. 91 percent of participants say that their future is brighter because of
the program. When asked what they would do in the afternoons after school
if they were not at the P.A.R.K. facility, students responded that they would
be playing games, hanging out on the streets, and basically doing anything to
41
amuse themselves besides their homework.12
A current P.A.R.K. participant, Rodrick McCullom, reports that his life has com-
pletely changed since he began his five-year commitment to the program. Mo-
nique Martin-Palmer, the Education Outreach Coordinator, reports, “Rodrick
started the program a shy and quiet kid. He often tried to fade into the back-
ground. Over five years, we have seen him blossom here at P.A.R.K. He has
improved his grades, stepped into leadership roles and is very active in his com-
munity.”13 Rodrick’s transformation is the ideal success story for the P.A.R.K.
program. His life’s turn-around illustrates the good that focused attention can
do for disadvantaged, at-risk students.
Tyler Desbrow represents another success story. His ACT score of 23 is the
highest ever achieved by a P.A.R.K. student, and he will attend the University of
Arkansas at Fayetteville this fall. Precious Bell, a current participant and senior
at Little Rock’s John L. McClellan High School, achieved the highest GPA for a
student’s first nine-week period, at a 3.85. Bell is also active in his community,
presenting the dangers of tobacco use to local elementary school students and
participates in Future Business Leaders of America.14
Another participant, Robert Irby, claims that the program saved him from a
dangerous life of gang activity. “It really, truly unraveled me and helped me
blossom into the young man I wanted to be. When I was selected [to participate
in P.A.R.K.] in the eighth grade, I was in the peak of my gang activity. [P.A.R.K.]
gave me a place to go after school to keep me from getting involved on the
street.”15 As demonstrated by the above testimonies, P.A.R.K. not only provides
a safe place for youth to get academic help, but it also transforms lives.
Proposal
Societal problems found throughout Southern cities can be combated by policy
initiatives to implement P.A.R.K. model programs. These specific and targeted
after school programs for at-risk high school students transform young people
who exhaust law enforcement and welfare funds into successful, productive
citizens. Although cities would be required to invest in the programs initially,
they would gain far more in resources long-term funding by creating a better-
educated, engaged community. Due to these tremendous benefits, local gov-
ernments across the states in the South should pass a resolution, which desig-
nates land for the specific use of P.A.R.K. program initiatives.
Students who are targeted by this program tend to live in inner cities and pov-
erty-stricken areas that have few safe places to be outside. Recreation facilities
and summer programs will motivate students to attend and will provide con-
structive substitutes to activities such as drug use and gang involvement com-
mon among youth in poverty stricken areas. A program similar to P.A.R.K. will
have the ability to fund construction of basketball courts, green spaces, and en-
closed areas away from the dangers of traffic, pollution, and other hazardous
street conditions. Such open and safe places will enable students to strengthen
their bodies as well as their minds. If they have no safe place to be active out-
doors, they are far more likely to develop a sedentary lifestyle, leading to future
health problems associated with obesity. Ultimately, after-school programs like
P.A.R.K. would offer at-risk students a safe alternative to the streets that would
develop the entire student—mind, body, and character.
Implementation
The key factor to the implementation of these programs would be adaptability.
The objective is not transplantation of P.A.R.K. in Little Rock, but adaptation
of important ideas that mold to fit the needs of each community. An illustra-
tion of this policy can be seen in the urban communities of Texas, Louisiana,
and Georgia—three Southern states with unique challenges. These states were
specifically chosen based on their economic significance, demographic varia-
tion among their respective populations, and their overall need for academical-
ly-focused attention to “high-risk youth” in their public high schools.
While some states have very unique and interesting needs that can be ad-
dressed, some, like the state of Georgia, simply need a strong, intensified focus
on student academics. P.A.R.K. model programs also fulfill this traditional role
while adding an essential layer of physical and character development. In Eng-
lish/Language Arts, only 47% of high school student meet or exceed the state
of Georgia’s testing requirements annually. Even worse, in the area of Math-
ematics/Science, only 25% annually meet or exceed the state’s requirements.
The holistic approach that P.A.R.K. model programs follow is able to address
both the traditional aspect of academic tutoring and the measurable concerns
of academic success. By specifically targeting the academic concerns faced by
at-risk students, access to upper-level education and better jobs will improve
not only the individual student, but also the communities in which they reside.
In addition to programs designed to meet the specific needs of each state and
community, a typical P.A.R.K. model facility would include a study and tutoring
area fully equipped with computers, as well as a library, volunteer tutors, and
other resources to help promote academic success. The students would be pro-
vided with a cafeteria supplying after school snacks and extensive recreational
spaces for them to enjoy after their homework is completed. Recreational op-
tions could include multiple basketball courts, a track, a weight room with exer-
cise equipment, a game room with foosball tables and gaming systems, a “girls
room” that includes a beauty salon that is kept stocked with hair and nail sup-
plies, and an expansive “backyard” for outdoor activities. Each facility can be
tailored to the individuals who are enrolled in the program to fit their specific
needs.
These programs would not serve students only after school hours; similar to the
P.A.R.K. program in Little Rock, facilities and tutors would be available to stu-
dents, and at sometimes required, during the summer. Due to space limitations,
all eligible students are unable to be accepted, therefore, potential students
must go through a rigorous selection process in which both students and their
families are interviewed. Students new to the program, the most committed and
motivated young people, would undergo a period of intensive, remedial educa-
tional instruction focusing on core subjects in a summer enrichment program.
This helps ensure that students will have as solid an academic base as possible
before entering their eighth grade year, a crucial time of learning before high
school. It also provides the opportunity to sharpen scholastic skills that have
grown dull from a summer’s disuse.
A unique aspect of the Little Rock program that could be adapted and individu-
alized elsewhere is the incentive system used to reward hard work. Students
earn points for attendance, academic achievement, and good behavior. Points
would be used for special activities such as trips to the theater, an amusement
park, or sporting event. When students go above and beyond expectations,
they would see immediate results. These incentive programs encourage the
students to continue working hard, resulting in long-term academic improve-
ments.
Students would be tutored in ways that not only improve their grades, but also
develop strong personal characters. P.A.R.K. programs would seek to provide
an enriching environment that enables students to grow holistically. Integrity
would be emphasized in these highly selective programs, because good grades
are not the only important component of a resume or a college application.
Potential employers of these students need to know that their employees will
be honest and diligent, sometimes in spite of their backgrounds.
45
Funding
One of the most crucial obstacles to the implementation of programs modeled
after P.A.R.K. is funding. The fact for the matter is that for these programs to
get off the ground, funding is going to have to come from a variety of sources.
Local communities should be proactive and creative about places from which
to raise money. One innovative option would be for the programs to be funded
by partnerships with local businesses. These businesses would be motivated to
invest because of tax incentives, the potential for the growth and development
of a new and loyal workforce, positive press and goodwill in the community, as
well as free and positive advertising. Businesses can receive tax deductions
based upon the total income of the business. Ten percent of income can be giv-
en as contributions to organizations, all of which is tax deductible.20 Students
in these programs and other community members will be aware that they are
funded by certain businesses, and if representatives from those businesses have
a presence in the students’ lives, further fostering the relationships between the
program and the businesses. This may well lead to the opportunity for the
best students to graduate and go to work at the companies that played such
a crucial role in their development and success. This will create long-standing
trust and loyalty between employer and employees. In addition, the connection
between businesses and after-school programs will provide impoverished and
at-risk students with networking opportunities in the business community, which
they would otherwise lack access. As the community recognizes the goodwill
and altruism of the business, the benefits to the company will only multiply.
Another funding option is to seek patrons and spokespeople to fund and pro-
mote these programs. One reason P.A.R.K. is so successful is the presence of
Keith Jackson. The involvement of other sports figures, celebrities, or prominent
community members would only enhance the visibility and promote the success
of these programs. Potential spokespeople should be eager to be involved be-
cause of humanitarian interest, tax incentives, and a positive public image. Tax
incentives for individuals are based on the individuals’ income. There are limita-
tions for donations, but ten percent of an individual’s income may be donated
and tax deductible.23
Colleges and universities should also have vested interests in funding programs
such as P.A.R.K. Marquese McFerguson entered the program with a 1.9 GPA
and, on a P.A.R.K.-secured scholarship, eventually earned a degree in graphic
design from Ouachita Baptist University in Arkansas. Universities gain hard-
working, disadvantaged students when they fund at-risk high school students
such as McFerguson. Robert Irby, another college graduate, also secured his
university scholarship through P.A.R.K.24 Universities as well as communities
have a responsibility to promote education at all ages so they and the state
receive the best students possible.
Conclusion
The Southern region is comprised of states and communities, including the
three documented in this paper, with distinct and diverse challenges faced by
failing school systems. Implementation of independent and adaptable after-
school and summer programs similar to P.A.R.K. would allow each city or state
to address these issues in ways unique to their particular problems.
Some might argue that supplemental education programs already exist across
the South, and that even in Little Rock where the P.A.R.K program is already in
place, it has not single-handedly solved all of the education problems for the
community or come even close for that matter. It must be recognized, however,
that P.A.R.K type programs are a crucial step in the right direction and make
an enormous difference in the lives of each young person that they serve. The
P.A.R.K. programs do not expect to solve all of the educational problems in the
South, however they are able to promote and improve the lives of at-risk stu-
dents with whom they come in contact with. The unique characteristics of the
P.A.R.K. program, combined with other existing and continuing efforts, can help
strike the fatal blow to the crisis of failing Southern education.
The critical aspect of this recommendation is adaptability. In order for the spe-
cific needs of specific communities to be properly met, the programs must be
dynamic, flexible, and structured to conform to and address the problems of
each city in which they are implemented. The P.A.R.K. program has had a tre-
mendous impact in the inner city of Little Rock, Arkansas, partially because it
was founded by a Little Rock native. Moreover, it is run by Little Rock residents
and funded by local people and businesses that care about the community.
The PARK model depends upon the community taking an interest in the future
of its youth. It is not the goal of this proposal to transplant P.A.R.K. into other
cities; its aim is to provide an adaptable blueprint that can be adopted and
transformed. Although education in the South is an expansive problem that will
47
require attention for generations to come, this will take the vital first step to
finding a solution that will propel the South towards a better future.
Bibliography
“After-school Programs Really Do Work.” The Park Progress, Winter 2009. http://
www.positivekids.org/pdfs/March%2009.pdf (accessed March 29. 2009).
Associated Press, “High School Graduation Rates Plummet below 50% in some U.S.
Cities”.1 April 2008; www.associated press.com (accessed March 29, 2009).
“Durham Public Schools is a National Model for Great Partnership with Businesses
and Corporations.” Durham Public Schools. http://www.dpsnc.net/community/busi-
ness/whats-new-in-business-support/durham-public-schools-is-a-national-model-for
(accessed March 29, 2009).
“Former P.A.R.K. Students: Robert Irby.” Positive Atmosphere Reaches Kids: P.A.R.K.
www.positivekids.org/profiles/irby.htm (accessed March 29, 2009).
Hewes, Robert (CPA), interview by author, Searcy, AR, Marcy 21, 2009.
“High School Dropout Rates.” Child Trends Databank. http://www.childtrendsdata-
bank.org/indicators/1highschooldropout.cfm (accessed March 29, 2009).
Jackson, Jenny and Joan Lord.“Improving ACT and SAT Scores: Making Progress,
Facing Challenges.” Southern Regional Education Board, (2007): 7-10. http://www.sreb.
org/main/Goals/Publications/07E02_ACT_and_SAT_Test_Scores.pdf (accessed March
29, 2009).
“Malnutrition Impairs U.S. Children’s Health, Behavior,” LSU AgCenter, http://
www.lsuagcenter.com/en/family_home/family/childcare/Children_Childcare/Malnu
trition+Impairs+US+Childrens+Health+Behavior+Says+LSU+AgCenter+Food+and+N
utrition+Expert.htm (accessed March 29, 2009).
Moody, Kareem. “Blue & You Weight Loss Challenge.” The Park Progress, Summer
2008. http://www.positivekids.org/pdfs/summer08.pdf (accessed March 29. 2009).
Moseley, Jack. “Those Shocking U.S. Education Statistics.” Arkansas News, August 11,
2005. http://dev2.arkansasnews.com/?s=Those+shocking+U.S.+education+statistics&x=3
1&y=10 (accessed March 29. 2009).
National Center for Children in Poverty, “Geography of Low-Income Children and
Families”. Report issued November 2003; www.nccp.org (accessed March 29, 2009).
NCHEMS Information Center for Higher Education Policy Making and Analysis,
“Public High School Graduation Rates” http://www.higheredinfo.org/dbrowser/index.p
hp?submeasure=36&year=2006&level=nation&mode=graph&state=0 (accessed July 23,
2009).
Positive Atmosphere Reaches Kids: P.A.R.K. http://www.positivekids.org/ (accessed
March 29, 2009).
“Texas: State and County Quick Facts,” U.S. Census Bureau, http://quickfacts.cen-
sus.gov/qfd/states/48000.html (accessed March 29, 2009).
Footnotes
1. NCHEMS Information Center for Higher Education Policy Making and Analysis,
“Public High School Graduation Rates” (accessed July 23, 2009).
2. Associated Press, “High School Graduation Rates Plummet below 50% in some U.S.
Cities”.1 April 2008; www.associatedpress.com (accessed March 29, 2009).
3. National Center for Children in Poverty, “Geography of Low-Income Children
and Families”. Report issued November 2003; www.nccp.org (accessed March 29,
2009).
4. Jenny Jackson and Joan Lord, “Improving ACT and SAT Scores: Making Progress,
Facing Challenges,” Southern Regional Education Board, (2007): 7-10. http://www.
sreb.org/main/Goals/Publications/07E02_ACT_and_SAT_Test_Scores.pdf (accessed
March 29, 2009).
5. Ibid.
6. Positive Atmosphere Reaches Kids: P.A.R.K, http://www.positivekids.org/ (accessed
March 29, 2009).
7. NCHEMS Information Center for Higher Education Policy Making and Analysis,
“Public High School Graduation Rates” http://www.higheredinfo.org/dbrowser/
index.php?submeasure=36&year=2006&level=nation&mode=graph&state=0 (ac-
cessed July 23, 2009).
8. P.A.R.K, http://www.positivekids.org.
9. “High School Dropout Rates,” Child Trends Databank., http://www.childtrendsdata-
bank.org/indicators/1highschooldropout.cfm (accessed March 29, 2009).
10. Jack Moseley, “Those Shocking U.S. Education Statistics,” Arkansas News, August
11, 2005, http://dev2.arkansasnews.com/?s=Those+shocking+U.S.+education+statisti
cs&x=31&y=10 (accessed March 29. 2009).
11. P.A.R.K, http://www.positivekids.org.
12. “After-school Programs Really Do Work,” The Park Progress, Winter 2009, http://
www.positivekids.org/pdfs/March%2009.pdf (accessed March 29. 2009).
13. P.A.R.K, http://www.positivekids.org.
14. Ibid
15. Ibid
16. “Texas: State and County Quick Facts,” U.S. Census Bureau, http://quickfacts.cen-
sus.gov/qfd/states/48000.html (accessed March 29, 2009).
17. “Malnutrition Impairs U.S. Children’s Health, Behavior,” LSU AgCenter, http://
www.lsuagcenter.com/en/family_home/family/childcare/Children_Childcare/Maln
utrition+Impairs+US+Childrens+Health+Behavior+Says+LSU+AgCenter+Food+and+
Nutrition+Expert.htm (accessed March 29, 2009).
18. Kareem Moody, “Blue & You Weight Loss Challenge,” The Park Progress, Summer
2008, http://www.positivekids.org/pdfs/summer08.pdf (accessed March 29. 2009).
19. P.A.R.K, http://www.positivekids.org.
20. Robert Hewes (CPA), interview by author, Searcy, AR, Marcy 21, 2009.
21. “Durham Public Schools is a National Model for Great Partnership with Businesses
and Corporations,” Durham Public Schools, http://www.dpsnc.net/community/busi-
ness/whats-new-in-business-support/durham-public-schools-is-a-national-model-
for (accessed March 29, 2009).
22. “Durham, NC to Receive First Community Award from Chamber’s Institute for a
Competitive Workforce,” U.S. Chamber of Commerce. http://www.uschamber.com/
press/releases/2007/september/07-158.htm (accessed July 26, 2009).
23. Robert Hewes (CPA), interview by author, Searcy, AR, Marcy 21, 2009.
24. “Former P.A.R.K. Students: Robert Irby,” Positive Atmosphere Reaches Kids: P.A.R.K,
www.positivekids.org/profiles/irby.htm (accessed March 29, 2009).
49
Mandatory Impact Fees
Rocky T. Cole
University of Georgia
Executive Summary
• Over the past fifty years, low-density, leapfrogging development—
colloquially known as urban sprawl—has become the predominant
form of urban growth in America.
• Neglected infrastructure, including deferred roadway maintenance,
and overcrowded public schools are both negative outcomes associ-
ated with unchecked outward expansion.
• Georgia has been ranked as one of the most sprawling regions in the
Untied States.
• Despite the early enactment of growth management legislation,
Georgia has failed almost entirely to curtail sprawl. Inherent weak-
nesses in the Georgia Planning Act, limited funding for Smart Growth
initiatives, and rigid beliefs in local autonomy continue to cripple the
state’s management efforts.
• Mandatory impact fees for new development, or one time fees paid
by developers to finance the additional infrastructure required (i.e.
roads, schools, and sewer lines), are one way the state can encour-
age more efficient uses of existing infrastructure, thereby ensuring
that future development pays for itself.
Georgia, specifically the Atlanta area, is one of the most sprawling regions in
the United States. Between 2000 and 2007, the Atlanta population increased
by 41 percent and a subsequent housing boom increased the number of new
housing units by 21 percent. Almost all of this growth was low-density and oc-
51
curred on the peripheries of the City of Atlanta. Nine of the region’s outmost
counties—Forsyth, Paulding, Gwinnett, Coweta, Pickens, Walton, Cherokee and
Barrow—experienced population increases greater than 50 percent (see Ap-
pendix, Figure 1).1 The USA Today Sprawl Index, a measure of sprawl based
on changes in population densities during the 1990s, ranks Atlanta as the fifth
most sprawling city in America with a population over one million.5 The Rutgers
Center for Urban Policy Research, using a complex formula accounting for pop-
ulation density, amount of public space, alternative modes of transportation,
etc., ranks Georgia as the 14th most sprawling state.6 In a calculation measuring
levels of sprawl using temporal and geographic change published in the Urban
Affairs Review, Atlanta was assigned a value of 80.65 out of 100, with 100 repre-
senting absolute sprawling development, compared to the national average of
67.97.7 Not surprisingly, Atlanta boasts the nation’s eighth longest average com-
mute time, with residents spending an average of 27.1 minutes commuting one
way to work. Moreover, 19 percent of Georgians commute more than 45 minutes
one way to work, compared to the national average of 17 percent.8
Infrastructure Costs
Perhaps the greatest cost associated with sprawl is the burden on requirements
for local infrastructure. More miles of sewer lines, water lines, and roads are
necessary to support increasing populations under sprawling scenarios than
compact scenarios. In a 1974 landmark study now cited by Georgia and other
states9 as their official assessment of sprawl, the Real Estate Research Corpo-
ration estimated the capital costs of two hypothetical communities of 10,000
housing units over a twenty year period. Two scenarios, ‘low-density sprawl’
and high density ‘planned development,’ were created based on characteris-
tics observed in actual developments. They found that communities with low-
density sprawl incurred 74 percent higher capital costs than planned develop-
ment. Capital expenses for roads and utilities alone were 120 percent higher
for the sprawl scenario, while operating expenses were a surprising 13 percent
higher.10
In 2005, senior Brookings Institute Fellows Robert Burchell and Anthony Downs
updated The Costs of Sprawl using two growth scenarios—sprawl and com-
pact growth—to forecast expected infrastructure costs through the year 2025.
Under the compact growth scenario, five percent of all people entering the
housing market were concentrated into existing urban centers rather than un-
developed land, and the expected 52 million new development units were con-
structed with an expected 20 percent higher population density and 10 percent
higher floor area ratios. Under the sprawling scenario, growth continued on its
current trend. Again infrastructure costs were significantly higher under the
sprawling scenario. Between 2000 and 2025, state governments would save an
estimated 6.6 percent—or a total of $12.6 billion—on water and sewer infrastruc-
ture if growth occurred in a more compact fashion. A total of 188,305 fewer
miles of road would be constructed, saving an estimated $109.7 billion.11
It should be noted that Burchell’s study measures only the hypothetical costs
of sprawl—that is, it does not measure real world increases in per capita infra-
structure costs. However, evidence suggests that these costs are accurate for
Georgia. Each year beginning in 2000, the Georgia Municipal Association con-
ducts a survey of approximately 500 member cities to determine the amount
each expects to spend on various capital improvement projects over a five
year period. In 2003, these cities reported needing an estimated $83 million for
transportation improvements and $21 million for water/sewer improvements. For
2009, the same cities reported needing $263 for transportation and $386 mil-
lion for water/sewer improvements (see Appendix, Figure 2). When controlled
for inflation, these changes represent a 33 percent increase in per capita ex-
penses for water/sewer infrastructure and a 126 percent increase in per capita
transportation infrastructure. While urban development may naturally lead to
some increased per capita infrastructure expenses, the observed increases in
Atlanta are indicative of sprawling growth. If larger numbers of people were
paying for a similar number of miles of road and sewer lines—in other words,
if Atlanta were developing at higher densities—per capita costs could be ex-
pected to either decrease or remain constant.12 As these costs increase steeply,
it is safe to attribute some of the increases to lower population densities and
overall greater demands for infrastructure.
Georgia’s growth management strategy over the last thirty years includes ex-
amples of both SGMS and fee-based approaches, neither of which has prov-
en an effective means of limiting sprawl. In 1988, Georgia tepidly entered the
growth management movement by adopting the Georgia Planning Act. The act
requires local governments to develop comprehensive development plans fol-
lowing state mandated “minimum criteria.” These criteria include annual ‘Com-
munity Assessments’ of economic and physical growth patterns, ‘Community
Outreach’ programs in which Georgians provide feedback on development,
and local governments’ participation in the Quality Growth Objectives, which is
a non-binding survey asking such questions as “are bicycle lanes a part of your
comprehensive plan?” The comprehensive plans are then submitted to one of
twelve Regional Development Centers—now designated as Regional Develop-
ment Commissions (RDC) under a 2008 amendment—for review and comment.
Local governments are deemed either in compliance or noncompliance with
the Planning Act. Those plans deemed in compliance then become eligible to
receive state funding for capital improvement loans from the Georgia Environ-
mental Facilities Authority (GEFA) and the Department of Community Affairs
(DCA).
Despite Georgia’s early entrance into the growth management movement, the
Georgia Planning Act has failed to curtail sprawl.22 As the report of the Growth
Strategies Reassessment Task Force noted in 1998, “the casual observer could
probably conclude that land use and development patterns during the 10 years
since adoption of Growth Strategies have changed little from what was hap-
pening before Growth Strategies.”23 With the exception of gentrification move-
ments in select Atlanta areas, the same remains true in 2008.24 Inherent weak-
nesses in the Planning Act, as well as a lack of regional coordination in the
state, continue to allow sprawl in Georgia. In the words of Cobb County Com-
missioner and Chairman of the Atlanta Regional Commission, Sam Olens, “The
Planning Act has no teeth.”25
Policy Recommendation
Despite Georgia’s history of popular aversion to strong growth management
programs, a looming shift in the state’s political climate may open wide the
door for increased state regulation. Unhappy with long commute times and
overcrowded schools, Georgians are becoming increasingly aware of sprawl’s
negative consequences.28 The rise of political figures opposed to sprawling de-
velopment hints toward a new future for Atlanta area residents. Recent amend-
ments to the Georgia Planning Act providing additional funding to Regional
Development Centers and a ballot initiative to create Infrastructure Develop-
ment Districts suggest that municipalities are willing to further engage in re-
gional planning. As Georgia’s population will almost certainly reach 12 million
by 2030—and the total number of housing units in Atlanta will almost certainly
reach 2 million in the same time period—now is the time to adopt meaningful
legislation to guide development into the 21st century.29
New legislation will need to look far beyond Georgia’s current development
patterns: to assume that growth will proceed as it did throughout the 1990s
would be naïve. As Chairman Olens notes, the Golden Age of Sprawl may be
coming to an end. Natural market forces, i.e. a demand for more ‘traditional
forms of growth,’ may begin to marginally correct sprawling development; thus,
any beneficial anti-sprawl legislation will need to avoid simply adding addition-
al layers of bureaucracy that Georgia policymakers view as ineffective. Further,
although Georgians routinely express disdain for traffic congestion and over-
crowded schools, a radical overhaul of Georgia’s growth management strategy
remains far from tenable. So what can, and should, be done? One option is
to change the way capital improvements are financed. Mandating that local
governments levy impact fees when they cannot raise enough revenue to fund
necessary infrastructure projects is one way Georgia can ensure that future
development pays for itself.
Impact fees are an excellent option for Georgia’s cities struggling to catch up
with needed capital improvements. According to the interviews conducted for
this research, impact fees are generally viewed by Georgia policymakers as a
necessary element of responsible growth.31 Unfortunately, however, a general
fear of their misuse limits widespread implementation of such exactions. The
State Legislature should therefore amend the Georgia Development Impact
Fee Act O.C.G.A. § 36-71-3(a) to read “Municipalities and counties reaching
‘Intermediate’ and ‘Advanced Planning Levels’ (specific levels of density and
development) which have adopted a comprehensive plan containing a capital
improvements element, when unable to raise adequate revenue to meet system
improvement costs, are required to impose by ordinance development impact
fees as a condition of development approval on all development pursuant to
and in accordance with the provisions of this chapter.” The fees would continue
to be calculated on a service area a basis and would be application only in situ-
ations where the:
For example, if total system improvement costs—i.e. the total costs for develop-
ing new infrastructure—equal $10, 000 per housing unit in a particular subdivi-
sion, and the municipal government can allocate only $5,000 from property
and sales tax revenue per unit, the developer would be charged a $5,000 per
unit fee to offset the additional costs. If the total system improvement costs
equaled $10,000 and municipalities raised enough revenue to allocate the full
$10,000 per unit towards infrastructure without diverting general funds from
other areas, no impact fees would be required.
Further, as with any state mandate, some degree of state oversight is necessary.
The state cannot simply mandate that local governments collect impact fees
and expect absolute compliance. The legislature should therefore include in
the proposed amendment a clause linking qualifications for major state grants
and low-interest loans to compliance with the Impact Fee Act. If municipalities
refuse to levy fees when it is clear they cannot pay for necessary infrastructure,
as defined by O.C.G.A. § 36-71-2, funding from GEFA and GDOT should be with-
held until municipalities comply.
Benefits
Mandatory impact fees as an alternative method for funding capital improve-
ments would entail great benefits for Georgia’s cities. First and foremost, re-
quiring municipalities to levy impact fees instead of deferring maintenance or
diverting general funds will both limit sprawling development and ensure that
future growth in Georgia pays for itself. Since the additional costs of the impact
fees will be passed along to consumers in the form of higher housing prices,
mandatory impact fees can be seen as a tax on sprawling development. If con-
sumers truly wish to enjoy the benefits of sprawling development, they will be
able to do so, but will simply pay more to engage in a sprawling lifestyle. De-
velopers, on the other hand, will recognize that if they raise housing prices too
much too quickly, they risk lowering demand and thereby limiting their profits.
Accordingly, they will find more efficient uses for existing infrastructure in order
to avoid paying exorbitant impact fees. In the end, Georgia cities can expect
the higher housing prices to be more than offset by firms finding more efficient
uses of existing infrastructure. The risk that housing prices will rise steeply and
limit access to housing markets is therefore limited.
Another benefit of mandating impact fees is that they would lower financial and
political pressure on municipalities to expand basic infrastructure requirements
and focus on long-term development. Since, local governments receive a major-
ity of their funding from property and sales taxes, more development translates
into more revenue. Georgia has a large number of local governments and one
of the most fragmented political systems in the country. As Burchell notes, these
sprawling conditions “create a never-ending upward spiral of costs” which does
not end once municipalities construct new water and sewer infrastructure. In-
creased usage of city infrastructure puts more pressure on governments to
conduct capital improvements. Since tax bases are smaller under sprawling
scenarios, local governments often compete for development that will expand
their property tax bases by offering tax incentives and favorable zoning regula-
tions for new development. Adopting more restrictive development regulations
runs the risk of turning developers away to neighboring jurisdictions.
Under these conditions, impact fees are a more efficient way to pay for in-
frastructure improvements than taxes. As the fees make the linkage between
those benefitting from the infrastructure and those paying for the costs more
59
direct, economic efficiency would be increased. Since cities would have a guar-
anteed source of funding for necessary capital improvements, they would face
less financial and political pressure to expand their tax bases. This would allow
them to focus on long-term development goals, such as providing necessary
roadways, bridges and parks, as well as increasing the overall quality of public
service, such as education. Mandatory impact fees would therefore constitute
a step toward ending the ‘vicious cycles of sprawl’ now plaguing some Georgia
communities.
Challenges
The greatest challenge to mandating the use of development impact fees is
a widespread belief by Georgia’s policymakers and elected officials that fees
slow overall economic growth. Empirical evidence shows, on the contrary, that
even under worse case scenarios impact fees have no negative effects on job
growth. Some studies even suggest that impact fees may increase the amount
of mixed-use developments in a community, which in turn catalyzes aggregate
job growth.33 As a rule, however, impact fees should not exceed the costs of
infrastructure apportioned to the development net of other revenues used to
finance the same project—that is, if other government funding is available to
partially subsidize capital improvements, the impact fee should not exceed the
costs of development less existing revenue streams.34 Under any other circum-
stances, impact fees promote deadweight losses of efficiency in the form of
higher housing prices or lower land values with no appreciable economic ben-
efits. The proposed mandatory impact fees avoid this pitfall by adhering to the
method for calculating fees laid out by O.C.G.A. § 36-71-4(a) in which develop-
ment impact fees shall not exceed “a proportionate share of the cost of system
improvements.” Under this amendment to the Impact Fee Act, ‘proportionate
share’ is defined as the difference between total infrastructure costs minus
existing revenue streams. Moreover, O.C.G.A. § 36-71-4(L)(1) provides a clear
loophole for municipalities to exempt certain projects from impact fees if they
are “determined to create extraordinary economic development and employ-
ment growth or affordable housing,” thereby mitigating concerns about stifling
meaningful economic growth.
Mandatory statewide impact fees do, however, face several technical limita-
tions. First, not all local governments in Georgia have equal personnel or op-
erating budgets. It is not unusual to find urban planners doubling as clerks in
smaller, more rural municipalities. Some municipalities may simply lack the nec-
essary manpower to collect or impose the required fees. Therefore, only those
municipalities classified as ‘Intermediate’ and ‘Advanced’ should be required
to collect exactions. Because Intermediate and Advanced planning zones are
larger metropolitan areas with vast resources and manpower, this provision of
the policy will ensure that smaller municipalities are not overburdened by state
requirements. All other municipalities should retain the current authority to levy
impact fees if they so choose.
Conclusion
Despite Georgia’s early implementation of a growth management strategy, the
Atlanta area has become one of the most sprawling in the nation. Widespread
political opposition to state intervention limits Georgia’s ability to control low-
density development to largely ceremonial procedures in the form of local com-
prehensive planning. With a shift in the political climate looming, a window of
opportunity for reinvigorating Georgia’s growth management strategy may be
opening. Owing to the heavy fiscal and social costs of sprawling development,
Georgia should take advantage of this opportunity and enact meaningful re-
forms to guide development into the 21st century. Mandatory statewide impact
fees would be a more efficient way to finance capital improvements.
Works Cited
1. Soule, David C. (Ed.), Urban Sprawl: A Comprehensive Reference Guide, (Westport:
Greendwood, 2006).
2. Burchell, Robert W., Anthony Downs, Barbara McCann and Sahan Mukherji, Sprawl
Costs: Economic Impacts of Unchecked Development, (Washington: Island, 2005).
3. Gillham and MacLean, “The Limitless City: A Primer on the Urban Sprawl Debate”,
(Washington: Island, 2002).
4. Atlanta Regional Commission Technical Reports: Population Element, Public Facili-
ties Element, and Transportation Element (2004).
5. See http://www.usatoday.com/news/sprawl/main.htm
6. Sprawl Costs: Economic Impacts of Unchecked Development
7. Lopez, Russ, Hynes, H. Patricia “Sprawl In The 1990s: Measurement, Distribution,
61
and Trends,” Urban Affairs Review, Vol. 38, No. 3, (2003): 325-355.
8. U.S. Census Bureau, 2007 American Community Survey
9. For example, Colorado, California, New Mexico and South Carolina.
10. Burchell, Robert, “Conventional Development Versus Managed Growth: The Costs
of Sprawl,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 93, No. 9, (September 2003):
1534-1540.
11. Ibid.
12. Heimlich, Ralph E. and William D. Anderson, “Development at the Urban Fringe
and Beyond: Impacts on Agriculture and Rural Land,” United States Department of
Agriculture, Agricultural Economic Report No. (AER803), June 2001.
13. Ibid
14. Tannewald, Robert and Nicholas Turner, State Tax Notes, May 23, 2005: 585-598,
In the 2005 Fiscal Impact report, produced by the Georgia State University Fiscal
Research Center.
15. American Society of Civil Engineers, “2008 Report Card for America’s Infrastruc-
ture State Fact Sheets,” http://www.asce.org/reportcard/2005/page.cfm?id=145
16. American Society of Civil Engineers, “2005 Report Card for America’s Infrastruc-
ture: Georgia,” http://www.asce.org/reportcard/2005/page.cfm?id=50
17. “DOT Stopping Work on 150 Projects, Trimming Fast Forward Progam, Insiders
Say” Insider Advantage News Service, http://www.insideradvantagegeorgia.com.
18. Hawkins, Richard, “Does Growth Pay for Itself? Property Tax Trends for Schools in
Georgia,” Georgia State University FRC Report No. 57, January 2002.
19. Ready, Douglas D. and Valerie E. Lee, “Educational Equity and School Structure:
School Size, Overcrowding, and Schools-Within-Schools,” Teachers College Record,
Vol. 106, Iss. 10, (2004).
20. Georgia Development Impact Fee Act of 1990, O.C.G.A. § 36-71-1 (2008)
21. Ibid.
22. While no official survey of public officials or DCA publication makes this claim, my
own interviews with such officials confirmed that an overwhelming consensus of
Georgia’s policymakers believe the Planning Act has no role in effecting growth
patterns. In fact, many view the Department of Community Affairs as mere bureau-
cracy.
23. Georgia Growth Strategies Reassessment Task Force, “Georgia’s Future: Beyond
Growth Strategies,” December 1998. A document procured from DCA.
24. Interviews.
25. Interview with Chairman Olens
26. Georgia Planning Act of 1988, O.C.G.A. § 50-8-30 (2008)
27. “Georgia’s Future: Beyond Growth Strategies.”
28. Interviews with state representatives, public officials and urban planners.
29. Atlanta Regional Commission Technical Reports: Housing Element (2004), http://
www.atlantaregional.com/documents/lu_rdp_ch6_housing_12_04.pdf
30. Been, Vicki, “Impact Fees and Housing Affordability,” Cityscape: A Journal of Policy
Development and Research, Vol. 1, No. 8, (2005): 139-185.
31. Based on interviews with over 20 high ranking public officials.
32. “Rules of Georgia Department of Community Affairs Chapter 110-12-1 Standards
and Procedures for Local Comprehensive Planning,” Department of Community
Affairs, Retrieved from http://www.dca.state.ga.us/development/PlanningQuality-
Growth/programs/downloads/MinimumStandardsAdopted.pdf.
33. Ihlanfeldt, Keith and Timothy H. Shaughnessy, “An Empirical Investigation of the
Effects of Impact Fees on Housing and Land Markets,” Presented at the Lincoln
Institute of Land Policy
34. Conference: Analysis of Urban Land Markets and the Impact of Land Market Regu-
lation, July 2002. Nelson, Arthur C. and Mitch Moody, “Paying for Prosperity: Im-
pact Fees and Job Growth,” A discussion paper prepared for the Brookings Institu-
tion Center for Urban and Metropolitan Policy. http://www.brookings.edu/reports/
2003/06metropolitanpolicy_nelson.aspx.
63
Appendix
Figure 1. Percent Change in Total Housing Units (Source: U.S. Census Bureau)
Figure 2: Per Capita Infrastructure Costs Adjusted For Inflation (Source: Georgia Mu-
nicipal Association Capital Improvement Survey, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008)
Figure 3: Percent Change in Tax Base Size vs. Public School Enrollment in the 13 County
Atlanta Area (Source: GSU Fiscal Research Center)
Figure 4: Percent Change in Tax Base Size vs. Public School Enrollment in Sprawling
Counties (Source: GSU Fiscal Research Center)
Figure 5: Percent Change in Tax Base Size vs. Public School Enrollment in Non-Sprawl-
ing Counties (Source: GSU Fiscal Research Center)
65
Child Care Foundations
Lauren Coleman
University of Georgia
Executive Summary
• Athens-Clarke County (ACC), categorized as one of the 91 persis-
tently poor counties in Georgia, faces a staggering 28.3 percent pov-
erty rate.1
• While a host of issues contribute to the fiscal instability of local fami-
lies, adequate funding for child care continues to be a problem.
• In an effort to more consistently address child care needs, the ACC
government should engage in a public-private partnership with local
businesses to administer child care subsidies to a broader subset of
the Athens population.
• Drawing upon a pre-existing Georgia tax credit and additional lo-
cal funding, Athens businesses will pay 75 percent of employee child
care costs directly to accredited child care centers selected by the
individual workers.
• The local ACC government must establish a third party administra-
tive committee as a means to maintain personal information privacy
and establish recommended subsidy figures.
• Over a period of 5 years, as companies start to see benefits such as
reduced turnover, higher morale, and decreased absenteeism, ACC
will gradually remove additional funding.
• Additional benefits include more flexible child care options, increased
disposable household income, higher rates of accredited enrollment,
and a strengthened focus on quality facilities.
• A program similar to this proposal found success in local Athens busi-
ness, burton+Burton. Additionally, burton+Burton utilizes the same
tax credit publicized within this proposal, found within the Official
Code of Georgia section 48-7-40.6.2
Introduction
Athens-Clarke County (ACC), Georgia, struggles with a startling poverty rate
of 28.3 percent and has approximately 26,000 residents living in poverty.3 Re-
cently, however, the community has fostered a public discourse on how to reduce
poverty through the advocacy group Partners for a Prosperous Athens (PPA),
which later developed into the OneAthens Foundation. This group recognizes
that the task of reducing poverty is multi-faceted, requiring a substantial effort
in a variety of policy domains, ranging from affordable housing to vocational
education initiatives. Specifically, the OneAthens foundation recognizes that
increased access to early childhood care for the Athens community is vital to
67
attaining the general goal of poverty reduction. Early childhood care and de-
velopmental programs have the potential to attack poverty by decreasing edu-
cational disparities between children as they enter kindergarten. Currently, the
costs for families to invest in child care are staggering and generally comprise
a sizeable percentage of total household income. The insufficient funds cur-
rently allocated to child care subsidization are limiting what low-income fami-
lies can do to better the lives of their children while still managing an attainable
household budget.
While there are several programs available at the state level, families in Athens-
Clarke County (ACC), and particularly low-income households, face a limited
set of affordable child care options. Free programs, including Pre-Kindergarten,
Head Start, and Even Start, already have sizeable waiting lists. The waiting list
for Pre-Kindergarten in ACC was equal to nearly 40 percent of 2006 enroll-
ment, forcing 198 children to look to other sources for assistance. Even more
staggering was the 2006 waiting list of 154 children for Head Start programs.6
As of September 2008, 6,218 children either have both mother and father or
their sole caregiver in the work force. Of that group of children, only 3,324 chil-
dren were in some form of regulated care, leaving approximately 2,894 children
either without care or in unaccredited programs.7 Accredited institutions are
child care facilities that have undergone a process of training and assessment
overseen by the National Association for the Education of Young Children
(NAEYC) and Georgia’s Department of Early Care and Learning.8
For those not enrolled in free programs, the average cost of providing private
care is approximately $5,900 per year for an infant. That figure comprises 20.8
percent of median family income in Clarke County.9 To reduce this cost, some
subsidies, provided by the Family and Child Services (DFCS) division of the
Georgia Department of Human Resources, are available to partially pay for
child care programs. However, guidelines for subsidies are fairly restrictive. For
a single parent and one child to receive the funding, the annual household in-
come must be no higher than $21,120. Additionally, the guardian must meet a
minimum work requirement of 30 hours per week. In four person households, a
maximum income of $32,000 is required along with 30 hours a week for both
parents in order to receive DFCS subsidies. Furthermore, parents attending a
four-year college or university are not eligible for the subsidy.10
In addition to families facing hardships, reduced access to child care limits the
productivity and success companies derive from their employees. When em-
ployees face balancing a healthy family life and maintaining their job, it is often
the businesses that are penalized. In a survey of five major corporations, 82
percent of working employees reported missing work, leaving early, or arriv-
ing late due to difficulties with child care. Similarly, supervision arrangements
fall through for one in four employees at least once a month due to unreliable
care.11 Cases such as these leave employers with little or no notice to adjust and
account for workplace disruptions.
In acquiring the subsidies, employees would disclose the total income of the
household, the child care provider, and the cost of the child care program to the
third party government committee as a privacy protection safeguard. In order
to ensure that quality centers are the sole recipients of funding, the program
requires all providers attain or hold NAEYC accreditation. After careful evalu-
ation of the forms and background checks on centers by the ACC committee,
the group will make subsidy figure recommendations to employers on behalf
of the given companies’ employee applicants. After receiving subsidy recom-
mendations, employers would make direct payments to the approved child care
centers selected by their employees. By providing child care facilities with pay-
ments directly, companies can ensure that the money is going to child care
rather than other employee expenditures.14
The finance department’s office of management and budget will house the third
party committee mentioned earlier. Consisting of current department employ-
ees, the committee will employ demographic data in order to devise the subsidy
funding scale. After laying the foundational guidelines, the committee will re-
ceive, review, and make funding recommendations for enrolled businesses. The
committee will also communicate with the revenue department and consider
the level of county funding awarded to participating companies. In addition
to handling the administrative aspects of this program, the ACC committee
would also select a liaison to both the OneAthens Foundation and the Athens
Chamber of Commerce. These representatives will inform the organizations
about the progress of the project while also noting advice and recommenda-
tions. Each of these partnerships allows the subsidy program to prosper under
the supervision of both child care advocates and business professionals. Finally,
increased community involvement also produces a degree of transparency vital
to the survival of the initiative.
Georgia currently offers a 75 percent tax credit for companies that provide as-
sistance to employees so long as the credit does not account for more than 50
percent of the taxpayer’s taxable income liability for the corresponding fiscal
year.15 The 75 percent tax credit accounts for the direct investment employers
make for dependent care, including child care assistance. This provision in state
law already provides a large incentive needed to encourage employer funded
child care, yet the tax incentive is grossly underused.16 Therefore, as a neces-
sary first step in attracting businesses to participate the program, the ACC
Chamber of Commerce needs to publicize the tax credit to local employers
through newsletters, meetings, and direct engagement. Critical to the overall
success of this program is communication with the entirety of the Athens area
workforce, not simply owners and managerial staff.
The ACC government initially will fund the remaining 25 percent of child care
costs incurred by employers through an increase in the current tax on liquor
and beer sales. The necessary tax increase will depend on how many compa-
nies participate in the program. In the first year of operation, ACC government
would provide the remaining 25 percent of total funding, making the program
cost neutral for participating employers. Then, over a five-year period, ACC
would gradually decrease funding as companies began to see returns on their
investment. Then as the county phases out funding for the program, the money
collected from the tax increase could then finance other Athens area projects,
serve as an alternative source of revenue, or face removal, depending on com-
munity sentiment.
71
By making the program cost neutral to employers, ACC is providing an oppor-
tunity for companies to experiment and experience the benefits of a program
that was likely unfeasible for many employers to apply on their own. Further-
more, ACC funding is designed to be the primary initial incentive for companies
to participate so that even the most skeptical companies will not see a nega-
tive impact on their returns As the program gains momentum, companies will
likely see benefits such as reduced turnover, improved recruiting benefits, and
decreased absenteeism. The savings derived from these benefits will eventually
take the place and hopefully surpass the funding provided in the initial stages
of the program.
It is important to note that companies are not required, but strongly encour-
aged, to participate in the employer subsidy program. By providing large in-
centives, including direct funding from the ACC government, businesses will
recognize the advantages of such a program. Additionally, with publicity that
reaches not only management, but all employees, businesses will most likely
see an increase in employee demand, leading to further encouragement for
program enrollment.
Families can also select a center that is conveniently located near their home
or workplace, allowing employees to reduce daily travel time and expenses by
incorporating a facility that is on their regular route. The program designed
subsidies as a way give employees a considerable amount of options when se-
lecting a child care center that is better suited for their family. An increase in
funding would allow more options and fewer restrictions, allowing each house-
hold to choose what provider best serves their children and their family.17
Child care benefits also provide incentives for employees to stay in jobs, reduc-
ing turnover for employers. The cost of hiring and training new employees can
have immense impacts on company expenditures. In fact, research suggests
that the average cost of replacing working parent employees is up to 75 to 150
percent of annual salary costs.21 Providing employer-based assistance can curb
the cost of replacing workers. In a study of companies that provided some sort
of child care assistance, 37 percent reported reduced turnover.22 Improved mo-
rale and employee satisfaction are also known benefits of providing subsidies
for child care. A 1995 conference board survey conducted by the Department of
the Treasury found that 62 percent of companies with such programs reported
higher morale among employees.23 Child care subsidization can increase em-
ployee satisfaction by allowing more flexibility in employee’s personal budgets
and decreasing financially related stress.
73
Companies have shown significant returns on their investments in child care
and pro-family initiatives. The First Tennessee Bank reported reduced turnover
costs of $1 million annually through increased funding for child care initiatives.24
Within the first nine months of starting an employer funded child care program,
Honeywell determined that the company saved $45,000 above the initial in-
vestment.25 Additionally, the family-work programs, including flexible child care
accounts, at Waste Management led to a $1,400 net savings resulting from
reduced absenteeism, increased productivity, and fewer benefit claims.26
Obstacles to Implementation
While a program of this nature has the potential to benefit the Athens commu-
nity, there are several obstacles to implementation. First, it is hard to estimate
business support for the program. Starting employer subsidies will have high
up front costs that will not be offset until companies receive tax credits from
both state and local returns. This initial cost may be too much of a burden for
companies to bear. Small businesses are especially subject to this barrier since
their contributions to child care subsidies may account for a higher percent-
age of their total revenue. While this may seem to be a powerful criticism, it
is important to note that structure of the policy is designed to be sensitive to
start up cost and low initial returns. Although reimbursements from state and
county agencies will not come before the start of such a program, they should
be received within close enough proximity of the time of implementation to
justify initial investments.
The employer-based subsidy proposed within this paper may also appear to
be a completely government-funded program. This notion oversimplifies the
proposed policy. First, one must consider that the 25 percent funding provided
by ACC will be gradually removed over a five year period, shifting some of the
burden back to businesses. The state credits, unlike appropriated money, will
also reduce wasteful spending by being applied after the exact cost of provid-
ing the benefit is already known. Therefore, while the program proposed here
is somewhat reliant on the government, the manner in which funding is admin-
istered is more efficient and cost effective for the state. Moreover, in the current
volatile economic climate, one could argue that providing a tax credit rather
than large amounts of appropriated funding may be a more efficient and time
sensitive mechanism for providing child care support. Now, more than in the
recent past, access to economical child care and increased income flexibility
has the potential to positively impact the economy.
Another potential weakness of this policy lies in finding support for the tax in-
crease on beer and liquor. Garnering support for tax increases given the current
economic climate could prove difficult and this proposal will likely face some
opposition. However, the proposed increase is small considering the culture
of Athens nightlife, along with its co-existence with the University of Georgia
and robust college population. Athens-Clarke County, while holding the title of
smallest county in the state of Georgia, has nearly 2.6 licensed alcohol distribu-
tors per square mile indicating that alcohol consumption is prevalent within the
county.35 Additionally, if handled correctly, the minimal tax increase could be
presented to the community as an investment for the betterment of the entire
community. Similar to the implementation of the Georgia Lottery to fund the
HOPE scholarship program, the policy advocated here is working as a “sin” tax
drawing revenue from a less socially accepted activity to further community
development. Lastly, rather than all ACC residents facing a tax increase, only
individuals who choose to partake in alcohol consumption will be impacted.
Establishing a good oversight mechanism may also be difficult to develop. The
county may not be able to devote enough energy into monitoring such a pro-
gram, ultimately leaving the program to deteriorate. However, the creation of a
county government administration committee, along with the partnerships with
the OneAthens Foundation and the Athens Chamber of Commerce will engage
a large portion of the Athens community. Employees receiving the added ben-
efit will also likely serve as proponents, hopefully aiding in the longevity of the
program. Lastly, getting the issue of child care onto the policy agenda might
serve as a battle in its own right. Salience often serves as an obstacle for many
policy areas. Drawing attention to the problem might prove difficult if those
affected, along with the media, are not forcing the issue to the front of public
policy debates in Athens. This issue can easily be surmounted with the aid of
the OneAthens Foundation and local child care advocates.
Broader Implementation
Although the scope of this policy is local, other cities throughout the southern
region can look to implement similar programs. Most notably, the city of Savan-
nah is an ideal candidate. Also located in Georgia, Savannah can utilize the tax
credit for child care investments utilized by the Athens program. Demographi-
cally, Savannah roughly has the same population size as Athens and also has a
recognized poverty reduction movement known as “Step Up Savannah.”36 Pre-
existing partnerships between “Step Up Savannah,” a variety of local business-
es, schools, and the Chatham County Government constitute the infrastructure
needed, facilitating the creation of a similar subsidy program.37 Drawing upon
the model set forth here, Savannah easily could implement government sup-
ported, employer-based subsidies.
Additionally other regional centers such as Columbia, SC, and Charleston, SC,
are demographically similar to both Athens in terms of total population and
racial make-up.38 Poverty rates in each of these cities are also above the state
average as reported by the U.S. census bureau.39 South Carolina, similarly to
Georgia, provides a 50% tax credit with a 3,000 dollar cap per employee to
businesses on investments made directly to child care providers.40 While the
tax credit provided by South Carolina is not as robust as the credit provided by
Georgia, it still presents employers with an incentive to provided child care ben-
efits. With additional local funding, both Charleston and Columbia could find
ways to encourage family friendly business practices within their communities.
Conclusion
High costs of child care often serve as a structural barrier limiting parents’ work
options. Parents struggling to balance work and family typically put families first,
leaving employers shortchanged. Efforts to cut child care costs and increase
access to quality programs would reduce the challenges Athens-area working
parents, especially those in lower-income households, face when providing ad-
equate care for their children. Therefore, by implementing an employer-based
subsidy program, Athens-Clarke County can reduce the strain of heightened
child care costs. The program outlined here utilizes a 75 percent tax credit from
77
the state of Georgia for investments businesses make on child care benefits,
along with additional funding to businesses from the county. From this funding,
employees will receive up to 75 percent reimbursement from their employer
for child care costs paid directly to an accredited child care facility. Families
receive subsides calculated on the basis of total family income. Additionally, a
government logistical committee, housed within the office of management and
budget, will handle the oversight, development, and funding of the program.
Over a period of five years, ACC will remove supplementary funding as compa-
nies start to realize benefits such as reduced turnover and lower training costs.
Ultimately, a public-private partnership for providing child care would ensure
that children and parents had accessible child care while the employers con-
tributed to a more effective and family-sensitive workplace.
Works Cited
1. A profile of Athens-Clarke county facts about poverty and other socio-econom-
ic data In Athens-Clarke county. Partners for a Prosperous Athens (2006.). Re-
trieved November 15,2008, from http://www.prosperousathens.org/poverty/index.
html#prate
2. Sherry Turner. Department of Human Resources. burton+BURTON. (2008). (Ed.),
Personal Communication
3. A profile of Athens-Clarke county facts about poverty and other socio-econom-
ic data In Athens-Clarke county. Partners for a Prosperous Athens (2006.). Re-
trieved November 15,2008, from http://www.prosperousathens.org/poverty/index.
html#prate
4. Gish, M. (2008). Head start: Background and issues. Washington, DC: Congres-
sional Research Service.
5. President submits budget request with 200,000 fewer children receiving child care
assistance – other important programs cut or frozen. National Association for the
Education of Young Children. (2008). Retrieved October 13, 2008, from http://www.
naeyc.org/policy/federal/02_05_08.asp
6. Dependent care: A profile for Athens-Clarke County (2006). University of Georgia:
The Fanning Institute.
7. Gowen, Jean. Child care statistics in Athens-Clarke County(2008). Athens, GA:
Community Connections: Child Care Resources and Referral of Northeast Geor-
gia.
8. National Association for the Education of Young Children. Accreditation. (2009).
http://www.naeyc.org/accreditation. Bright from the Start. Accreditation support.
(2009). http://decal.ga.gov/ChildCareServices/OpportunitiesforAssistanceinSeek-
ingNationalAccreditation.aspx
9. Dependent care: A profile for Athens-Clarke County (2006). University of Georgia:
The Fanning Institute.
10. Subsidized Child care. Georgia Department of Human Resources: Division of Fam-
ily and Children Services (2008). Retrieved October 17, 2008, from http://dfcs.dhr.
georgia.gov/portal/site/DHR-DFCS/menuitem.5d32235bb09bde9a50c8798dd030
36a0/?vgnextoid=16fa2b48d9a4ff00VgnVCM100000bf01010aRCRD
11. Elizabeth Windecker-Nelson, Shelley M. MacDermid. (1998). Child care: It’s good
business. The Indiana tool-kit for employers and community planners. Indianapolis,
IN: Purdue’s Center for Family Publication.
12. Subsidized Child care. U.S. Department of Human Resources (2008). Retrieved Oc-
tober 17, 2008, from http://dfcs.dhr.georgia.gov/portal/site/DHR-DFCS/menuitem
.5d32235bb09bde9a50c8798dd03036a0/?vgnextoid=16fa2b48d9a4ff00VgnVCM1
00000bf01010aRCRD
13. Guide for implementing child care legislation: Subsidy models. Washington, DC:
U.S. Office of Personnel Management.
14. Issues in labor statistics: Employer-sponsored childcare benefits(1998). Bureau of
Labor Statistics.
15. O.C.G.A. § 48-7-40.6, (2008).
16. Tax incentives for employers to provide child care. Vienna, VA: National Child Care
Information Center. O.C.G.A. § 48-7-40.6, (2008).
17. Employer options for child care: Effective strategies for recruitment and retention
(2001). University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University
18. Gowen, Jean. Child care statistics in Athens-Clarke County(2008). Athens, GA:
Community Connections: Child Care Resources and Referral of Northeast Geor-
gia.
19. Gowen, Jean. Child care statistics in Athens-Clarke County (2008). Athens, GA:
Community Connections: Child Care Resources and Referral of Northeast Geor-
gia.
20. Elizabeth Windecker-Nelson, Shelley M. MacDermid. (1998). Child care: It’s good
business. The Indiana tool-kit for employers and community planners. Indianapolis,
IN: Purdue’s Center for Family Publication.
21. Elizabeth Windecker-Nelson, Shelley M. MacDermid. (1998). Child care: It’s good
business. The Indiana tool-kit for employers and community planners. Indianapolis,
IN: Purdue’s Center for Family Publication.
22. Investing in child care: Challenges facing working parents and the private sector
response (1993). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Treasury.
23. Investing in child care: Challenges facing working parents and the private sector
response (1993). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Treasury.
24. Investing in child care: Challenges facing working parents and the private sector
response (1993). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Treasury.
25. Johnson, A. A. (1995). The business case for work-family programs. Journal of Ac-
countancy, 180(2), 53-58.
26. Windecker-Nelson, Shelley M. MacDermid. (1998). Child care: It’s good business.
The Indiana tool-kit for employers and community planners. Indianapolis, IN: Pur-
due’s Center for Family Publication.
27. Galinsky, Ellen. (2006). The economic benefits of high-quality early childhood pro-
grams: What makes the difference?. Washington, DC: The Committee for Economic
Development.
28. Galinsky, Ellen. (2006). The economic benefits of high-quality early childhood pro-
grams: What makes the difference?. Washington, DC: The Committee for Economic
Development.
29. Galinsky, Ellen. (2006). The economic benefits of high-quality early childhood pro-
grams: What makes the difference?. Washington, DC: The Committee for Economic
79
Development.
30. Sherry Turner. Department of Human Resources. burton+BURTON. (2008). (Ed.),
Personal Communication.
31. Sherry Turner. Department of Human Resources. burton+BURTON. (2008). (Ed.),
Personal Communication.
32. Sherry Turner. Department of Human Resources. burton+BURTON. (2008). (Ed.),
Personal Communication.
33. O.C.G.A. § 48-7-40.6, (2008).
34. Gowen, Jean. Child care statistics in Athens-Clarke County(2008). Athens, GA:
Community Connections: Child Care Resources and Referral of Northeast Georgia.
35. Athens-Clarke County. Athens By the Numbers. (2008). http://athensclarkecounty.
com/documents/pdf/pio/by_the_numbers.pdf
36. United States Census data. Quick Facts for Savannah, GA. 2006. http://quickfacts.
census.gov/qfd/states/13/1369000.html
37. Step up Savannah (2009). http://stepupsavannah.org/about-step-savannah/col-
laborative-partners
38. United States Census Data. Quick Facts for Charleston, S.C. (2006). http://quick-
facts.census.gov/qfd/states/45/4513330.htm United States Census Data. Quick
Facts for Columbia, S.C. (2006). http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/47/4714000.
html
39. United States Census Data. Quick Facts for Charleston, S.C. (2006). http://quick-
facts.census.gov/qfd/states/45/4513330.htm
40. United States Census Data. Quick Facts for Columbia, S.C. (2006). http://quickfacts.
census.gov/qfd/states/47/4714000.html O.C.S.C. §12-6-3440. (2009). http://www.sc-
statehouse.gov/code/t12c006.htm.
Building a Faculative Bioreactor
Malin Dartnell and Shanell Davis
University of Georgia
Executive Summary
• Currently, the Athens-Clarke County (ACC) landfill does not emit
enough landfill gas for the US Environmental Protection Agency to
require that it be captured, but within the next decade, emissions will
be too high to allow it to be released freely into the atmosphere.
• Upon approval of the Athens-Clarke County Landfill expansion, sev-
eral new cells will be constructed on the newly purchased 79-acres
immediately north of the existing 24-acre cell.
• We recommend that these new cells be utilized as a facultative bio-
reactor.
• A facultative bioreactor controls the production of organic ammo-
nia (NH3) due to anaerobic respiration. This process yields methane
(CH4), due to anaerobic respiration, and nitrogen gas (N2), due to
denitrification.
• Ideally, as the waste breaks down and is neutralized, it will create
room for more waste to be cycled through, essentially converting the
landfill from a waste disposal facility to a waste treatment facility.
• The decomposition process will produce methane-rich landfill gas,
which will be comprised of approximately 50% methane. This gas will
be captured and piped to the University of Georgia, where it can be
used in a gas powered boiler that can replace the coal-fired boiler
currently being used for the majority of the University’s heating and
energy needs.
As the global population booms, requiring more space and creating more
waste than ever before, it has become evident that the waste disposal methods
used in the past are becoming outdated and even impossible to implement in
regions of extremely high-density populations. Using a variety of methods from
incineration to recycling, people are beginning to turn to alternative methods
of waste disposal.
The Athens-Clarke County landfill is nearing full capacity. Within the next ten
years, it will be necessary to dispose of the county’s waste elsewhere. It has
become obvious that traditional dry-tomb landfilling, as ACC has done in the
past, is no longer a reasonable option. After researching a variety of alterna-
tive methods, it became clear that the most viable and environmentally friend-
ly option would be a facultative bioreactor, which would also provide a new
source of energy for the University of Georgia as the perfect alternative to the
81
outdated coal-fired boiler that the University of Georgia currently uses.
This paper begins with a brief introduction to methane, the primary gas that
is released when waste is broken down in facultative bioreactor. It goes on to
describe our proposal in detail, beginning with a description of the bioreactor
itself and continuing by detailing the process required to implement the pro-
posal. Finally, the paper discusses the impact that it would have, were the pro-
posal to be acted upon, discussing any stakeholders and weighing the benefits
against the challenges that will arise.
It has also been observed that methane gas is 20 times more detrimental to the
atmosphere than carbon dioxide because it has an increased capability to trap
heat in the atmosphere.4 According to the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), landfills are one of the largest sources of anthropogenic methane emis-
sion in the US, accounting for a total of 34% of US methane emission into the
earth’s atmosphere, which in 2007 was recorded as 6,327 Gg.5 This figure is
especially staggering when compared to the next two anthropogenic sources,
natural gas system emissions and coal mining emissions, which in 2007 were
4,985 and 2,744 Gg respectively.6 The US EPA requires any landfill that releases
more than 50 Megagrams of landfill gas per year to capture the gas. As of yet,
the ACC landfill has not reached the 50 Mg limit, but as ACC continues to grow,
the community will create more waste, which will lead to greater emissions.
Within the next decade, ACC LFG emissions will be too high to allow it to be
released freely into the atmosphere.7,8
In a traditional landfill, LFG emissions peak, then decrease over time, making it
less economical than capturing emissions from a bioreactor.15 Anaerobic, hybrid,
and facultative bioreactors consistently produce CH4 at about twice the rate of
traditional landfills, allowing for CH4 recovery over the lifespan of the landfill so
long as the input remains constant.16,17 This CH4 can be sequestered and sold to
a local industry, the University of Georgia, or used on-site to eliminate energy
costs. Utility companies are required by the Public Utility Regulatory Policies
Act (PURPA) to buy power generated at a landfill if the power is sold at fair
market value.18 We propose selling the methane to the University of Georgia,
Bioreactors require moisture, therefore the leachate produced, augmented by
storm water, wastewaters, or wastewater treatment plant sludge, is needed for
respiration to occur.19 By using these types of liquids, MSW treatment plants will
significantly reduce, if not eliminate, leachate disposal and treatment fees.20,21
The decomposition process will produce methane-rich landfill gas, which will
be comprised of up to approximately 50% methane.25 This gas will be cap-
tured, treated on-site, and piped nearly eight miles to the University of Georgia,
where it will be used in a gas powered boiler that will replace the coal-fired
boiler currently being used for the majority of the University’s heating and en-
ergy needs.26
The first question that will need to be answered is who will pay for the con-
struction of the bioreactor, pipeline, and new gas boiler. We recommend that
UGA provide the funds to replace the current coal-burning boiler with a gas-
powered boiler, that ACC, using various avenues, procure the funding for the
construction of the bioreactor, and that the cost of the pipeline be divided be-
tween UGA and ACC, although we do not recommend a specific percentage
breakdown.
Sources of funding open to ACC can be found on the local, state, and federal
levels as well as through private industry. According to Jim Corley, the Solid
Waste Director, ACC-SWD has already been receiving calls from private com-
panies willing to finance the development of the landfill gas from the new cell
in return for the carbon credits.28 Other options that would allow ACC to keep
the carbon credits include submitting this proposal as a Special Purpose Lo-
cal Option Sales Tax (SPLOST) project in 2010, and appropriating fund from
85
the Solid Waste Department.29 Appropriating funds from SWD would poten-
tially result in increased tipping fees in the short term. Financial aid could be
requested from the state’s general fund, but there is a strong likelihood that
there will not be funds available through the state, due to the current recession.
Potential federal sources of funding are available through the EPA and Presi-
dent Obama’s new economic stimulus package, under the Energy Efficiency
and Conservation Block Grant.30,31
The next step is to determine who will construct the pipeline and bioreactor.
The Mayor and Commission will place the job out to bid. We recommend using
a local construction firm, but according to “local and state code, there is not
an allowance for local construction firm preference”.32 Once the bid is returned
and accepted by the Mayor and Commission, the projected cost can be deter-
mined and construction can begin.
In order to transport the gas from the landfill to the UGA Physical Plant, ap-
proximately 8 miles of pipeline that complies with EPA regulations will have to
be constructed.34 UGA’s Office of Energy Services, ACC-SWD, and the con-
struction firm will have to determine where the pipeline will run, in an effort to
have the least impact on the environment and the citizens of the county.
On the contrary, when the landfill gas is sold, ACC waste ratepayers will benefit
financially as sale of the gas will prevent tipping fees from rising. Alternatively,
the revenue could finance other waste-reduction efforts.35 The operational and
long-term landfill maintenance costs will be reduced, eventually decreasing the
cost of curbside pick-up. The life of the landfill will be extended, and the new
program will create jobs that will boost the local economy. By tapping the gas
that will otherwise be released into the atmosphere, the program will reduce
odor emissions from the landfill, and improve air quality in the surrounding
area. In addition, ACC residents will reap a myriad of less tangible benefits
from the program. The implementation of a comprehensive sustainable waste
management system, especially involving a technology as forward-thinking as
a bioreactor, will elicit countless press coverage across the region, furthering
the progressive reputation of the county and the University of Georgia. As the
county gains respect from outside sources, ACC citizens will, in turn, gain a
reinforced sense of pride. Moreover, the ACC community will benefit from the
knowledge that they are helping to cut back on greenhouse gas emissions.
The installation of a facultative bioreactor can accomplish two goals that will
result in a significant decrease in the cost of managing and maintaining a land-
fill. The first and most relevant concern for ACC that a facultative bioreactor
will solve is the question of future expansions. One of the main purposes of a
bioreactor is to extend the life of the landfill by increasing its vertical space
by 15-30% once the waste is degraded and stabilized.36 This process usually
takes between 5 and 10 years as opposed to the 30 to 50 years required for
a traditional dry tomb landfill.37,38 This will lead to an increase in revenue over
the long term and will reduce, if not eliminate, the need to horizontally expand.
Secondly, it will decrease air and groundwater pollution. By enhancing the nat-
ural process of decomposition, a facultative bioreactor will not only allow ACC
MSWD to harness CH4 emission, but it could also, potentially, decompose vola-
tile organic compounds (VOC), non-methane organic compounds (NMOC), and
inorganic compounds, such as dioxins and furans, found in MSW facilities.39,40
Groundwater pollution will decrease because the leachate will no longer be
stagnated in the bottom layers closest to the groundwater table. The leachate
will be treated on site and recirculated continuously throughout the landfill to
achieve optimal moisture.41
The University of Georgia will also see significant effects. The new program
will open up incredible research opportunities for students and faculty. The
University could work in conjunction with two universities currently conducting
research on bioreactors, the University of Florida and the University of Cen-
tral Florida, to help create standardized designs, operation procedures and
guidelines for bioreactors. The gas collected from the facility could eliminate
the University’s need for the coal-fired boiler that it currently uses for its heat
and energy needs.42 The simple act of replacing the coal-fired boiler will yield a
myriad of benefits for the University and the Athens community. In addition to
emitting over 500 tons of sulfur dioxide and ten tons of hydrogen chloride per
year, the boiler is a major contributor to the 110 pounds of particulate matter
that the University emits per year, according to the Athens Banner Herald and
the University Office of Energy Services.43 Replacing the coal-fired boiler with
87
a gas-powered boiler will eliminate these emissions. Additionally, disposing of
the ashes from the 16,000 tons of coal that the University burns each year has
presented a huge problem, as the two closest landfills to the University (the
Athens-Clarke County landfill and the Barrow County landfill)44 refuse to take
the waste. This causes incredible transportation costs which will also be elimi-
nated by the use of gas collected from the proposed bioreactor.
Obstacles to Overcome
Potential challenges that may need to be confronted throughout this process
include, but are not limited to: the site purchased not being approved, a LFGE
facility being dismissed as unfeasible, the choice of a bioreactor and the type
recommended being called into question, and disputes over appropriate fund-
ing. We will address each of these in turn.
According to Jim Corley, if the land purchased for construction of new cells is
not approved, ACC Landfill will close in approximately 6 years and the county
will have to ship its waste to another landfill.46 This will lead to increased fees
across the board due to the cost of transporting and dumping the waste in
another county’s landfill. We do not recommend this course of action because
it will make ACC subject to the requirements of another county that does not
have to take our community’s needs into consideration. The development of the
79 acres purchased in July of 2008 must be approved to avoid this outcome.
The most obvious challenge to this project will be providing funding while keep-
ing the cost to the community down. As mentioned earlier, there are various av-
enues available for funding this project, but we, as a community, must come to
understand that there is a monetary cost for every ounce of waste we produce
and dispose. All attempts will be made to lessen the financial impact to the
citizens and industries of Athens-Clarke County, but an increase in certain fees
may follow whether or not this proposal is accepted. In the long run, however,
the future costs of doing the same old thing will greatly outweigh the short-
term costs of establishing a bioreactor.
89
Works Cited
1. United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Methane,” US EPA, http://www.
epa.gov/methane/ (accessed 11 December 2008)
2. EnergyJustice.Net, “Landfill Gas Fact Sheet”, Energy Justice Network, http://www.
energyjustice.net/lfg/factsheet-lfg.pdf (accessed 11 December 2008)
3. Ibid.
4. 1 Ibid.
5. 1 Ibid.
6. United States Environmental Protection Agency, “2009 Draft U.S. Greenhouse Gas
Inventory Report,” US EPA, http://epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usinvento-
ryreport.html (accessed 13 March 2009)
7. United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Fact Sheet: Final Air Regula-
tions for Municipal Solid Waste Landfills,” US EPA, http://epa.gov/ttn/atw/landfill/
mswfact.pdf (accessed 11 December 2008)
8. Corley, Jim. Interviewed by Malin Dartnell and Shanell Davis. Athens, Georgia, 17
February 2009.
9. Bioreactor.org, “Information,” Hinkley Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Man-
agement, http://www.bioreactor.org/info.htm (accessed 13 November 2008)
10. Solid Waste Association of North America, “Certification: Bioreactor Landfill,”
SWANA, http://swana.org/Education/Educate/Certification/BioreactorLandfill/
tabid/96/Default.aspx (accessed 13 November 2008)
11. Bioreactor.org, “Florida Bioreactor Landfill Demonstration Project-Executive Sum-
mary,” Hinkley Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, http://www.
bioreactor.org/publications.htm (accessed 13 November 2008)
12. 9 Ibid.
13. United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Wastes-Non-Hazardous Munici-
pal Solid Waste: Bioreactors,” US EPA, http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/municipal/
landfill/bioreactors.htm (accessed 13 December 2008)
14. WM-Waste Management, “Waste treatment Landfill Brochure,” Waste Manage-
ment, http://www.wm.com/wm/environmental/bioreactor.asp (accessed 12 Decem-
ber 2008)
15. 2 Ibid.
16. 9 Ibid.
17. 11 Ibid.
18. Green Power Market Development Group, World Resource Institute, http://www.
thegreenpowergroup.org/us.cfm (accessed 5 January 2009)
19. 11 Ibid.
20. 11 Ibid.
21. 14 Ibid.
22. 8 Ibid.
23. Bioreactor.org, “Bioreactor.org Home”, Hinkley Center for Solid and Hazardous
Waste Management, http://www.bioreactor.org/video/BioreactorHIGH_8-17-08a.
mov (accessed 12 December 2008)
24. 28 Ibid
25. 2 Ibid
26. UGA Office of Energy Services, “Go Green at UGA,” UGA Physical Plant Division,
http://www.uga.edu/energy/news/article_35.html, (accessed 1 February 2009)
27. Girtz, Kelly. Interviewed by Malin Dartnell and Shanell Davis. Athens, Georgia, 20
February 2009.
28. 8 Ibid.
29. ACC Online, “SPLOST - Special Purpose Local Option Sales Tax,” Athens-Clarke
County Georgia, http://www.athensclarkecounty.com/splost/index.htm (accessed 1
February 2009)
30. West, Larry, “U.S. Economic Stimulus Package Includes Billions for Ener-
gy and the Environment,” About.com, http://environment.about.com/od/
environmentallawpolicy/a/econ_stimulus.htm (accessed 20 March 2009)
31. Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, “Energy Efficiency and Conservation
Block Grant Program,” United States Department of Energy, http://www.eecbg.en-
ergy.gov/#le1 (accessed 30 March 2009)
32. Girtz, Kelly. Follow-up Interview by Malin Dartnell and Shanell Davis. Athens, Geor-
gia, 23 March 2009.
33. 8 Ibid.
34. 8 Ibid.
35. 33 Ibid.
36. 9 Ibid.
37. 11 Ibid.
38. Green Power Market Development, “Corporate Case Studies: Interface,” World
Resource Institute, http://www.thegreenpowergroup.org/wmv/landfillgas.wmv (ac-
cessed 19 November 2008)
39. Ewall, Mike, “Primer on Landfill Gas as ‘Green’ Energy,” Energy Justice Network
(2000), http://www.energyjustice.net/lfg/ (accessed 11 December 2008)
40. 39 Ibid.
41. 11 Ibid.
42. 31 Ibid
43. 31 Ibid
44. 8 Ibid
45. United States Environmental Protection Agency, “An Overview of Landfill Gas En-
ergy in the United States”, US EPA, http://www.epa.gov/landfill/docs/overview.pdf
(accessed 12 January 2009)
46. 8 Ibid.
47. 7 Ibid.
48. 14 Ibid.
91
Durham Enrichment Project
Jeff Gruber
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
The Roosevelt Institute at UNC Chapel Hill, a student-run policy institution, re-
cently decided to apply the Think Impact message to a local level. The Think
Impact message combines the involvement of community service in conjunction
with the durability of policy implementation. This change in perspective allows
students to become actively involved in solving problems that they interact with
on a daily level. Our policy centers of Environmental and Energy Policy, along
with Civil Rights and Social Justice Policy, seek to redevelop vacant lots already
present in low-income communities into community gardens. These policy cen-
ters will implement a bottom-up process of utilizing citizen’s input for design and
using a local workforce to develop these gardens. After these lots are created,
the positive benefits of community gardens already documented in studies will
emerge, creating advantages for denizens of older neighborhoods and for the
populace in the city of Durham.
The results of Pagano’s and Bowman’s survey of vacant land in cities with
100,000 or more inhabitants, concluded that vacant land accounted for, on
average, 15.4 percent of land within American cities. Vacant land made up an
93
average of 19.3 percent of land for cities in the Southeast Region of the United
States, while only accounting for 15.1 percent of land within the city of Durham.
Pagano and Bowman sought to understand some reasoning behind the exis-
tence of vacant land within cities. Cities with high percentages of vacant land
were often in areas of recent booming growth. The South, with its average per-
centage of vacant land in city areas being 19.3 percent, and the West, having
an average of 14.8 percent of city development being vacant land, have had
the largest proportion of development in the nation since World War Two. Al-
ternatively, areas that have had stagnant development over several decades
display lower percentages of vacant land in cities, with the Midwest’s average
percentage of vacant land totaling 12.2 percent, and the Northeast’s average
percentage of vacant land equaling 9.6 percent. Pagano and Bowman both
show that areas with growing city lines tend to have higher amounts of vacant
property in the city limits, with the city of Durham being no exception.
Being close to the national average of vacant land percentage in city limits al-
lows Durham to establish a precedent for cities interested in adopting similar
policies towards developing unused land.
When aggregated, these vacant lots can bring down the overall appeal of the
city, obstructing future investments due to the city’s high crime rate and per-
ceived instability. Moreover, the city loses an opportunity to utilize these vacant
lands as a gain for community development. When lots remain undeveloped,
the city itself is underdeveloped, thus preventing it from reaching its potential
as a respected and developed locale within the nation. It therefore behooves
city officials to make the lots a beneficial asset for citizens and the city rather
than a burden on these communities.
95
Durham is failing to use its empty lots in the city as an effective asset for com-
munal usage. Durham needs to develop an effective solution for low-income
and at-risk communities to be sustainable for the future and livable for their
residents. The solution of developing vacant land into community gardens cre-
ates a more positive perspective of overlooked neighborhoods and allows for
a neighborhood congregating point for neighborhood activities and regionally
harvested food
After the initial vacant lots are organized and developed, statistics will be re-
corded on the community as well as the overall effectiveness of the vacant lots
effect on the area. These statistics will be used as for reference to understand
how effective these vacant lots have been, and can be used as a reference
guide for similar projects in other cities.
Conclusion
Community gardens, as evident by other studies, can offer the following ben-
efits for the denizens of Durham:
Most importantly, the long-term goals of this project can be projected in three
ways:
A community garden can act as a catalyst for neighborhoods that have fallen
victim to urban decay for further development. The community garden acts
as a focal point for citizens to gather and to engage. This social structure can
build the foundation for areas lacking such structure. Once these communi-
ties become strengthened, they will become less prone to violent crime and
gun-related crime (Patterson 1991). Moreover, this area offers an alternative
experience for residents. These gardens will allow people to enjoy a fresher
tasting and healthier diet, a method of low-impact exercise, and an enjoyment
of nature and open space that is often not found in urban areas or at-risk com-
munities.
Most importantly, this policy seeks to empower residents by being actively in-
volved in developing their community. Allowing the citizens to be actively in-
volved in the implementation of this project will help sustain the pride in neigh-
borhoods. Offering a third-place for Durhamites to go that is neither work nor
home is important for an impoverished and crime-surrounded community. An
overall positive perspective of their neighborhood, plus the multitude of ben-
efits that arise from having a community garden will be developed for residents
of this community. Most importantly, these communal gardens will give citizens
newfound pride and wealth within their communities, from previously undevel-
oped assets already in possession.
Works Cited
1. Armstrong, Donna. “A Survey of Community Gardens in Upstate New York: Impli-
cations for Health Promotion and Community Development.” Health and Place
6.1 (Dec 2000): p319-327. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_
imagekey=B6VH5-41C2TK0-6-1&_cdi=6057&_user=130907&_orig=search&_
coverDate=12%2F01%2F2000&_sk=999939995&view=c&wchp=dGLbVlb-zSkWz&md
5=91b907a7484e08130669c7c96f15d64a&ie=/sdarticle.pdf
2. Bradshaw, Ray, John Nelson. “Spatial Analysis of Neighborhood Characteristics and
Crime Reporting in Tacoma, Washington.” GIS Certificate Program, University of
Washington, Tacoma. http://depts.washington.edu/uwtgis/gallery/tgis_312/20071/
bradshaw_nelson_tgis312_2007.pdf.
3. Brand, Sam, and Richard Price, eds. The Economic and Social Costs of Crime.
Home Office Research Study 217, 2000. http://publicpolicy.umd.edu/faculty/reuter/
CCJS%20720/Brand%20and%20Price.pdf.
4. Durham Crime Statistics and Crime Data (Durham, NC). “Durham North Carolina
Crime Statistics and Data Resources.” http://durham.areaconnect.com/crime1.htm
5. Kelly, Morgan. “Inequality and Crime. (United States Study Results) (Statistical
Data Included).” Review of Economics and Statistics 82.4 (Nov 2000): p 530. http://
find.galegroup.com/itx/retrieve.do?contentSet=IAC-Documents&qrySerId=&inPS=
true&tabID=T002&prodId=ITOF&searchId=R1&retrieveFormat=PDF¤tPositi
on=1&userGroupName=unc_main&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&sort=DateDescend
&docId=A68273649&noOfPages=10
6. Muro, Mark, Bruce Katz, Sarah Rahman, David Warre. “MetroPolicy: Shaping a
New Federal Partnership for a Metropolitan Nation.” Washington DC: Brookings
Institution Center, 2008.
7. Pagano, Michael A., Ann O’M. Bowman. “Vacant Land in Cities: An Urban Re-
source.” Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Center, 2000.
8. Patterson, E. Britt. “Poverty, Income Inequality, and Community Crime Rates.” Crim-
inology 29.1 (Feb 1991): p 755-756. http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.
journals/crim29&collection=journals&page=755
99
Building Effective College Access
Nikki Rumley, Menna Mburi, Grayson Cooper,
Amanda Conklin, Mario Fitzgerald, Anna Peterson, and Joy Lampkin
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Executive Summary
• Not everyone has equal access to higher education: minorities, low income
students, and 1st generation college-goers are at a disadvantage.
• College access programs have been implemented to address disparity in
college access.
• College access programs have varying program methods, strategies, and
definitions of effectiveness.
• Outcomes of the programs are rarely researched and evaluated, and of-
ten recorded results are subjective and are not based in sound research.
• Two different models of college access programs, CalSOAP and Admis-
sion Possible, are discussed.
• Carolina College Advising Corps, a third model created by the University
of North Carolina, is discussed. Anecdotal results of the program are
provided through interviews of advisers.
• Lack of systemization and research for college advising programs is dis-
cussed.
• College advising programs have the potential to be more effective and
efficient if they are more thoroughly researched and evaluated for effec-
tiveness.
Background
A college education is essential for attaining a high standard of living in the
United States. A study by Day and Newburger (2002) demonstrated that col-
lege graduates earn up to $27,000 more than high school graduates. In recent
years, higher education has increased in importance. Changes in technology
have caused a greater need for skilled workers, and the decline of labor unions
and in real minimum wage have contributed to a decrease in unskilled workers’
salaries. Textile workers and craftsmen in the South are among those who have
borne the brunt of these changes. According to a news release by the Bureau
of Labor Statistics (2007), the majority of the thirty fastest growing occupations
require post-secondary education.
One approach to addressing this issue is college access programs. These pro-
grams focus on three main factors to prepare students to apply and enroll in
college: academic preparation, familiarity with higher education, and financial
assistance (St. John 1991). College access programs address these through out-
reach initiatives such as college visits, summer seminars teaching academic
skills, SAT and ACT training, and assisting parents with financial aid forms.
Overall, these programs strive to enroll greater numbers of underrepresented
populations in college.
This paper attempts to highlight different strategies and methods college ac-
cess programs use for increasing the enrollment of racial minorities, first-gen-
eration students, and students from low socioeconomic backgrounds in college.
The variety of strategies employed by college access programs makes defin-
ing their effectiveness difficult. Because of this, few programs have accurate
and reliable data on both the effectiveness of different aspects of their model
as well as on the program as a whole. Through a discussion of two different
models of college advising programs as well as a qualitative study of a third
model, Carolina College Advising Corps, the need for a systematic analysis of
the effectiveness of college access programs becomes evident. Before more
resources are appropriated for college access programs, an efficient allocation
of resources must be identified. Therefore, future attempts to research college
access programs must conform to a measurable framework before asserting
levels of effectiveness.
The short-term model of College Access programs focuses on the barriers fac-
ing students throughout the college application process. Students typically en-
ter these programs as juniors in high school and learn skills that are directly ap-
plicable to the college application and admission process. Short-term programs
often involve preparation or assistance in registering for college entrance ex-
ams and always include assistance in completing applications for colleges and
financial aid or scholarships. These programs might arrange college visits or
develop essay writing and interview skills, but unlike programs that reach out
to students earlier, short-term programs only teach skills that prepare students
specifically for the college application process.
The Carolina College Advising Corps began in 2007 when the National Col-
lege Advising Corps established a chapter affiliated with University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill. The program started in eight North Carolina schools
and expanded to nineteen schools the following year. Recent UNC graduates
are selected to be an adviser at low performing schools and to serve for one or
two years. Advisers serve districts of varying demographics and sizes ranging
from rural Halifax County to North Carolina’s most populated county, Meck-
lenburg. The advisers are available for consultation to all students in the high
school, but most of their time is devoted to assisting juniors and seniors in ap-
plying to and enrolling in college and gaining the financial aid to afford college.
First generation, low income, and minority students are the primary focus of the
advising corps.
Before serving the school, advisers participate in six weeks of training in aca-
demics, college selection, and financial aid programs of different colleges. The
information they receive is in large part specific to North Carolina schools;
however, it does include knowledge on outside scholarships, grants, and fed-
eral loans. Advisers also attend tours of the campuses of many North Carolina
universities, both private and public. Once placed in a school, each adviser
works with the school’s current guidance counselor to assist students in college
planning and applying for financial aid. Students see an adviser to gather in-
formation on specific colleges, determine if potential colleges are appropriate
considering a student’s academic achievement, SAT and/or ACT scores, and
personality. Advisers inform students of financial aid resources including schol-
arships offered by these colleges and opportunities for outside scholarships.
Data has not yet been collected on the effectiveness of the Carolina College
Advising Corps. In order to present an initial glimpse into the structure and ef-
fectiveness of the program, interviews of four of the fourteen CCAC counselors
were conducted. The interviews have several limitations, most notably the lack
of reliable numerical data to measure experiences of advised students; the re-
sponses are largely anecdotal. In addition, a low response level may also have
affected the results of the survey. Future studies should address these limita-
tions, as well as the lack of empirical research on college access programs in
general.
These advisers believed that they helped a large number of students enroll in
college who would not have otherwise attended. The financial aid and scholar-
ship advising that the advisers provided was essential to increasing college
enrollment, and they identified this area of advising as their greatest success.
Advisers also helped students to overcome their fears about applying to col-
lege by building confidence and making the paperwork load more manageable.
They provided more information to students about the college process through
many strategies: one-on-one advising sessions, group advising, hosting alumni
visits, college fairs, and guest speakers at their high schools.
Conclusion
In order to reduce the discrepancy in college access for low income, minority,
and first generation students, the government and many independent orga-
nizations have created a variety of college access programs. Though each of
these programs is distinct, most of them are based on one of a few standard
models. The National College Access Program Directory lists more than 100 or-
ganizations just within North Carolina that have the stated mission of increas-
ing college admission rates and/or preparing students for college. This increas-
ing number of college access programs implies that there is a great need for
these types of organizations. However, despite the widely held belief that more
resources within a school will foster greater student development, these col-
lege access programs have not proven to be effective, in large part because of
the lack of a system to measure success. As previously mentioned, the absence
of a tracking and measuring system prevents researchers from gauging the
programs’ success or failure. This paper demonstrates the need for a further
study of college access programs by highlighting their lack of systemization
and necessary research.
For a complete view of data collected across sevent college access programs,
please refer to the Appendix.
Bibliography
Baum, S. and Payea, K. (2005). Education pays 2004: The benefits of higher educa-
tion for individuals and society. College Entrance Examination Board. Retrieved from
http://www.collegeboard.com/prod_downloads/press/cost04/EducationPays2004.pdf.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2007). Table 1. The fastest growing occupations covered
in the 2008-2009 occupational outlook handbook. Retrieved from http://library.nmu.
edu/guides/userguides/style_apa.htm#E6.
Day, J.C. and Newburger, E.C. (2002). The big payoff: Educational attainment and
synthetic estimates of work-life earnings (P23-210). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bu-
reau.
St. John, E.P. (1991). What really influences minority attendance? Sequential analyses
of the High School and Beyond sophomore cohort. Research in Higher Education. 32(2):
141-158.
Coleman, J.S., Campbell, E.Q., Hobson, C.J., McPartland, J., Mood, A.M., Weinfeld,
F.D., and York, R.L. (1966). Equality of Educational Opportunity. (Report No. OE-38001).
Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED012275). Retrieved from ERIC database.
National College Access Network. (2008). Retrieved March 31, 2009 from Pathways
to College Network and National College Access Network Website: http://www.col-
legeaccess.org.
Works Cited
1. http://www.admissionpossible.org
2. http://www.striveforcollege.org
3. http://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/gs/ps/avidgen.asp
4. Personal communication with Joyce Smith
5. Personal communication with Leah Yang
6. Bergin, D.A., Cooks, H.C., Bergin, C.C. (2007). Effects of a college access program
for youth underrepresented in higher education. Research in Higher Education.
Vol. 8(6). doi: 10.1007/s11162-006-9049-9
7. http://www.teri.org/
107
Appendix: Data Collected across Seven College Access Programs
Admission Possible
• 99% admitted
• 95% of those admitted enroll
AVID
• AVID graduates have higher college-going rates for all students.
• 84% of graduates complete the sequence of courses necessary for
4-year college admissions.
• Graduates enrolled in California higher ed at a higher rate than
San Diego counterparts.
• 55% of African Americans who participated in AVID for 3 years
enrolled in four-year colleges, beating the national average of 33%
enrollment for the general African American population.
• 43% of Latino students in AVID enrolled at four-year colleges, ex-
ceeding the national average of 29%.
EXCEL
• No effect on overall college-going rate.
• Participants did attend the sponsoring university at a slightly higher
rate.
• Participants desired higher education more than control group
participants.
TERI
• Since 1985, TERI has guaranteed loans for over 1 million students
attending 6,000 colleges and universities worldwide.
111
Simplifying Eligibility for Kids
Tracy Yang
University of Georgia
Executive Summary
• PeachCare for Kids (PCK) provides free or low-cost health coverage
for Georgia children in low-income families and is part of the feder-
ally sponsored Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP).
• PCK is supported by federal and state funds and administered by
the Georgia Department of Community Health (DCH). Federal
funds account for 73 percent of funding for PCK.1
• A lack of funds for CHIP at the federal level resulted in under-pro-
vision of funds to PCK. In response, the Georgia DCH has frozen
enrollment. The DCH later lifted the freeze but increased documen-
tation requirements for proof of income, citizenship, and identity.
Reasons for this change are unclear because DCH officials stated
that increased regulatory measures were not instituted in response
to abuses of the program by ineligible individuals.2
• Case studies of procedural barriers in the CHIP programs of other
states suggest that increased administrative hurdles regarding eligi-
bility for PCK will result in lower rates of coverage for eligible chil-
dren in Georgia, greater administrative costs, and decreased health
outcomes for Georgia children overall. As expected, there has been
a 22 percent decrease (60,736 children) in enrollment from 2007 to
2008.3
• The Georgia DCH should reinstate the simplified verification meth-
ods used to determine proof of income. Such methods would include
self-attestation, citizenship confirmation (through social security
numbers), administrative verification of income, and presumptive eli-
gibility (where qualified institutions identify children likely eligible for
temporary coverage to determine citizenship and identity).4
• Increasing enrollment of uninsured children already eligible for PCK
will help Georgia provide health insurance for low-income children
and improve health outcomes.
Background
Health insurance increases children’s access to primary care and helps them
lead healthier lives. A study by Selden and Hudson of the Agency for Health-
care Research and Quality (part of the United States Department of Health
and Human Services) found that children without health insurance coverage
have lower rates of access to preventive care, which may increase the need for
future medical attention and treatment costs.5 Because these uninsured chil-
113
dren do not receive preventive care, more costly treatment options are often
required for later, more complicated health problems. Recognizing the need
to increase children’s access to care, the U.S. Congress enacted Title XXI of
the Social Security Act in 1997 to create the Children’s Health Insurance Pro-
gram (CHIP). This program provides health coverage for uninsured children
up to age 19 in low-income families whose incomes are too high to qualify for
Medicaid.6 In Georgia, the income threshold for eligible families is 235 percent
of the federal poverty level, or about $49,800 for a family of four.7 CHIP has
experienced much popular support, as 90 percent of Americans support ade-
quate health care coverage for low-income children.8 In Georgia, PCK provides
health care for uninsured children in Georgia families with household income
below 235 percent of the federal poverty level.9 As outlined by the Balanced
Budget Act of 1997, H.R. 2015, while CHIP is jointly financed by federal and state
governments, the states handle all administration under general federal guide-
lines. These guidelines require states to submit plans for outreach activities
and eligibility requirements to the federal government. Because requirements
are determined on a state-by-state basis, eligibility requirements vary across
the nation.
Resulting from the CHIP program, Georgia created PeachCare for Kids (PCK)
under Section 49-5-273 of the Official Code of Georgia in 1999 with CHIP funds.
The Division of Medical Assistance within the Georgia DCH administers Peach-
Care for Kids and Medicaid and develops the policies that set eligibility and
other requirements. The nine-person Board of Community Health, another
part of the DCH, also influences policies concerning PCK,10 which recently be-
gan to suffer due to federal funding cutbacks. This has left the state of Georgia
$131 million dollars short of essential funding for PCK by February 2007.11 The
Georgia DCH instituted an enrollment freeze for PCK on March 11, 2007 in re-
sponse to the shortfall.12
Citizenship and identity documentation are organized into three levels. Ap-
plicants for PCK can send documentation confirming citizenship and identity
with first level documents such as passports, certificates of citizenship, or cer-
tificates of naturalization. If applicants lack these documents, they must sub-
mit one document from the second level to prove citizenship (birth certificates,
extracts of hospital records on hospital letterhead, or other birth or adoption
records and one document from the third level to prove identity (an identifica-
tion card issued by federal, state, or local governments, school records, or other
similar documents).18
A recent report by the DCH states that PCK enrollment decreased by 22 per-
cent between July 2007 and June 2008 after eligibility rules increasing required
original documentation went into effect.28 It is unlikely that this percentage of
PCK enrollees were illegitimate. Case studies and nationwide analyses indi-
cate that this decrease is largely associated with complicated eligibility and
enrollment procedures and will lead to lower health outcomes. In Georgia,
increased documentation requirements were the only major policy changes for
PCK, further suggesting that the decline was linked to the changes.
If families are rejected from this application due to a lack of available records
or information, an alternative application process involving the current re-
quirements of original documentation should still be available. Through these
verification methods, the enrollment process is simplified while the program’s
selection process is still effective and efficient. Administrators must confirm eli-
gibility whether documentation is required or not, and administrative verifica-
tion reduces the paperwork that families must complete. By shifting the admin-
istrative burden back to the government, costs in terms of time and hassle to
the applicants are reduced, thus leading to increased enrollment among those
who are eligible. This practice also accelerates enrollment, leading to greater
numbers of applicant children receiving timely coverage.
Health insurance carries many benefits for children and their families. Chil-
dren with health insurance have better access to preventive and primary health
care.42 Enrollees in PCK and other CHIP programs are more likely than unin-
sured children to receive office visits for primary care, preventive care, dental
care, and are less likely to have emergency room visits. Relationships between
access to health care and better school attendance, participation, and perfor-
mance have been found as well. For example, a California study conducted by
the Managed Risk Medical Insurance Board and researchers from the Center
for Child Health Outcomes, Children´s Hospital and Health Center in San Di-
ego surveyed parents and found that children enrolled in CHIP or other public
insurance programs demonstrated a 68 percent improvement in their ability to
pay attention during school and keep up with assignments and activities.43
Between July 31, 2006 and March 1, 2007, 19,413 Medicaid-eligible individuals in
Wisconsin had their Medicaid coverage denied or terminated because of citi-
zenship documentation requirements.47 Despite Wisconsin’s attempt to reduce
the impact of the DRA requirement by obtaining birth records electronically
from its Vital Records agency, enrollment still decreased. Obtaining original
documentation, especially if administrators required applicants to provide
proof of identity with additional proof of citizenship, was a major factor con-
tributing to the drop in enrollment. Of the applicants denied Medicaid, 66.5
percent lacked an identity document, whereas 19.9 percent of applicants lacked
required citizenship documents (certificates of citizenship, naturalization, and
identity documents included government-issued identity cards), while only 12.3
percent lacked both citizenship and identity documents.48 These percentages
suggest that applicants denied Medicaid coverage were U.S. citizens rather
than non-citizens attempting to obtain public benefits; if applicants are able
to provide citizenship documentation, the likelihood that they are eligible citi-
zens is high. It is more likely that the hassle of obtaining additional documents
resulted in incomplete applications as opposed to applicants putting forth the
effort of forging one necessary document but not another. Increased docu-
mentation requirements created additional hassles that amplified the time and
effort required to apply for health care benefits. Wisconsin’s CHIP program,
BadgerCare, also experienced declines in enrollment. Between August 1, 2006
and January 1, 2008, Wisconsin reported that 32,907 children were blocked
from receiving Medical Assistance or BadgerCare because of documentation
requirements. In 62 percent of these cases, termination or denial was due only
to lack of identification rather than lack of documentation confirming citizen-
ship.49
The Kaiser Family Foundation estimated that federal and state enrollment
costs of insuring eligible but uninsured children would amount to about $8.8 bil-
lion dollars a year after increasing efficiencies in eligibility.54 A $3.4 billion dollar
increase ($5.4 billion subtracted from $8.8 billion) in federal and state spending
due to children’s health care is relatively small, especially when compared to
current federal and state spending on Medicaid ($316 billion).55 This $3.4 billion
dollar increase also does not factor in reductions in spending on uncompen-
sated care or decreases in insurance premiums. Spending on uncompensated
hospital care would also be reduced because insured children require fewer
emergency room visits, and these visits will no longer create uncompensated
care costs.56 Funds spent on children’s health insurance that will prevent health
problems are more effective than dollars spent on uncompensated care to treat
issues that arise due to lack of preventive care.
Conclusion
Simplification of PCK documentation requirements for eligibility will result in
increased enrollment of eligible but uninsured children. By utilizing practices
such as a single application for PCK and Medicaid, self-attestation and admin-
istrative verification of income, presumptive eligibility, and use of social security
numbers to determine citizenship and identity, the Georgia DCH will stream-
line the processes through which children can receive benefits from PCK while
maintaining standards that will prevent ineligible applicants from receiving
coverage. Because children are unable to enroll themselves in PCK, the ap-
plication process should be as simple as possible for families with the govern-
ment responsible for confirming provided information. The short-term costs of
increased enrollment in PCK may cause some citizens and legislators to op-
123
pose this policy, however long-term benefits include fewer taxes paid by the
citizens of Georgia to cover uncompensated care and preventable emergency
hospitalizations, better health of society as a whole, and increased coverage
for children who are already eligible for PCK benefits. Coverage for children
is a stated goal of both federal and state legislation regarding CHIP and PCK.
The steps outlined in this policy proposal apply directly to PCK but also pro-
vide examples of policy measures that can be implemented in other states to
increase enrollment of eligible children in CHIP programs.
Works Cited
1. “Issue Brief: PeachCare for Kids Funding.” Emory University. http://www.sph.em-
ory.edu/WHP/documents/2007percent20Session/PeachCare_Issue.pdf (accessed
Sep. 20, 2008).
2. Ross, Donna Cohen, Aleya Horn, and Caryn Marks. “Health Coverage for Children
and Families in Medicaid and CHIP: State Efforts Face New Hurdles.” Kaiser Com-
mission on Medicaid and the Uninsured. www.kff.org/medicaid/7740.cfm (accessed
Sep. 15, 2008).
3. Summers, Carie. “Amended FY 2009 and FY 2010 Program Budgets.” Georgia De-
partment of Community Health. http://dch.georgia.gov/vgn/images/portal/cit_121-
0/20/14/120952990Augustpercent2028,percent202008percent20Budgetpercent2
0Proposalspercent20forpercent20DCHpercent20Boardpercent20Consideration-
percent20-percent20FINAL.pdf (accessed September 16, 2008).
4. Szilagyi, Peter G., Jack Zwanziger, Lance E. Rodewald, Jane L. Holl, Dana B. Mu-
kamel, Sarah Trafton, Laura Pollard Shone, Andrew W. Dick, Lynne Jarrell, and
Richard F. Raubertas. “Evaluation of a State Health Insurance Program for Low-
Income Children: Implications for State Child Health Insurance Programs.” Pediat-
rics 105 (2000): 363-370.
5. Selden, Thomas, and Julie Hudson. “Access to Care and Utilization Among Chil-
dren: Estimating the Effects of Public and Private Coverage.” Medical Care 44
(2006): 19-26.
6. “Balanced Budget Act of 1997.” (P.L. 105-33), United States Statutes at Large.
7. “A Snapshot of PeachCare for Kids.” The Georgia Department of Community
Health. http://dch.georgia.gov/vgn/images/portal/cit_1210/35/2/70650182PeachCa
re.12.2008.FINAL.pdf (accessed July 12, 2009).
8. Horner and Morrow, “Opening Doorways.”
9. Section 49-5-273. The Official Code of Georgia.
10. “A Snapshot of the Georgia Department of Community Health.” The Georgia De-
partment of Community Health. http://dch.georgia.gov/vgn/images/portal/cit_1210
/6/40/70648888DCH012009FINAL.pdf (accessed Oct. 14, 2008).
11. “Issue Brief: PeachCare for Kids Funding.” Emory University. http://www.sph.em-
ory.edu/WHP/documents/2007percent20Session/PeachCare_Issue.pdf (accessed
Sep. 20, 2008).
12. “Enrollment Freeze for PeachCare for Kids Lifted.” Georgia Department of Commu-
nity Health. http://dch.georgia.gov/vgn/images/portal/cit_1210/37/11/86098649PR-
PeachCare_Enrollment_Freeze_Lift.pdf (accessed September 18, 2008).
13. Ibid.
14. “Issue Brief,” Emory University.
15. Summers, “Amended FY 2009 and FY 2010.”
16. Ibid.
17. Grady, April. “Medicaid Citizenship Documentation.” Congressional Research Ser-
vice Report for Congress. http://aging.senate.gov/crs/medicaid14.pdf (accessed
Oct. 3, 2008).
18. “Citizenship and Identity Requirements.” PeachCare for Kids. www.peachcare.org/
FAQView.aspx?displayFaqId=9 (accessed September 28, 2008).
19. “HHS Issues Citizenship Guidelines for Medicaid Eligibility.” Centers for Medi-
care and Medicaid Services. http://www.cms.hhs.gov/apps/media/press/release.
asp?Counter=1878 (accessed Oct. 18, 2008).
20. Ross, Donna Cohen. “New Medicaid Citizenship Documentation Requirement is
Taking a Toll: States Report Enrollment is Down and Administrative Costs are Up.”
Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. http://www.cbpp.org/2-2-07health.htm (ac-
cessed Oct. 5, 2008).
21. “HHS Issues Citizenship Guidelines.”
22. Summers, “Amended FY 2009 and FY 2010.”
23. Ross, “Health Coverage.”
24. Fairbrother, Gerry, Melinda Dutton, Deborah Bachrach, Kerry-Ann Newell, Patricia
Beozang, and Rachel Cooper. “Costs of Enrolling Children in Medicaid and CHIP .”
Health Affairs 23 (2004): 237-243.
25. Grady, “Medicaid Citizenship Documentation.”
26. Ibid.
27. Ross, “Health Coverage.”
28. Summers, “Amended FY 2009 and FY 2010.”
29. “HB 340-PeachCare Reductions.” Georgia Budget and Policy Institute. http://www.
gbpi.org/pubs/healthcare/20070320.pdf (accessed Nov. 1, 2008).
30. “Georgia Considers How to Adapt to CHIP Funding Shortfall.” National Confer-
ence of State Legislatures. http://www.ncsl.org/programs/health/shn/2007/sn486a.
htm (accessed Nov. 1., 2008).
31. Ross, Diana Cohen, and Ian T. Hill. “Enrolling Eligible Children and Keeping Them
Enrolled.” The Future of Children 13 (2003): 81-97.
32. Cox, Laura. “Allowing Families to Self-Report Income.” Center on Budget and Pol-
icy Priorities. http://www.cbpp.org/cms/index.cfm?fa=view&id=1494 (accessed July
14, 2009).
33. Ibid.
34. Horner and Morrow, “Opening Doorways.”
35. Cox, “Allowing Families.”
36. Kronebusch, Karl, and Brian Elbel. “Simplifying Children’s Medicaid and CHIP.”
Health Affairs 23 (2004): 233-246.
37. Ross, “Enrolling Eligible Children.”
38. Kronebusch and Elbel, “Simplifying Children’s Medicaid.”
39. Kempe, Allison, Brenda L. Beaty, Lori A. Crane, Johan Stokstad, Jennifer Barrow,
Shira Belman, and John F. Steiner. “Changes in Access, Utilization, and Quality
of Care After Enrollment Into a State Child Health Insurance Plan.” Pediatrics 115
(2005): 364-371.
40. Ibid.
41. Szilagyi, “Evaluation of a State Health Insurance Program.”
42. Ross, “Enrolling Eligible Children.”
125
43. Baron, Juliane, Jessica H. Kleinmann, and Kathleen Sylvester. “Health Insurance
for Children: Issues and Ideas.” The Future of Children. http://www.futureofchildren.
org/usr_doc/tfoc13-1_iig.pdf (accessed Nov. 1, 2008).
44. Szilagyi, “Evaluation of a State Health Insurance Program.”
45. “Examination and Treatment for Emergency Medical Conditions and Women in
Labor.” (Title 42, § 1395dd), United States Code.
46. Horner and Morrow, “Opening Doorways.”
47. Ross, “New Medicaid Citizenship Documentation Requirement.”
48. Ibid.
49. Horner and Morrow, “Opening Doorways.”
50. Szilagyi, “Evaluation of a State Health Insurance Program.”
51. “To Amend Title XXI of the Social Security Act to Extend and Improve the Children’s
Health Insurance Program, and for Other Purposes.” (P.L. 111-3), United States Stat-
utes at Large.
52. Horner and Morrow, “Opening Doorways.”
53. Ibid.
54. Ibid.
55. Ibid.
56. Szilagyi, “Evaluation of a State Health Insurance Program.”
57. “Georgia Considers,” National Conference of State Legislatures.
127
Authors
Andrew Burnett
Harding University
Andrew, a Houston, TX native, is a Spanish and Internation-
al Studies major concentrating in Political Science and Eco-
nomics. His major policy interests include child welfare, eco-
nomic development, and anything involving Latin America.
He has spent the last two summers exploring his interests
by interning for the Congressional Coalition on Adoption
Institute (www.ccainstitute.org) in D.C. and developing ac-
cess to credit through organizing communal banks in rural
mountain villages in eastern Honduras.
Rocky Cole
University of Georgia
Rocky Cole is a junior at the University of Georgia majoring
in international affairs and economics. He hopes to pursue
a career as a nonproliferation analyst and has previously
published articles on defense transformation, the role of
special forces in counterinsurgency warfare, and dual-use
nuclear technology in Iran. He is a Security Leadership Fel-
low at the Center for International Trade and Security and
a member of the Honors Program at UGA. He currently
serves as the Director of Policy at the UGA Chapter of the
Roosevelt Institute Campus Network.
Amanda Conklin
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Amanda Conklin is a sophomore at UNC-Chapel Hill and
is majoring in International Studies. Amanda is originally
from Charlotte, North Carolina, and is involved with Stu-
dent Government, Millennium Village Project, and Model
United Nations on her campus. After graduation, she would
like to pursue a career with the Foreign Service sector of
the State Department. She has also been a guest columnist
in the Mint Hill Times (07/2008).
Karie Cross
Harding University
Karie graduated in 2009 from Harding University with ma-
jors in political science and English. She is currently a first
129
Authors
Shanell Davis
University of Georgia
Shanell is an International Affairs major/Ecology minor and
will be graduating May 2010 from the University of Geor-
gia. Working with the Roosevelt has inspired her to continue
working with policy, especially energy and environmental
policy in anyway possible. Originally from Columbus, GA,
she has always been interested in environmental issues.
As the state of the global environment becomes more and
more pressing, she has begun to work with environmental
justice organizations such as GA Youth for Energy Solu-
tions, a sub-organization of the Southern Energy Network.
This is her first published article.
Ellyn Echols
University of Georgia
Ellyn Echols is a senior at the University of Georgia majoring
in International Affairs. Originally from Nashville, Tennes-
see, she’s found a wonderful home in Athens, GA and has
enjoyed getting involved in the community through work-
ing with the Boys & Girls Club and local housing projects.
She currently sits on the Executive Board of Roosevelt @
UGA and has written about USAID, local housing issues in
Athens, and most recently counterterrorism. After gradua-
tion she plans to take a year off to work abroad and study
Arabic and then pursue a Masters in Public Policy. After
that, she hopes to start a career in public policy working on
issues such as national security and terrorism.
Jeremy Ford
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Jeremy was a Braswell Scholar at UNC-Chapel Hill, major-
Authors
Jeff Gruber
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
A junior at UNC Chapel Hill majoring in Philosophy and
Economics, Jeff plans to teach English abroad and go to
law school, and to eventually become a legal scholar on In-
ternational Law. Originally from Temecula, CA, Jeff serves
on the board of editors for LAMBDA, UNC’s LGBT maga-
zine. He is a member of the National Society of Collegiate
Scholars; Solutions for the South is his first published work.
Michael Levy
Emory University
Michael is currently a Junior at Emory University in Atlanta,
Georgia, pursuing a Bachelor’s in Business Adminisration
through the Goizueta Business School. He is also pursu-
ing a second major in International Studies. Originally from
Weston, Florida, Michael hopes to go into management,
political, or environmental consulting. In his time at Emory,
he has been awarded the 2008 Woodruff Library Under-
graduate Research Award and the 2009 Emory College
Language Center Hebrew Award.
Amy Littleton
Harding University
Authors