Paper 1

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00ff00c4c8fd9d7ff9e35007dff457c01ff0f62ff82597fd24b3f600ff00c4c8fd9d7ff9e351ff00
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fd24b3f600ff00c4c8fd9d7ff9e35007dff457c01ff0f62ff82597fd24b3f600ff00c4c8fd9d7ff9
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57c01ff0f62ff82597fd24b3f600ff00c4c8fd9d7ff9e351ff000f62ff0082597fd24b3f600ffc4c
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00457c01ff000f62ff0082597fd24b3f600ffc4c8fd9d7ff009e351ff0f62ff82597fd24b3f600ff
00c4c8fd9d7ff9e35007dff457c01ff0f62ff82597fd24b3f600ff00c4c8fd9d7ff9e351ff000f62
ff0082597fd24b3f600ffc4c8fd9d7ff009e35007dff00457c01ff000f62ff0082597fd24b3f600f
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b3f600ff00c4c8fd9d7ff9e35007dff457c01ff0f62ff82597fd24b3f600ff00c4c8fd9d7ff9e357
a77c22fdbdbf617fda07c676df0e3e037eda1fb277c6df8877b637fa9d9f80fe117ed17f07fe24f8
ceef4dd2a1fb4ea9a8db785fc1be31d6b5c9ec74db7fdfdfddc562f6f670fef6e248d3e6a00fac68
a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a002bc77e35fc
4df1afc2bf0ce9daf7817f678f8c5fb4a6ab7bae41a4dcf82be0a6b7fb3fe83e26d22c26b1d42ee4
f13ea377fb467c73f803e0d9743b5b8b2b6d2e7b7d27c5ba9f891afb56d3e4b6f0f5c6991eaba8e9
9ec545007c01ff000d91fb457fd2277f6fff00fc38dff04b2ffe99651ff0d91fb457fd2277f6ff00
ff00c38dff0004b2ff00e99657dff45007c01ff0d91fb457fd2277f6ff00ff00c38dff0004b2ff00
e99651ff000d91fb457fd2277f6fff00fc38dff04b2ffe99657dff0045007c01ff000d91fb457fd2
277f6fff00fc38dff04b2ffe99657a97c1ff00da23e2f7c4bf18c7e18f1a7ec1dfb56fecf5a23e9b
7d7cdf113e3078c3f61cd6bc1d15d5a088dbe8d258fc02fdb33e38fc403a96a86471632c5e059748
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2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2803ffd9}}}}}\pard\sb0\sl-240{\b
kmkstart Pg1}{\bkmkend Pg1}\par\pard\ql \li2712\sb0\sl-195\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\
li2712\sb0\sl-195\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2712\sb0\sl-195\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li
2712\sb0\sl-195\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2712\sb0\sl-195\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li27
12\sb0\sl-195\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2712\sb0\sl-195\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2712
\sb0\sl-195\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2712\sb0\sl-195\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2712\s
b0\sl-195\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2712\sb0\sl-195\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2712\sb1
94\sl-195\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs17 Inte
rnational Journal of Educational Development 23 (2003) 201-213 \par\pard\ql \li7
656\sb6\sl-195\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 www.elsevier.com/locate/ije
dudev \par\pard\ql \li1877\sb0\sl-414\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1877\sb51\sl-414\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex99 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs36 A brief history of
a science teacher professional \par\pard\ql \li1020\sb1\sl-372\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex98 development initiative in Indonesia and the implications for
\par\pard\ql \li3094\sb12\sl-392\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex97 centralise
d teacher development \par\pard\ql \li4027\sb225\sl-299\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs27 M. Thair, D.F. Treagust\ul0\super\cf4\
f5\fs25 \u8727? \par\pard\ql \li1140\sb147\sl-195\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs17 Science and Mathematics Education Centre, Cu
rtin University of Technology, GPO Box U 1987, 6845 Perth, WA, Australia \par\pa
rd\ql \li905\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li905\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\
ql\li905\sb91\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f
7\fs19 Abstract \par\pard\qj \li905\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li905\ri810\
sb1\sl-220\slmult0\fi187 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs1
9 The implementation of successive phases of an intensive approach to science te
acher professional development in \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Indonesia is desc
ribed. While successful in establishing an extensive network of teacher trainers
and a standardised \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 approach to teacher profession
al development, observations indicate that the teaching practices of many teach
ers \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 remained unaffected. This unique approach is ex
amined in terms of the sustainability of the teaching methodologies \up0 \expndt
w-1\charscalex100 promoted by the project. An alternative conceptualisation is s
uggested, requiring governments to adopt a more holistic \up0 \expndtw-1\charsca
lex100 and broad based sectoral approach to science teacher professional develop
ment. \par\pard\ql \li905\sb2\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \u-23
43? 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. \par\pard\ql \li905\sb0\sl-1
95\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li905\sb47\sl-195\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs17 Keywords:\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs17 International
education; Teacher development\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5521
\colsr160\colno2\colw5119\colsr160\ql \li905\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li
905\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li905\sb167\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs21 1. Introduction\par\pard\qj \li905\ri
253\sb239\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\
f10\fs21 It is generally assumed that the quality of edu-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\c
harscalex100 cation in schools is linked directly to the pro-\line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex103 fessional development of teachers in the areas of \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 subject knowledge and teaching methodology \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 (Klinzing and Tisher, 1993; Lewin, 1990b). This \
line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 assumption is reflected in developing co
untries \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 where the World Bank during the 1980s
devoted \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 two-thirds of it education budget to
teacher pro-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 fessional development initiat
ives \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (Fuller, \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1987).

\par\pard\qj \li905\ri256\sb1\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Howeve
r, in questioning this level of input into \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 te
acher professional development, Fuller suggests\par\pard\ql \li905\sb0\sl-195\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql \li905\sb0\sl-195\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li905\sb0\sl-195\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\ql \li1073\sb10\sl-195\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\
super\cf10\f11\fs16\ul0\super\cf10\f11\fs15 \u8727?\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs17
Corresponding author.\par\pard\qj \li905\ri269\sb1\sl-199\slmult0\fi319 \up0 \e
xpndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs17 E-mail address:\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf1\f2\fs17 d.treagust@exchange.curtin.edu.au (D.F. \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 Treagust).\par\pard\column \ql \li5681\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li
5681\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb167\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 that there is very little evidence dem
onstrating the\par\pard\qj \li20\ri742\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex101 effectiveness of these programs. These types of \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex105 questions arise when teachers attending pro-\line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex102 fessional development activities are unable to \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex104 implement new ideas for teaching in their \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 classrooms. For example, if new skills are inapp
ro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 priate to local contexts, teachers will
find them \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 extremely difficult to incorpor
ate into their day-to-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 day teaching practic
es \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (Kerrison, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1992;
Lunetta\par\pard\ql \li20\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 and
van den Berg, \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 1995; Thair, \up0 \expndtw-1\char
scalex100 1995). Lewin\par\pard\qj \li20\ri746\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex102 (1990a) and Vulliamy (1990) highlight the prob-\line \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex100 lems of failing to take into account the realities of \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex101 classroom conditions and in particular the motiv-\line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 ation of teachers. Lewin (1990a) reports:\par\pard\qj \
li5921\sb0\sl-238\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li260\ri751\sb2\sl-238\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex102 Implementation strategies tended to assume \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex103 compliance and commitment from teachers to \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 new curricula and the effort involved in chang-\par\pard\sec
t\sectd\sbknone \qj \li905\sb0\sl-200\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li905\ri4356\sb27\sl200\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs16 0738-0593
/03/$ - see front matter \u-2343? 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
. \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 doi:10.1016/S0738-0593(02)00014-7 \par\pard\sect
\sectd\fs24\paperw10940\paperh14920\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg2}{\bkmkend Pg2
}\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\l
i905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb131\sl-184\slmult
0\fi0\tx2270 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs16 202\tab
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs16 M. Thair, D.F. Treagu
st / International Journal of Educational Development 23 (2003) 201-213\par\pard
\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5521\colsr160\colno2\colw5119\colsr160\ql \
li1145\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1145\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 ing working practices and educa
tional goals.\par\pard\qj \li1145\ri254\sb2\sl-238\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-1\
charscalex100 Later it became clear to many involved that \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex102 insufficient attention had been given to under-\line \up0 \e
xpndtw-1\charscalex100 standing the motivation, capabilities and beliefs\par\par
d\qj \li1145\ri256\sb3\sl-238\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 of teachers
all of which had to change for \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 impleme
ntation to be more than a facade. (p. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 193)\
par\pard\qj \li905\ri255\sb122\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101
Additionally, teachers may experience feelings \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 of
powerlessness when programs are overly pre-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 s
criptive and ignore their professional input, make \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107
high demands on their time, and there is a lack \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 of
resources or general encouragement (Bell and \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Gilb

ert, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 1996). Consequently, these teachers\par\
pard\ql \li905\ri250\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi0\tx1114 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101
invariably find themselves teaching in the same \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex101 way that they have done prior to engaging in pro-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 fessional development activities (Briscoe, 1991). \line\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex101 The following sections describe the\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\
fs21 Permanta-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 pan Kerja Guru\ul0\nosupersub\
cf9\f10\fs21 (PKG)\u8212?strengthening the work \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscal
ex100 of teachers\u8212?approach to in-service teacher devel-\line \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex100 opment in Indonesia for science teachers. This \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex103 approach inducted science teachers into the con-\line \u
p0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 cept of using student-centred learning that encour-\
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 aged open communication with students and thei
r \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 active participation in classroom and
laboratory \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 activities \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex100 (Pietersz, 1982). During the 1980s and\par\pard\qj \li905\ri249\sb0\sl
-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1990s, the PKG project was the s
ingle largest \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 teacher professional developme
nt program in the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 world (Monk and Dillon, 199
5). By any measure, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the PKG project was a
n extremely ambitious \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 undertaking, establis
hing an extensive network of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 teacher-trainers
and overcoming the logistical \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 obstacles
associated with operating in a developing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 c
ountry that is so geographically and culturally \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex105 diverse. Within the context of those factors that \line \up0 \expndtw-1
\charscalex100 have limited the ability of the PKG project to \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex102 influence classroom teaching practices, more \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 recent approaches to science teacher professional
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 development are examined. These approaches a
re \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 used as a framework for considering a reco
ncep-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 tualisation of science teacher professi
onal activities \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 in developing countries.\par
\pard\qj \li905\ri549\sb237\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\no
supersub\cf8\f9\fs21 2. Post-colonial science teacher professional \up0 \expndt
w-1\charscalex100 development in Indonesia\par\pard\ql \li905\sb120\sl-241\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 2.1. Introduction\
par\pard\qj \li905\ri255\sb118\sl-240\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 Professional development programs for teachers \l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 have had a strong tradition in Indonesia since
the\par\pard\column \ql \li5681\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb6\sl-241
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 1970s. As was characteristic during the 19
60s of\par\pard\qj \li20\ri741\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 t
he majority of education systems in developing \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex1
00 countries, Indonesia experienced a rapid quantitat-\line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex102 ive growth in the demands for education (Lewin, \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex104 1993). The response of governments during this \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex103 period was to implement strategies to accommo-\line \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex104 date larger numbers of students and a number of \line \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 achievements were made in achieving universal \line \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 enrolment at primary levels; however, with the \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 limited resources available there were subsequ
ent \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 declines in educational quality \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 (Lewin, \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1990c).\par\pard\
ql \li20\ri745\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\tx239 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Consequentl
y, during the 1960s concentration of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 efforts
in primary education was at the expense of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 s
econdary and tertiary education, inevitably this \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex102 impacted on the quality of primary education \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex102 because the pool of potential student teachers for \line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex100 primary schools was quite small (Miller, 1968). \line\tab \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Issues of quality also have been evident at the \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 secondary level. For example, during the 1980s the
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 number of new science teachers require
d to be \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 recruited at the junior secondary
level in Indonesia \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 was between 2000 and 3000
each year and another \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2000 each year for th
e senior secondary level. Also \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 there was the
need to retrain many of the unquali-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 fied scie
nce teachers (van den Berg and Lenetta, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 1984
and the teacher education institutions at that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
00 time could only provide approximately half of \line \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 this requirement.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri751\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 The Indonesian government\u8217?s response to
\up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 increasing enrolments was the establishment
of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 emergency teacher education courses to add
ress \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 critical teacher shortages \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex106 (van den Berg and\par\pard\qj \li20\ri751\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 Lunetta, 1984. When these demands were met, the \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex102 emergency programs ceased and teacher training \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 became concentrated in secondary school teachers\u8217? \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 colleges \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 (\ul0\nosupersub
\cf13\f14\fs21 Institut Keguruan Dan Ilmu Pendidi-\par\pard\qj \li20\ri749\s
b0\sl-237\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 kan\u8212?\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10
\fs21 IKIP) and education faculties within univer-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal
ex100 sities \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 (\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 Fakultu
s Keguruan Dan Ilmu Pendidi-\par\pard\ql \li20\sb1\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 kan\u8212?\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 FKIP).\par\pard\ql \l
i5681\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb57\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 2.2. In-service teacher professional
development\par\pard\ql \li5681\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li229\sb56\sl-2
41\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 During the
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 1970s, a massive campaign was\par\pard\qj \li2
0\ri750\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 launched in order to pr
ovide three-week workshops \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 for Indonesia\u821
7?s 600,000 teachers in government-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 run pri
mary schools. These workshops covered the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 use
of new textbooks being implemented into the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
primary system, and the training staff consisted of \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\pa
perw10940\paperh14920\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg3}{\bkmkend Pg3}\par\pard\li9
05\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-18
4\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\pa
r\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb131\sl-184\slmult0\fi1365\tx973
9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs16 M. Thair, D.F. Trea
gust / International Journal of Educational Development 23 (2003) 201-213\tab \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs16 203\par\pard\sect\sectd
\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5521\colsr160\colno2\colw5119\colsr160\ql \li905\sb0\s
l-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li905\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 1200 specialists formed into 120 mobile provinci
al\par\pard\qj \li905\ri260\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 team
s, who by 1976 had managed to reach 90,000 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 teachers
(Soedijarto et al., 1980).\par\pard\qj \li905\ri250\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In 1979, two new in-service teacher professional \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 development centres (\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 Pu
sat Pengembangan Pendi-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 dikan Guru\u8212?\ul0\
nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 PPPG) were established in order to \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 supplement the professional development activities \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex104 of existing establishments. At that time, five \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 additional centres were in the progress of construc-\line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex104 tion, with a further eight centres planned \up0 \

expndtw0\charscalex103 (Soedijarto et al., \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 1980).
These centres were\par\pard\qj \li905\ri252\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 located near existing teachers colleges, which were \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 utilised for staffing purposes, and the live-in pro\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 fessional development programs were desig
ned \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 around specific subject-areas (science, m
athemat-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ics, social studies, language, te
chnology, and \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 vocational subjects) and cond
ucted over a six-week \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 period. The PPPGs were
also responsible for estab-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 lishing regional
professional development pro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 grams (\ul0
\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 Balai Pendidikan Guru\u8212?\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs
21 BPG), and data \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 from Improving the Efficie
ncy of Educational Sys-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 tems (IEES, 1986) repo
rts indicated that by 1986, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 14 BPGs were in o
peration, and that by 1989, 13 \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 more were sche
duled to be built. This approach to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 in-servic
e professional development required tak-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ing
teachers out of their classrooms; thus, adminis-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex
100 trators of schools were caught between the need to \line \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 have teachers upgraded and the problem of having \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 classes left without teachers. Additionally, the sub-\line \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 ject areas experiencing the most severe teacher \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 shortages were the same areas in most need o
f \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 teacher professional development.\par\pard
\qj \li905\sb0\sl-237\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li905\ri742\sb3\sl-237\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 2.3. In-service profession
al development for \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 secondary school science teacher
s\par\pard\qj \li905\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li905\ri255\sb3\sl-239\slm
ult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 Prior to 19
75, the science curriculum was sub-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 ject-orien
ted and encouraged a teacher-centred \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 appr
oach in the classroom. A new curriculum, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
1 known as Curriculum 75, adopted a \u8216?student-cen-\line \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex102 tred\u8217? approach, and for science subjects specified \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex105 that in addition to providing factual knowledge, \line \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 students should develop a range of process skills \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 that were to be developed through practical acti
vi-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 ties in laboratories and classrooms. The C
urricu-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 lum 75 was introduced progressively in
to the sec-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ondary system between 1976 and 197
8. While the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 curriculum provided instructi
onal objectives, the\par\pard\column \ql \li5681\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\
ql \li20\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 problems of identifying
and locating appropriate\par\pard\qj \li20\ri744\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex103 instructional materials and lesson planning were \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex103 left entirely to individual classroom teachers. \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex102 Thomas (1991) reported that many teachers were \up0 \expndtw-1
\charscalex100 inadequately prepared to initiate effective learning \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex100 strategies in order to fully realise the instructional \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex101 objectives of the new curriculum, and that gener-\line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex102 ally teachers continued to use traditional teacher-\lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 centred \u8216?chalk-and-talk\u8217? and lecturin
g methods in \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 their classrooms, with a heavy emphasi
s on mem-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ory-type classroom activities.\par\
pard\qj \li20\ri749\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Durin
g the implementation phase of Curriculum \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 75,
between 1976 and 1979, a number of pro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
01 fessional development programs were introduced \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscal
ex100 in order to overcome the problems experienced by \line \up0 \expndtw-2\cha

rscalex100 teachers in introducing the new curriculum; during \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex101 this period approximately \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 18,00
0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 headmasters,\par\pard\qj \li20\ri746\sb0\sl-239\
slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 administrators and teachers attended
these pro-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 grams (Penick and Amien, 1992).
For teachers, this \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 professional developmen
t had three separate \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 components; the s
cience content of the curriculum; \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 use of sci
entific apparatus to carry out experiments; \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
and thirdly the methodology involved in producing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 activity-based lessons in the classroom. Science \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 teachers from around the nation were assembled in \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex105 a central location for several weeks of intensive \line \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 workshop activities involving demonstrations of \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 effective science teaching methodology, pr
ep-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 aration of lesson plans and materials conf
orming \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 to the instructional objectives of the
curriculum, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 and micro-teaching sessions (Th
omas, 1991). As \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 a low-cost strategy for furt
her disseminating this \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 information, a \u8216
?cascade\u8217? model was adopted where \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 thes
e teachers were then expected to return to their \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
100 schools and conduct further professional develop-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex100 ment programs at regional centres for local teach-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\
charscalex100 ers.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri749\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex100 However, the results to this approach to teacher \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex102 professional development in the late 1970s were \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 disappointing (van den Berg and Wilardjo, 1986), \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 and in spite of the focus on practical laboratory \
line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 activities in these programs, the majority of
school \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 laboratories remained under-utili
sed \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (Pietersz,\par\pard\qj \li20\ri750\sb0\sl-239\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1982). A lot was expected of the teachers i
n terms \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 of outcomes from these relatively
short pro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 fessional development programs
, especially in \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 terms of being able to car
ry out practical activities \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 in laboratories a
nd the adoption of activity-based \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw10940\paperh14
920\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg4}{\bkmkend Pg4}\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmu
lt0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard
\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\s
l-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb131\sl-184\slmult0\fi0\tx2270 \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs16 204\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs16 M. Thair, D.F. Treagust / International Journal of Ed
ucational Development 23 (2003) 201-213\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1
\colw5521\colsr160\colno2\colw5119\colsr160\ql \li905\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pa
rd\ql \li905\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9
\f10\fs21 methodologies in classrooms, where neither of\par\pard\qj \li905\
ri251\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 these approaches wou
ld have been previously \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 experienced by tea
chers during their own school-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 ing or pre-serv
ice teacher training. Further, many \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 of the pr
ofessional development providers, while \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 being
subject specialists drawn from universities \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100
and IKIPs, had never taught within the secondary-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x103 school system. Further factors identified by van \line \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 den Berg and Lenetta (1984) that would make \line \up0 \expndt
w-1\charscalex100 student-centred classroom activities difficult for \line \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 teachers to adopt, included the large class sizes a
nd \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 the heavy teaching loads of many teachers

, lack of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 laboratory support staff and cl
erical assistance, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 noisy classrooms due to
lack of soundproofing and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 classroom design, a
nd very importantly within the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 context of Ind
onesian classroom culture, the auth-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 ority of
more senior staff members.\par\pard\qj \li905\ri256\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 In response to these problems, the Ministry of \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Education and Culture drew up guidelines for a \line
\up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 new teacher professional development approach
\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 that would use experienced teachers as
trainers \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 after they had received training o
verseas in their \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 subject areas. Professio
nal development was \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 spread over a longer
period and included an in-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 service component
where teachers would use stud-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ent-centred app
roaches to teaching in their class-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 room unde
r the guidance of teacher-training \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 instr
uctors. In \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1979 a UNDP/UNESCO assisted\par\par
d\qj \li905\ri253\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 training proj
ect was set up\u8212?Improvement of \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Scie
nce and Mathematics Teaching in the Second-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ar
y General Schools\u8212?and this project led to the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex101 development of the PKG system of in-service \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex102 teacher professional development in Indonesia \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex104 (Mahady et al., 1996). An important element of \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-1\charscalex100 this particular approach was the encouragement of \line \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ownership of the PKG concept by classroom teach-\line
\up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ers, and efforts made to avoid the mistakes of ea
rl-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ier top-down approaches where the in
novations \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 were imposed on teachers with
little, if any, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 opportunity for individ
ual input \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (Tomlinson,\par\pard\qj \li905\ri255\s
b0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 1990). The major purpose of this
new initiative \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 was to overcome the resilien
ce of teachers to stud-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 ent-centred learning,
thus changing student learn-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ing experiences
from passive listening and writing \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 to active
participation in practical activities and to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
encourage thinking, which formed the basis of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x101 PKG pedagogic style (van den Berg, 1993). The \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex102 PKG project began in 1980 with science, the end\par\pard\column \ql \li5
681\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex102 of 1981 with mathematics, and was extended to\par\pard\ql \li20\sb0\
sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 English in 1985 and Bahasa Indonesia
in 1988.\par\pard\qj \li5681\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri1300\sb238
\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs21 3. The
PKG approach to science teacher \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 professional deve
lopment\par\pard\qj \li5681\sb0\sl-237\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri751\sb3\sl-2
37\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 Foll
owing the appointment in December 1978 of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 a
full time national co-ordinating officer, \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 12\p
ar\pard\qj \li20\ri751\sb2\sl-239\slmult0\tx557 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 sci
ence teachers were selected as in-service PKG \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 inst
ructors or \u8216?master teachers\u8217?, and in 1979 began \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 a 12 week training program in the Regional Centre \line \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 for \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Science
and
Mathemat
ics
Education\par\pard\qj \li20\ri749\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 (RECSAM) in Penang, Malaysia (Somerset, 1988). \line \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 Participants for PKG instructor training were selec-\line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 ted from experienced secondary teachers, with the \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex102 central government in Jakarta asking regional \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 governments to nominate outstanding teachers
\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (Mahady et al., 1996). The RECSAM training w
as \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 conducted over three months and covered su
bject \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 content, laboratory work, classroom me
thodology, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and teacher training methodolog
y \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (Somerset,\par\pard\qj \li20\ri747\sb1\sl-239\sl
mult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1988). This was followed by visits to Th
ailand and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Australia in order to observe scho
ol systems in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 operation and to identify elem
ents of these systems \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 that could be transf
erred to the Indonesian \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 classrooms and l
aboratories. On their return to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Indonesia
, the role of these PKG instructors was \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to i
nduct teachers who had very weak backgrounds \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100
in science, and almost no laboratory experience or \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex100 concept of student-centred learning, into the PKG \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex101 approach of active participation in classroom and \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex100 laboratory activities. An important element of this \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 process was to increase teacher confidence in deal-\lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 ing with subject content; without this confidence
, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 it was unlikely that teachers would deviate
from \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the chalk-and-talk approach and encoura
ge open \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 communication with students. Once
the PKG \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 induction programs were established
, a number of \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 additional PKG instructors wer
e selected for study \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 overseas at Masters leve
l, with participants prim-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 arily being sent t
o King\u8217?s College at the University \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of
London in the United Kingdom, and the Science \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
and Mathematics Education Centre \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 (SMEC) at\par
\pard\qj \li20\ri752\sb1\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Curtin Univ
ersity of Technology in Perth, West-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ern Aust
ralia.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri751\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x101 The PKG system is popularly referred to as the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex104 \u8216?in-on\u8217? system, and when originally set up was \par\pard\se
ct\sectd\fs24\paperw10940\paperh14920\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg5}{\bkmkend P
g5}\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard
\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\s
l-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb131\sl-184\slmu
lt0\fi1365\tx9739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs16 M.
Thair, D.F. Treagust / International Journal of Educational Development 23 (2003
) 201-213\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs16 205\par
\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5521\colsr160\colno2\colw5119\colsr160
\ql \li905\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li905\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 scheduled over a 16-week period d
ivided into two\par\pard\qj \li905\ri257\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex102 in-service cycles of two weeks each, and two on-\line \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex101 service cycles of six weeks each (Pietersz, 1982). \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-1\charscalex100 Each PKG induction cycle began with a two-week \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 residential in-service program held at a provincial \li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 centre, and planned to fit into the beginning of
a \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 school semester. The on-service cycle beg
an when \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 teachers returned to their schools. A
second two-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 week in-service cycle was held m
id-semester, then \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 teachers returned to their
schools for the final on-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 service component
of the \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 16-week cycle. PKG\par\pard\qj \li905\r
i257\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 cycles were run twice a ye
ar prior to the beginning \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 of each teaching se

mester in each province and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 were attended b
y approximately \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 50 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
teachers\par\pard\ql \li905\sb1\sl-235\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (So
merset, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 1988). Different groups of teachers\par
\pard\qj \li905\ri258\sb3\sl-238\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 attended s
uccessive workshops in order to spread \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 the i
nduction across an increasing number of teach-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 ers.\par\pard\qj \li905\ri251\sb2\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 During the first two-week in-service component, \line \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 teaching for the first half of the semester was thor-\line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex106 oughly planned. Teachers worked in groups \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-1\charscalex100 according to subject area (mathematics, chemistry, \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 physics or biology) and school level (lower sec-\li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ondary and upper secondary), and Pietersz (1982)
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 describes a number of key elements, includin
g a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 content analysis of each topic to be taug
ht in the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 coming half semester, involving the
identification \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of major concepts and skills
and planning of teach-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ing strategies. Furthe
r elements included the tria-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ling of laborat
ory activities, the revision of student \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 work
sheets for experiments and evaluation check-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 l
ists for each experiment. Diagnostic tests also \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex102 were tried and revised, and participants took part \line \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex102 in constructing their own tests. A limited number \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex108 of lectures were provided in order to deal with \line \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex103 selected areas of weakness in subject knowledge \line \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 by participants, and lecturers for these components \
line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 were drawn from provincial universities and I
KIPs. \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Microteaching was another component of
the two-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 week in-service training, and in
itially involved \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 PKG instructors giving dem
onstration lessons, and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 later the participa
ting teachers preparing and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 delivering les
sons to their colleagues.\par\pard\qj \li905\ri257\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex103 Following the first two-week in-service cycle, \line \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 participants returned to their respective schools fo
r \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the on-service component of PKG induction a
nd \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 commenced the first half of the teaching
semester, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 using worksheets and tests tri
aled or developed\par\pard\column \ql \li5681\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql
\li20\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 during the in-service cyc
le. PKG instructors visited\par\pard\qj \li20\ri747\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi0 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex103 teachers during their on-service cycle to observe \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 lessons, and take the opportunity to discuss their
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 observations or perhaps do demonstration less
ons \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 if these were requested (Pietersz, 1982)
. Studies of \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 effective in-service profession
al development pro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 grams have shown that to h
ave any real effect on \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 teaching behaviour th
ere needs to be an element of \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 coaching or de
monstration in the teachers\u8217? schools \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (
Joyce and Showers, 1995). This component of the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex
100 PKG cycle is therefore a significant element in the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
arscalex100 process of transferring new techniques into the nor-\line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex100 mal teaching routine of schools.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri748\sb1\
sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 An additional component of th
e on-service cycle \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 was weekly meetings attend
ed by participants and \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 PKG instructors and h
eld on Saturdays at local in-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 service sub-cent

res. These meetings were to dis-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 cuss with PK
G instructors and each other problems \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 encount
ered during the previous week\u8217?s teaching, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
02 and to prepare for the coming week. These meet-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x100 ings gave participants a further opportunity to dis-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 cuss PKG experiments and worksheets and to actu-\line \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex100 ally try out the experiments and equipment in \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex102 groups (Monk and Dillon, 1995). Other activities \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 included the analysis of class tests and individual
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 test items, discussion of proposals for the r
evision \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 of worksheets and diagnostic tests, t
he results of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 which were recorded for input i
nto the periodical \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 revision of PKG materia
ls, and microteaching \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 activities (Pietersz,
1982). This process was poss-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ible due to th
e highly centralised curriculum, where \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 teache
rs in every school across the country teach \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 t
he same topic in the same week.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri745\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi208
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 The second two-week residential in-service \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 component occurred mid-semester, where teachers
\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 evaluated their on-service experience, and
prepared \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 for the second half of the semester
in a similar \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 fashion to the training held at
the beginning of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 semester. Following this
second in-service period, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 teachers then ret
urned to their schools again for the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 remaind
er of the semester, thus completing one full \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101
cycle of PKG induction. An important element in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 sustaining changes in teachers\u8217? classroom method-\line \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 ology was the feature of providing supervision and \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex100 support for on service following the in-service \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 components of the induction (Monk and Dillon, \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1995).\par\pard\ql \li229\sb1\sl-240\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 All administrative and financial duties associa-\par\
pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw10940\paperh14920\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg6}{\bk
mkend Pg6}\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\p
ar\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li90
84\slmult0\fi0\tx2270 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs16
206\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs16 M. Thair, D.
F. Treagust / International Journal of Educational Development 23 (2003) 201-213
\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5521\colsr160\colno2\colw5119\cols
r160\ql \li905\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li905\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 ted with the PKG science prog
rams were handled\par\pard\ql \li905\ri253\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\tx1114 \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 by a provincial science supervisor (Pietersz, 1982), \line \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and these duties included liaising with school prin\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 cipals in addition to organising the Saturda
y morn-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ing meetings and the distribution of
materials. The \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 role of PKG instructors was fu
rther enhanced by \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 the appointment of assista
nt instructors from PKG \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 alumni who had a rol
e in providing on-service vis-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 its at the prov
incial level to schools they could \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 reach with
in two hours (Pietersz, 1982). \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A further
component of the PKG system was the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 twice-y
early national evaluation and preparation \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103
workshops held over three weeks at the National \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
101 Science In-service Centre in Bandung, Java. This \line \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 workshop was attended by provincial PKG instruc-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\c

harscalex100 tors, national and UNESCO consultants, the evalu-\line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex100 ation team, and provincial supervisors (Pietersz, \line \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 1982). The objectives and activities of the national \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 workshop were (Adey and Monk, 1988) to:\par\pa
rd\qj \li905\ri257\sb238\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 (a) induct
new instructors into PKG thinking and \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 procedures;\
par\pard\ql \li905\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (b) revise an
d prepare materials; and\par\pard\qj \li905\ri257\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex105 (c) act as a national forum where PKG thinking \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 can be moved forward through a process of mutual \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex105 reinforcement and inputs from national and \up0 \expndtw-1\c
harscalex100 foreign consultants.\par\pard\ql \li905\sb237\sl-241\slmult0\tx1428
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Role\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (c) has a
unique and important function\par\pard\qj \li905\ri256\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 within the PKG project. Without this regular \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 reinforcement and input of new ideas, PKG \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 instructors in distant provinces would become iso-\lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 lated from project developments.\par\pard\qj \li9
05\ri254\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 During this works
hop, the previous PKG cycle \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 was evaluated by colla
ting feedback from teachers \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 on previously trialed
worksheets, and preparations \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 were made for the next
cycle. New materials were \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 trialed and revised
during the national semester \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 evaluation and prep
aration workshop prior to being \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 duplicated and ta
ken back to the provinces by \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 workshop particip
ants. Here, the worksheet mas-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 ters were copie
d and retyped before being dupli-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 cated at the
regional, local authority and school \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 levels (Monk
and Dillon, 1995).\par\pard\qj \li905\ri256\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex102 Pietersz (1982) describes a rigorous process of \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 continual evaluation of the PKG induction process. \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Each PKG cycle was evaluated through a system \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 of questionnaires given to participants and PKG\par
\pard\column \ql \li5681\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb6\sl-241\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 instructors, and the National Evaluation Tea
m\par\pard\qj \li20\ri750\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 made
visits to selected provinces. During these vis-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 its PKG participants and instructors were inter-\line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex101 viewed, and the team observed lessons and spoke \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex104 to school principals. Evaluation reports were \up0 \expndtw-1\char
scalex100 presented at the National Semester Evaluation and \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 Preparation Workshop.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri747\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi208
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 A key element of the PKG program in assisting \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 teachers to adopt the PKG method of studen
t-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 centred lessons were the worksheets. I
nitially, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 these worksheets were produced by P
KG instruc-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 tors undergoing training at RECSAM
and revised \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 on a regular basis at the Nation
al Evaluation and \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Preparation Workshop held
in Bandung at the start \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 of each semester (Mon
k and Dillon, 1995). These \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 revisions were bas
ed on feedback from teachers \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 using the worksh
eets. During the two-week resi-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 dential in-ser
vice workshops, new teachers were \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 introduced
to the worksheets, and were provided \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 with m
aster-copies for reproduction and student \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 use in their own schools. A further initiative, which \line \up0 \expndtw-1\ch
arscalex100 assisted teachers in adopting the PKG method-\line \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 ology in their classrooms, is outlined by Monk and \line \up0

\expndtw-1\charscalex100 Dillon (1995), where chemistry teachers attending \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 PKG training during the 1980s were also provided
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 with kits of chemicals and glassware p
rovided \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 specifically to enable PKG laboratory
activities to \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 be carried out in schools
. These supplies were \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 additional to equip
ment and chemical \u8216?drops\u8217? pro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 vid
ed by the central government.\par\pard\ql \li20\sb238\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 3.1. Development of the Sanggar
PKG\par\pard\qj \li5681\sb0\sl-238\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri751\sb4\sl-238\s
lmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 Following
the completion of a PKG induction \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 cycle, man
y participants continued to attend their \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Sat
urday meetings in order to become familiar with \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex
100 additional PKG materials not covered in their own \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex100 PKG induction cycle \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (Pietersz, \up0 \ex
pndtw-1\charscalex100 1982). Further,\par\pard\qj \li20\ri750\sb2\sl-239\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Mahady et al. (1996) reported that sometimes the
se \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 participants were accompanied by other tea
chers \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 who had not had the opportunity to atte
nd PKG \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 induction, thus increasing the rate a
nd coverage of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 PKG material dissemination. Re
quests also were \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 made from principals and tea
chers for faster dis-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 semination of PKG mat
erials \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (Pietersz, \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 19
82),\par\pard\qj \li20\ri751\sb2\sl-238\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 whi
ch ultimately led to the development of the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex1
00 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 Sanggar Pemantapan Kerja Guru\ul0\nosupersub\cf
9\f10\fs21 (SPKG) system \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 being introduced on
a trial basis in August 1982, \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw10940\paperh14920
\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg7}{\bkmkend Pg7}\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0
\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li
84\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb131\sl-184\slmult0\fi1365\tx9739 \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs16 M. Thair, D.F. Treagust / International
Journal of Educational Development 23 (2003) 201-213\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs16 207\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1
\colw5521\colsr160\colno2\colw5119\colsr160\ql \li905\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pa
rd\ql \li905\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9
\f10\fs21 with two SPKGs being set up in each province,\par\pard\qj \li905\ri256
\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and further centres being esta
blished in 1984. So as \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 not to disrupt student time
tables, school principals \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 rescheduled timetables f
or participating teachers to \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 allow one day free
each week from teaching \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 responsibilities.\par\
pard\qj \li905\ri251\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Essen
tially, the SPKG initiative was an attempt \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 t
o disseminate the PKG methodology and materials \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
05 at a more rapid rate and at a lower cost than the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex100 original PKG induction process. However Somer-\line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex100 set (1988) points out that this was done with some \line \up0 \expndtw1\charscalex100 loss of quality and intensity of training, as the \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 Sanggar\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf9\f10\fs21 approach has only one in-service cycle (as \line \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex102 compared with two for a PKG cycle), and the in-\line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex100 service is only one-week non-residential (as com-\line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex103 pared to two weeks residential with PKG \line \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 programs). By 1987, the SPKG system was provid-\lin
e \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ing in-service/on-service inductions to a g
reater \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 number of science and mathematics teac

hers than \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the original PKG program, and by 1
988 there were \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 only 26 PKG teams (one for ea
ch province, exclud-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ing East Timor), and more
than 200 SPKG teams \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (one for each distri
ct) \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (Somerset, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1988)
. SPKG\par\pard\ql \li905\sb1\sl-235\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 progr
ams were led by key teachers \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (\ul0\nosupersub
\cf13\f14\fs21 guru inti\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 )\par\pard\qj \li905\ri259
\sb3\sl-238\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 selected from successful te
achers who had pre-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 vious exposure to PKG
induction programs or had \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 acted as assistant instru
ctors.\par\pard\qj \li905\ri520\sb239\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
1 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 3.2. Replacement of Sanggar PKG training by \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 Musywara Guru Mata Pelajaran (MGMP)\par\pard\qj \li905\
ri252\sb239\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f9\f10\fs21 During 1993, the s\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 anggar\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf9\f10\fs21 PKG teacher-develop-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 ment appr
oach was replaced by a new program \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 called M
GMP. Dillon (1993) indicates that this \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100
reflects the movement of the PKG project towards \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscale
x100 a phase of post-project sustainability, and sug-\line \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 gested that a limiting factor may be financing avail-\line \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex103 able at local level to cover costs not provided by \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 the PKG project.\par\pard\ql \li1114\sb1\sl-240\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Mahady et al. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 (
1996) describe a number of\par\pard\qj \li905\ri257\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 modifications to teacher-development as a result of \li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the introduction of the MGMP program. On-ser-\li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 vice school visits were discontinued, as compare
d \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to the three visits during each cycle of S
PKG. This \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 meant that teachers had no guided m
onitoring and \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 feedback in their own clas
srooms, and training \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 effectiveness of in-s
ervice programs was not moni-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 tored in school
s. In-service meetings were less fre-\par\pard\column \ql \li5681\sb0\sl-241\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 quent, a
nd Mahady et al. (1996) indicate that on\par\pard\ql \li20\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 average there was one meeting every three weeks.\par\
pard\qj \li5681\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri921\sb238\sl-240\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs21 4. Limitations to th
e long-term sustainability \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 of PKG classroom method
ologies\par\pard\ql \li20\ri746\sb238\sl-239\slmult0\fi208\tx239 \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 A key achievement of the PKG pr
oject in \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Indonesia was the involvement of p
ractising class-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 room teachers at a number of
levels. The PKG \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 approach utilised a loc
alised, participatory \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 approach that allows
teachers to draw from their \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 own and other tea
chers\u8217? experiences and knowl-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 edge. By
being involved in implementation, teach-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ers
played a significant role in the evolution of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x103 PKG project as evidenced by the introduction of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex104 the SPKG initiative. Further, the PKG project is \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex102 distinctive in its recognition that teachers require \line \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 coaching in their normal teaching environment, in \line \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 addition to subject content upgrading and other \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 professional development. However, a number of
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 evaluations in Indonesia of the classroom p
ractices \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 of science teachers have highli
ghted limitations \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 outside the realms of dayto-day teaching that are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 not under the direct
influence of PKG teachers. \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Mahady et al
. (1996) report the findings of a sur-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 vey car
ried out in 1995 involving 255 junior sec-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 ond
ary and 348 senior secondary teachers across \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
10 provinces in Indonesia who had undergone \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex100 PKG induction. These findings indicated that tea-\line \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex105 chers continued to dominate the classroom with \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex105 little attention being paid to the development of \line \up0 \expndt
w-1\charscalex100 learning skills. In another evaluation conducted \line \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 over a three-week period involving the observation \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 of 25 lessons, Mahady et al. (1996) reported s
imi-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 lar findings. Because of these obse
rvations, the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 authors concluded that while t
he PKG project had \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 established an impressive
group of teacher trainers, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 widespread and s
ustainable improvements in class-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 room methodo
logies were not so apparent. How-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 ever, these
observations are in contrast to those \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 reporte
d by Treagust and Taylor \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (1989) who\par\pard\q
j \li20\ri750\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 observed science
lessons at various locations \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 throughout I
ndonesia during 1989 and reported a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 high uti
lisation of student-centred approaches \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 amo
ng those teachers observed. The timing of the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex10
0 observations may provide an explanation for these \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charsc
alex100 contradictory observations by Treagust and Taylor \par\pard\sect\sectd\f
s24\paperw10940\paperh14920\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg8}{\bkmkend Pg8}\par\pa
rd\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0
\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmu
lt0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb131\sl-184\slmult0\fi0\tx
2270 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs16 208\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs16 M. Thair, D.F. Treagust / Int
ernational Journal of Educational Development 23 (2003) 201-213\par\pard\sect\se
ctd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5521\colsr160\colno2\colw5119\colsr160\ql \li905\sb
0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li905\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 during 1989 and Mahady et al. during 1996.
As\par\pard\qj \li905\ri255\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 out
lined above, the original PKG model introduced \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
0 in 1980 for science has evolved through a number \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex103 of phases, and during 1993 was replaced by the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 MGMP model, and a limiting factor may have \line \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex106 been the availability of funding available at the \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex107 local level to cover the costs of science teacher \line \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 professional development not provided by the PKG \lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 project. Mahady et al. (1996) also raise concerns
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 about the number of original trainers, as ma
ny as \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 7000, returning to full-time teaching a
nd the loss \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 of this experience and skills bas
e with the phasing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 out of the original P
KG project. Therefore, the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 observations p
rovided by Treagust and Taylor \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (1989) re
flect the situation during the fully-funded \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 p
hase of the PKG project with a full complement \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
1 of teacher trainers, whereas the conclusions made \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex104 by Mahady et al. (1996) represent the situation \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex103 when the project had been scaled back consider-\line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex101 ably to the MGMP model.\par\pard\qj \li905\ri252\sb0\sl-239\slmult
0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 The situation reported by Mahady et al. (19
96) \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 is not unusual in Indonesia as reported b

y Na\u8217?im \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 (1995) who had been involved in
the supervision \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 of teachers attending PK
G teacher professional \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 development program
s in Indonesia since the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 1980s. This a
uthor reported that while teachers \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 under
took PKG training they usually employed \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102
student-centred teaching approaches; however, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
100 some teachers reverted to didactic approaches fol-\line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex102 lowing the completion of this training. Contribu-\line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex102 ting factors identified by Na\u8217?im (1995) included \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 equipment shortages, lack of preparation time, cur-\lin
e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 riculum overload, and poor national examination \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 results of students, which further encouraged
tea-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 chers to take the safe approach of didac
tic method-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ologies.\par\pard\qj \li905\ri255
\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 A number of authors (Dill
on, 1993; Mahady et \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 al., 1996; Osborne, 1992
) have reported on the lack \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 of synchronisati
on between the teacher pro-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 fessional dev
elopment activities of the PKG project \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 and th
e government departments responsible for \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 nati
onal examinations and science curricula. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 Osborne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (1992: p. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
2 8) reports that \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \u8220?whilst the\par\pard\qj
\li905\ri248\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (teacher professi
onal development)\u8230?project has \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 little
control over the content of the curriculum, it \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
4 is a matter of concern that the dialogue between \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 the in-service dimension\u8230?the curriculum develop-\line \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex100 ment team and the assessment team is weak\u8221?.\par\par
d\column \ql \li5681\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 These types of problems are not unique to Indone-\pa
r\pard\qj \li20\ri743\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 sia, as i
ndicated by Lewin (1990a) when describing \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 a similar
situation in Malaysia and Sri Lanka:\par\pard\qj \li5681\sb0\sl-238\slmult0 \pa
r\pard\qj \li260\ri752\sb2\sl-238\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 In both
countries the close relationship that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 sh
ould have existed between the curriculum \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103
developers and the setters of national examin-\par\pard\qj \li260\ri746\sb3\sl238\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ations were problematic. Curricula goal
s were \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 not always reinforced by the selectio
n of exam-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ination items. Some evidence su
ggested that\par\pard\qj \li260\ri752\sb3\sl-238\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charsc
alex100 classroom practices were not changing as much \line \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 as anticipated as a result of conflicting messages \line \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex100 emanating from the curriculum materials and\par\pard\ql \li26
0\sb1\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 the form of the public examina
tions. (p. 194)\par\pard\qj \li20\ri744\sb238\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex106 A further limitation to the long-term sus-\line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex109 tainability of the PKG methodology is the \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex102 approach in which teachers were taught to utilise \line \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 a set of science curricula materials designed by the
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 project. This approach is similar to many of
the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 science curriculum projects of the 1960
s, which \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 McTaggart (1989) suggests had the e
ffect of reduc-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 ing teachers to technicians
. Here, teachers are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 viewed as being de
ficient in some particular \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 capacity and th
e premise adopted was that clearly \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 identifia
ble teaching skills are able to produce spe-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 c

ific student learning outcomes. This approach \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex103 using specified teaching skills translated into the \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex101 types of teacher professional development activi-\line \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 ties utilised by the PKG project, especially the \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 demonstration lessons and microteaching activities
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 that were evaluated in terms of skills
transfer. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Approaches such as this conti
nue to pervade \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 science teacher profession
al development pro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 grams, with Howe and Stu
bbs (1996) suggesting:\par\pard\qj \li5681\sb0\sl-238\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li26
0\ri741\sb4\sl-238\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 It seems clear that pas
t and present methods and \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 approaches to cont
inuing professional develop-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ment for teacher
s have not produced the desired\par\pard\qj \li260\ri753\sb3\sl-238\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex104 results and that new methods and approaches \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex102 are needed. If we continue to do the things we \line \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 have always done, we will continue to get the\par\pard
\qj \li260\ri752\sb3\sl-237\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 results we ha
ve always gotten\u8212?and those \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 results are not
serving us well. (p. 168)\par\pard\qj \li5681\sb0\sl-238\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \
li20\ri751\sb5\sl-238\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Within the con
text of maintaining long-term sus-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 tainabilit
y of the PKG teaching methodologies, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 cla
ssroom teachers were therefore in the very \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paper
w10940\paperh14920\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg9}{\bkmkend Pg9}\par\pard\li905\
sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\s
lmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\p
ard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb131\sl-184\slmult0\fi1365\tx9739 \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs16 M. Thair, D.F. Treagus
t / International Journal of Educational Development 23 (2003) 201-213\tab \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs16 209\par\pard\sect\sectd\sb
knone\cols2\colno1\colw5521\colsr160\colno2\colw5119\colsr160\ql \li905\sb0\sl-2
41\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li905\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 unenviable situation of having being exposed to\par\
pard\qj \li905\ri251\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 these a
pproaches and perhaps realising the cogni-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 tiv
e benefits of student-centred teaching practices, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x105 but at the same time under pressure to have stu-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex103 dents perform well in national examinations that \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex102 require factual recall and routine calculations. \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-1\charscalex100 From the perspective of a classroom teacher, a \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 sensible approach is the use of prescriptive and \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 top-down classroom methodologies as these are
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 seen as being more appropriate for examinatio
ns \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 that focus on factual recall and a lot le
ss time con-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 suming than student-centred appr
oaches in classes \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 of around 50 students. In e
ffect then, under these \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 conditions the day-t
o-day teaching practices of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Indonesian te
achers could be expected to remain \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 unaffected
by their PKG teacher development \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 exper
iences.\par\pard\qj \li905\ri254\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex101 Funding for the PKG project from World Bank \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 and other external sources continued until the mid-\line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex103 1990s. The evolution of the original PKG induc-\line \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 tion process through the SPKG initiative and estab-\line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex100 lishment of MGMP during 1993 reflects the move \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex104 towards post-project sustainability as funding \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 became more limited. At the same time, a number \l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 of the original cohort of PKG instructors eithe

r \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 retired or were promoted and the reduced fu
nding \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 did allow for overseas training to be p
rovided for \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 new instructors. These initiative
s occurred in an \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 environment where a number
of parallel in-service \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 professional developm
ent programs also existed in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Indonesia, all
influenced by different priorities and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 implem
entation mechanisms, and administered in \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 an
ad hoc manner across the education system \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
100 (Asian Development Bank (1996). Consequently, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 while elements of the PKG approach remain within \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex100 the system, these initiatives have never become \line \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex103 incorporated into the mainstream of government \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-1\charscalex100 educational policy.\par\pard\qj \li905\ri254\sb0\sl-239\slm
ult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Consequently, the above discussion high
lights a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 number of parallel influences th
at encouraged \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 science teachers to revert ba
ck to their old teaching \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 behaviour despite
undergoing PKG training. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Indonesian te
achers operate in an environment sus-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 tained
by a hierarchical power structure where \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102
science curricula are determined externally to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex103 schools and success is measured by examination \line \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 performance. Schools are rigidly managed by prin-\line \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 cipals and head-teachers who require classroom\par\pard\colu
mn \ql \li5681\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex105 teachers to strictly conform to narrowly defined\par\pard\q
j \li20\ri749\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 practices determi
ned by examinations and the pre-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 scribed text
books. In addition, the author has \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 obser
ved peer pressure from other teachers in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
1 Indonesian schools to conform to these practices. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex104 At the same time, the PKG process evolved \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex100 through a number of phases as a result of pressure \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex104 to disseminate the PKG methodology at a faster \line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex100 rate and reduced funding as the project entered its \line \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 final phases. This was done with some loss of qual-\l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ity and intensity of training when compared to
the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 early phases of the project during
the \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1980s.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri747\sb2\sl-238\slmu
lt0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Consequently, there was never a \u8216?crit
ical mass\u8217? of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 highly trained and influential
science PKG instruc-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 tors or \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex103 \u8216?master teachers\u8217? widely established\par\pard\qj
\li20\ri751\sb2\sl-239\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 throughout the
system who could provide sufficient \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 influence
to reduce pressures on teachers to revert \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 to
their old teaching behaviours and to allow the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 PKG approach to establish itself above other paral-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 lel in-service professional development programs.\par\pard\ql \li5681
\sb0\sl-238\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5681\sb0\sl-238\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\r
i1468\sb3\sl-238\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs
21 5. Reconceptualising science teacher \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 pro
fessional development in developing \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 countries\par\
pard\ql \li20\ri872\sb239\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosup
ersub\cf13\f14\fs21 5.1. Recent approaches to science teacher \line \up0 \expndt
w-1\charscalex100 professional development in developed countries\par\pard\qj \l
i20\ri748\sb238\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf9\f10\fs21 A number of approaches have emerged since the \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex104 mid-1980s that are more responsive to the inter-\line \up0 \exp
ndtw-1\charscalex100 related complexities of community, school, and \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 classroom, and the way teachers extract meaning \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 from their experiences. These therefore add
ress \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 some of the limitations of the PKG appro
ach. For \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 example, the concept of reflection i
n teacher pro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 fessional development provides
an alternative to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 the competency-based an
d performance-based \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 teacher education ap
proaches of the \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 1960s and\par\pard\qj \li20\ri7
49\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1970s (Richardson, 1990)
that appear to have larg-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ely informed the P
KG approach. Another approach \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 recognises the
importance of teachers\u8217? beliefs and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Ne
spor (1987) suggests that while a number of tea-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
00 chers may have similar scientific knowledge, they \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex102 will teach in different ways because these beliefs \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex102 are more powerful than their knowledge in influ-\line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex101 encing the way in which they teach. While not an \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex102 area that has been widely researched, collegiality \par\par
d\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw10940\paperh14920\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg10}{\bkmk
end Pg10}\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\pa
r\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905
\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb131\sl-18
4\slmult0\fi0\tx2270 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs16
210\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs16 M. Thair, D.F
. Treagust / International Journal of Educational Development 23 (2003) 201-213\
par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5521\colsr160\colno2\colw5119\colsr
160\ql \li905\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li905\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 has been recognised by a numbe
r of authors as an\par\pard\qj \li905\ri255\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw
-1\charscalex100 important element in ongoing teacher professional \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-1\charscalex100 development (Little, 1982; Zahorik, 1987). Recent \line \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 research has viewed social interaction between tea\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 chers as an element of broader sociocultural
influ-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ences that are important in teach
er professional \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 development (Howe and St
ubbs, 1996). Conse-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 quently, from the PKG ex
perience it appears evi-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 dent that teacher
professional development \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 approaches in
developing countries need to pay \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 particular
attention to establishing social interac-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 tio
n processes between teachers, head-teachers, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 principals and education department personnel that \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex102 positively reinforce the intended outcomes of the \line \up0 \expndtw
-3\charscalex100 professional development strategy. Essentially, this \line \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 is a project design problem associated with initiat-\l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ives like the externally World Bank funded PKG
\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 project. This highlights the need to i
ncorporate \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 social interaction processes into
project design in \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 addition to the usual teac
her professional develop-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ment activities.\pa
r\pard\qj \li905\ri250\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Mo
re specifically related to science teachers, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x100 Gilbert (1994) views teachers as independent pro-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 fessionals and teacher professional development as \line \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex101 a process of individual empowerment. In moving \line \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex104 from a position of teachers being dependent and \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex105 reactive, as in the centralised PKG approach, to \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex101 one of being independent and autonomous, Howe \line \up
0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 and Stubbs (1996) suggest that the exact outcomes \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of teacher professional development activities
can-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 not be specified in advance, as these occ
ur along \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 a continuum when individual teacher
s take control \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 of their own professional
development. These \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 authors also acknowledge
the influences of langu-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 age, interpersonal r
elationships and status, motives, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 values, be
liefs and the location of social interaction \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
(Howe and Stubbs, 1996). Similarly Ingvarson and \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscal
ex100 Greenway (1984) highlight the need for recog-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\c
harscalex100 nition of the commitment of individual teachers to \line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex101 professional development and the occupational \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 culture of teachers.\par\pard\qj \li905\ri254\sb2\sl-239
\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 A recent approach encapsulates
many of the \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 above processes and conceptualises s
cience teacher \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 professional development as consi
sting of pro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 fessional, personal and social
development (Bell \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 and Gilbert, \up0 \expndtw-3\
charscalex100 1994, \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 1996). This approach views\
par\pard\qj \li905\ri257\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 teache
r professional development as a continual \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
5 process throughout the professional life of a\par\pard\column \ql \li568
1\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex102 teacher. This holistic approach to science teacher\par\pard\ql \li20\ri7
43\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi0\tx239 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 professional devel
opment involves not just individ-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ual teache
rs, but the entire school environment. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 B
ell and Gilbert (1996) see professional develop-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
02 ment as encompassing changing concepts and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex101 beliefs about science education and classroom \line \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 activities. These changes include a teacher\u8217?s use of \line \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 different classroom activities, the development of \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 beliefs associated with these activities,
and the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 development of subject matter
knowledge. Per-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 sonal development as identifi
ed by these authors \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 includes feelings about b
eing a teacher and about \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 science education. T
his personal development is \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 viewed as the ind
ividual process of constructing, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 evaluating
and deciding on the value of newly con-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 struct
ed knowledge about what it means to be a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 sci
ence teacher. In the areas of social development, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x101 Bell and Gilbert (1996) identify essential compo-\line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex105 nents as including working and relating to other \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex101 teachers and students in new ways. These authors \line \up0 \expndt
w-1\charscalex100 suggest that perhaps the most significant influence \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 on the professional development of teachers is the \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 context of teaching and learning, including
the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 educational system, school managemen
t, student \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 expectations, the curriculum, the
nature of teach-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ing, and approaches to stude
nt assessment. \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The conceptualisation pro
vided by Bell and Gil-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 bert \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex100 (1996) highlights a significant limitation to\par\pard\qj \li20\r
i748\sb0\sl-239\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 externally funded proje
ct approaches such as the \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 PKG project. Developing
countries with their lim-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ited financial re
sources will naturally encourage \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 external fundin
g for a range of educational pro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 jects, espec
ially if these include capital works to \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 improve te

aching conditions and resources. At the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 same time
, project designs initiated by external \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 agenci
es may not be cognisant of the broader sec-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 t
oral concerns identified by Bell and Gilbert (1996) \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 that will significantly impact on the success of \up0 \expndtw-1\charsc
alex100 teacher development interventions.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri1380\sb237\sl-240
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 5.2. Broad s
ectoral approaches to science \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 teacher professional
development\par\pard\qj \li20\ri744\sb238\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-1\
charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 In building on the lessons of the PKG
project in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Indonesia and considering the re
cent approaches to \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 science teacher professio
nal development, govern-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ments in developing c
ountries need to incorporate \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 into their pla
nning a broad sectoral approach \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw10940\paperh
14920\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg11}{\bkmkend Pg11}\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\
slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\
pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\s
b0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb131\sl-184\slmult0\fi1365\tx9739 \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs16 M. Thair, D.F. Treagust / Interna
tional Journal of Educational Development 23 (2003) 201-213\tab \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs16 211\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2
\colno1\colw5521\colsr160\colno2\colw5119\colsr160\ql \li905\sb0\sl-241\slmult0
\par\pard\ql \li905\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf9\f10\fs21 towards science teacher professional development.\par\pard\qj
\li905\ri250\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 The planning of sc
ience teacher professional devel-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 opment shou
ld occur within a broad framework of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 national
educational policy and context. As \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 oc
curred with the PKG project, the centralised \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex104 science curriculum and examinations did not \line \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex101 encourage risk taking in the classroom by science \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 teachers. Further, a centralised and urban-based \line \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 science curriculum may lack relevance to rural \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 contexts, and centrally administered school ca
len-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 dars do not provide for school-level adju
stments. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 For example, local decision making
here can make \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 schooling more compatible with
local contexts by \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fitting in with harvest pe
riods where entire families \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 may be expecte
d to work in the fields. Conse-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 quently
, there is the need for Governments to move \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 t
owards more decentralised approaches, transfer-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
3 ring greater management responsibilities and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 decision-making authority to schools and offices at \line \up0 \expndtw
-1\charscalex100 the provincial levels. This could provide for paral-\line \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 lel and synchronised development of examinations \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and science curricula relevant to local needs. The
se \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 changes could be expected to impact posit
ively on \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 the concepts and beliefs of teachers
about science \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 education and classroom act
ivities, and sub-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 sequently on teachers\u821
7? use of different classroom \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 methodologies.
\par\pard\qj \li905\ri252\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi208\tx1567 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex102 In bringing about these types of broad sectoral \line \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 approaches, a key element may be the refined util-\line \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 isation of a \u8216?cascade\u8217? model with information pass\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ing for example from PKG instructors or maste
r \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 teachers, through regional and district sta
ff, to the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 school level PKG activities. The a
ttraction of this \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 approach is that it is the
only economic way to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 multiply training over
a relatively short time frame \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 to reach large
proportions of the science teacher \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 populatio
n. Carefully planned and executed modi-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ficati
ons of the original information injected into \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105
the top of the cascade as it filters down through \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 the various layers may provide input into the broad \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex102 sectoral issues identified above. For example, \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex101 while the urban-based science curriculum may be \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex101 relevant to Indonesian students in the major capi-\line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 tals such as Jakarta and Surabaya and fit into thei
r \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 centrally administered school calendar,
adjust-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 ments could be made within the cascad
e to suit \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 rural \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex103 contexts.
Consequently,
rather
than\par\pard\ql \li905\sb1\sl-240
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 attempting to reinforce the original messa
ge as it\par\pard\column \ql \li5681\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb6\s
l-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 filters down, strategic interventi
ons could be\par\pard\qj \li20\ri748\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex104 planned to modify information to suit local con-\line \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex101 texts. Key elements to the success of this strategy \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex108 would be the provision of good supporting \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex100 materials at appropriate levels within the cascade, \up0 \expndtw-1\char
scalex100 and the willingness of government to facilitate \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 greater authority at provincial levels to manage \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex100 these adjustments to the cascade.\par\pard\ql \li20\sb238\sl-2
41\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 5.3. Teach
er commitment\par\pard\qj \li20\ri747\sb239\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 Governments need to recognise the co
mmitment \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of individual teachers to professional de
velopment. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 In many developing countries teachers se
ek sup-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 plementary employment as a result of l
ow salaries \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (Shaeffer, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
1 1993; Thair, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 1996), which are not\par\pard\qj
\li20\ri745\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 increased by attend
ance at professional develop-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 ment activities
and improved teaching com-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 petencies. Con
sequently, there is the need to con-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 sider the
integration of professional development \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 wit
h career development (Ingvarson, 1992). If tea-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex1
00 chers are able to advance along defined salary \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex101 scales in recognition of professional development \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex103 and improved teaching standards, this may over-\line \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 come the problems of lack of incentives and clarity \line \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 about what teachers should be achieving in the \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 classroom (Ingvarson, 1998).\par\pard\qj \li20
\ri746\sb1\sl-239\slmult0\fi208 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 As the PKG project
was never incorporated into \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 the mainstream
of government education policy, it \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 was diffi
cult for participants to advance along \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
established salary scales in recognition of improve-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex102 ments in their classroom teaching. Consequently, \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex104 this may have perpetuated the promotion of key \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex101 personnel to positions outside of the PKG project \line \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex101 and certainly would not have provided incentives \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 for sustained improvements in classroom teaching. \line \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 This problem points to the need for project design\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ers to incorporate elements integrating teac
her pro-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 fessional development with career

development \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 that are designed to be sustai
nable beyond the pro-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ject life-cycle and tha
t can be integrated into exist-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ing instituti
onalised salary advancements.\par\pard\ql \li20\sb237\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs21 5.4. Professional culture\par\pa
rd\qj \li5681\sb0\sl-238\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri752\sb4\sl-238\slmult0\fi2
08 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 The professional cu
lture of science teachers in \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 developing countries
needs to be understood. Marx \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 et al. \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex105 (1998) identify a number of elements that \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs2
4\paperw10940\paperh14920\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg12}{\bkmkend Pg12}\par\pa
rd\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0
\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmu
lt0\par\pard\li905\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li905\sb131\sl-184\slmult0\fi0\tx
2270 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs16 212\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs16 M. Thair, D.F. Treagust / Int
ernational Journal of Educational Development 23 (2003) 201-213\par\pard\sect\se
ctd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5521\colsr160\colno2\colw5119\colsr160\ql \li905\sb
0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li905\sb6\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs21 enhance teacher professional development activ
i-\par\pard\qj \li905\ri256\sb1\sl-239\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ties
, including collegiality and collaboration, \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex10
0 experimentation and risk taking, extended time for \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
1 the assimilation of new knowledge, and sustained \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
support and feedback. The PKG project was strong \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100
in the areas of support and feedback, collaboration \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
and an extended time for knowledge assimilation, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 a
nd therefore provides a good model of how these \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 el
ements can be incorporated into national teacher \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 p
rofessional development programs.\par\pard\ql \li905\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\par
d\ql \li905\sb236\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
13\f14\fs21 5.5. The nature of change\par\pard\ql \li1114\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \pa
r\pard\ql \li1114\sb0\sl-239\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li905\ri252\sb1\sl-239\slmult
0\fi208\tx1114\tx2870\tx3592 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f1
0\fs21 In contrast to the prescriptive training models \line \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex103 adopted by the PKG project, Avalos (1993) sug-\line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex103 gests that teacher professional development pro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex104 grams in developing countries should give more \line \up0 \expndtw
-1\charscalex100 consideration to the nature of change. Here, teach-\line \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex101 ers should be seen as the agent of change as \li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 opposed to the focus of change (Shaeffer, 1993).
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Consequently, the needs and problems of teac
hers \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 are not decided externally but are
delineated, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 examined and analysed by the te
achers themselves, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 therefore providing a focu
s on the actual day-to-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 day reality of teacher
s in classrooms. This focus, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 within a broad s
ectoral and holistic approach as \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 described ab
ove, would avoid some of the prob-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 lems associ
ated with the PKG project where, for \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 example,
teachers realised the benefits of student-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ce
ntred teaching approaches but were unable to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 implement these because of examination practices. \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex102 In conclusion, a reconceptualisation of science \line \up0 \expndtw-1
\charscalex100 teacher professional development in developing \line \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex104 countries should see a movement away from the \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-3\charscalex100 competency-based \tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and \
tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 performance-based\par\pard\ql \li905\sb1\sl-23
7\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 approaches adopted during the \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex100 1970s and sub-\par\pard\qj \li905\ri253\sb2\sl-239\slmul

t0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 sequently with the PKG project in Indonesi
a. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 While maintaining the PKG localised parti
cipatory \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 philosophy of involving practising c
lassroom tea-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 chers at all levels of professi
onal development and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the cascade approach to
dissemination, the focus \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 would be more on an
independent and autonomous \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 approach to local
classroom issues and contexts. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 This focus
would occur in an environment that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 fully u
nderstood the motivation, capabilities and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 be
liefs of science teachers.\par\pard\column \ql \li5681\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\p
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\expndtw0\charscalex105 (Eds.), Doing Educational Research in\par\pard\qj \l
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