Social Class and Consumer Spatial Behaviour: Some Aspects of Variation in Shopping Patterns

in Metropolitan Vancouver, Canada

Author(s): H. J. Gayler
Source: Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, Vol. 5, No. 4 (1980),
pp. 427-445
Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of
British Geographers)
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/622021 .
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S o c i a l c l a s s a n d c o n s umer
s p a t i a l
beha vi o ur: s o me
a s p ec t s
o f va ri a t i o n
i n
s ho p p i n g p a t t ern s
i n
met ro p o l i t a n
Va n c o uver,
C a n a d a
H.
J.
GAYLER
As s i s t a n t
Pro f es s o r
o f Geo gra p hy,
Bro c k
Un i vers i t y,
On t a ri o
MS rec ei ved I8 Dec ember
1979
ABS TRAC T. The
d i s a ggrega t i o n
o f c o n s umers o n t he ba s i s o f t hei r
c o gn i t i ve
o r o vert beha vi o ur
a c c o rd i n g
t o va ri o us s o c i a l a n d
ec o n o mi c mea s ures ha s
i mp ro ved
o ur
un d ers t a n d i n g
o f va ri a t i o n s i n
ma n y a s p ec t s
o f c o n s umer beha vi o ur a n d
i mp ro ved up o n
t he
ma n y
i n f eren c es ma d e
by
ea rl i er c l a s s i c a l mo d el s . In t hi s
p a p er
c o n s umers a re
d i s a ggrega t ed by
s o c i a l
c l a s s ,
a n d i t i s d et ermi n ed
whet her t he
hi gher
t he s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up ,
t he
grea t er
i s t he d i s t a n c e t ra vel l ed t o
s ho p
f o r f i ve
p ro d uc t s .
In t he c a s e o f
gro c eri es
a n d
wo men 's d res s t he
hyp o t hes i s
i s
s up p o rt ed , ref l ec t i n g
va ri a t i o n s i n s t o re a n d
s ho p p i n g-c en t re p ref eren c e
whi c h
requi re
d i f f eren t
d i s t a n c es t o be t ra vel l ed . Fo r t he o t he t hree
p ro d uc t s (f urn i t ure, a p p l i a n c es
a n d
f o o t wea r)
l es s
p ro d uc t s p ec i a l i za t i o n
a n d mo re
wi t hi n -c en t re d i f f eren c es i n t he s o c i a l -c l a s s
a p p ea l
o f s t o res res ul t i n
grea t er
s i mi l a ri t i es i n t erms o f d i s t a n c e t ra vel l ed bet ween
ma n y
o f t he s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s .
The
p a p er
exa mi n es s o me o f t he
es ma jo r p ro bl ems
o f
d i s a ggrega t i o n
a n d t he n eed f o r mo re ref i n emen t i n
f ut ure res ea rc h.
RES EARC H i n rec en t
yea rs
i n t o c o n s umer
s p a t i a l
beha vi o ur a n d i t s
rel a t i o n s hi p
t o t he ret a i l
s t ruc t ure o f a n a rea ha s ref l ec t ed t he l i mi t ed
s c o p e
o f c l a s s i c a l
mo d el s ,
s uc h a s c en t ra l
p l a c e
t heo ry,
t o
d es c ri be, exp l a i n
a n d
p red i c t
s uc h beha vi o ur. Thes e mo d el s ha ve t he
hed i s a d va n t a ge
o f
ma ki n g
bro a d
gen era l i za t i o n s
a bo ut t he n a t ure o f ret a i l f un c t i o n s a n d c en t res , a n d t he
wa ys
i n
whi c h c o n s umers rel a t e t o t hem. A c en t re
ma y
be c o n s i d ered f ro m t he
p o i n t
o f vi ew o f t he t o t a l
n umber o f
f un c t i o n s ,
ra t her t ha n
a n y
brea kd o wn
by t yp e.
If t
t yp e
o f f un c t i o n i s t a ken i n t o
a c c o un t ,
a l l s t o res o f t he o n e
t yp e
a re
i n va ri a bl y
c o n s i d ered i n
a ggrega t e. Mo reo ver,
c o n s umers
a re c o n s i d ered f ro m t he
p o i n t
o f vi ew o f Ec o n o mi c
Ma n , ha vi n g p erf ec t
i n f o rma t i o n ,
a c t i n g
ra t i o n a l l y
a n d
mi n i mi zi n g
ef f o rt
by s ho p p i n g
a t t he n ea res t c en t re t ha t c a n
ec o n o mi c a l l y
s up p o rt
a
c o mmo d i t y
o r s ervi c e.
Exc ep t
f o r res i d en t i a l l o c a t i o n t here i s l i t t l e
a t t emp t
t o d i f f eren t i a t e
bet ween c o n s umers : i t ha s t o be a s s umed t ha t a s i mi l a r s et o f
o p p o rt un i t i es
i s d es i red a n d
s o ught
a f t er.
S i mi l a rl y,
mo d el s s uc h a s t he
gra vi t y mo d el ,
where Ec o n o mi c Ma n ha s been
rep l a c ed by
S t a t i s t i c a l l y Avera ge Ma n , a ga i n
s ho w t ha t t he c o n s umer i s vi ewed i n
a ggrega t e
a n d i n d i vi d ua l
beha vi o ur i s ra n d o m.2
At t emp t s
a t
d i s a ggrega t i o n
ha ve
c ert a i n l y gi ven
us mo re i n f o rma t i o n
a bo ut t he
c o n s umer,
f o r
exa mp l e
t he
en t ro p y-ma xi mi zi n g
met ho d s o f
Wi l s o n ,3
but d o ubt s ha ve
been c a s t o n ho w f a r s uc h
d i s a ggrega t i o n
c a n
go
a n d t he ext en t t o whi c h we kn o w
a n y
mo re
a bo ut
why
c o n s umers beha ve i n t he
wa y t hey
d o .4
Furt hermo re,
t here a re
p ro bl ems c o n c ern i n g
t he s c a l e a t whi c h t hes e mo d el s a re us ed . C en t ra l
p l a c e
a n d
gra vi t y
mo d el s wo rk bet t er a t t he
i n t er-urba n ,
a s
o p p o s ed
t o t he
i n t ra -urba n ,
l evel , s i n c e i n t he f o rmer t he f ri c t i o n s
i mp o s ed by
d i s t a n c e a re
grea t er
a n d t he va ri a t i o n s exhi bi t ed
by
d i f f eren t c en t res wi t hi n a
c i t y
a re ma s ked . It
427
ha s been s ho wn t ha t t he erro r i n
es t i ma t i n g
a c o n s umer's c ho i c e o f c en t re i n c rea s es a s t he
d i s t a n c e bet ween t wo c en t res d ec rea s es .5
The
ques t
f o r a bet t er
un d ers t a n d i n g
o f ho w c o n s umers
a c t ua l l y
beha ve ha s f o l l o wed a
t wo f o l d
a p p ro a c h.
The f i rs t c a n be t ermed a
c o gn i t i ve-beha vi o ura l a p p ro a c h
whi c h exa mi n es
c o n s umer beha vi o ur f ro m t he
s ubjec t i ve p o i n t
o f vi ew o f a n i n d i vi d ua l 's
p erc ep t i o n
o f a l i mi t ed
s et o f
s ho p p i n g o p p o rt un i t i es .6
Res ea rc h here c o mmen c es wi t h t he i n d i vi d ua l
c o n s umer,
a n d
t hus wi t h t he mo s t
d i s a ggrega t ed
s a t e
p o s s i bl e,
a n d s eeks o rd er o n t he ba s i s o f
un c o veri n g
gen era l i za t i o n s
a bo ut i n d i vi d ua l
p erc ep t i o n s
a n d
s ubs equen t
beha vi o ur. In t hi s
wa y
i t i s
ho p ed
t ha t
a ggrega t i n g up
wi l l
p ro vi d e
mo re
mea n i n gf ul exp l a n a t i o n s
a n d
p red i c t i o n s
o f c o n s umer
beha vi o ur a n d
p ro vi d e i n p ut
f o r
i mp ro vi n g
ma c ro -l evel mo d el s s uc h a s t he
gra vi t y
mo d el .7 The
s ec o n d ,
o r
emp i ri c a l -beha vi o ura l , a p p ro a c h,
i s a l s o c o n c ern ed wi t h
i mp ro vi n g
ma c ro -l evel
mo d el s ,
but i t i s d o n e f ro m t he
hi ghes t
l evel o f
a ggrega t i o n (t he
t o t a l
s a mp l e
o f
c o n s umers ),
a n d
d i s a ggrega t i o n
i s
s o ught
o n t he ba s i s o f
rel a t i n g
c o n s umer beha vi o ur t o a n
o bjec t i ve
s et o f
mea s ures
c o n c ern i n g
t he
s ho p p i n g
en vi ro n men t a s a
who l e,
t ra vel
beha vi o ur,
res i d en t i a l
l o c a t i o n o r c ha ra c t eri s t i c s
p ert a i n i n g
t o t he c o n s umer.8
In t he
c o gn i t i ve-beha vi o ura l a p p ro a c h
i t c a n be
a rgued
t ha t t he c o n s umer d o es n o t vi ew
t he
s ho p p i n g
en vi ro n men t a s a who l e
a n d ,
whi l s t t he o vert beha vi o ur o f o n e c o n s umer
ma y
be
t he s a me a s t ha t o f
a n o t her,
a
very
d i f f eren t s et o f rea s o n s
ma y
a c c o un t f o r t he t wo c o n s umers
beha vi n g
i n s i mi l a r f a s hi o n . C o n s umers d o n o t vi ew t he
s ho p p i n g
en vi ro n men t a s a
who l e,
s i mp l y
bec a us e
t hey
d o n o t ha ve
c o mp l et e
i n f o rma t i o n o n a l l a va i l a bl e
o p p o rt un i t i es .
Res ea rc h
by Bo wl by9
a n d
Ha n s o n ,
I'
f o r
exa mp l e,
ha s s ho wn t ha t t he ext en t o f c o n s umers ' i n f o rma t i o n
a n d t hei r
d egree
o f
f a mi l i a ri t y
wi t h t he i n f o rma t i o n
t hey
ha ve o bt a i n ed
va ry a c c o rd i n g
t o
d i s t a n c e bet ween t he c o n s umer a n d t he
s ho p p i n g o p p o rt un i t y
a n d va ri o us s o c i o -ec o n o mi c
f a c t o rs
rel a t i n g
t o bo t h. Tha t
i n f o rma t i o n ,
i n t urn , i s ba s ed o n
va ryi n g l ea rn i n g exp eri en c es ,
where i n f o rma t i o n i s
a c qui red
o ver a
p eri o d
o f t i me f ro m rec urren t t ra vel
beha vi o ur,
med i a a n d
p ers o n a l
c o mmun i c a t i o n s .
I I
Fro m t ha t l i mi t ed i n f o rma t i o n a bo ut
s ho p p i n g o p p o rt un i t i es
t he
c o n s umer t hen
eva l ua t es ,
c ho o s es a n d
p erha p s
vi s i t s va ri o us
s ho p s
i n o rd er t o
s a t i s f y
c ert a i n
n eed s . Eva l ua t i o n a n d c ho i c e a re ma d e o n t he ba s i s o f a c o n s umer's
p erc ep t i o n
o f t he
s ho p p i n g
o p p o rt un i t i es
a n d t he ext en t t o whi c h t hes e
o p p o rt un i t i es
wi l l n o t
o n l y s a t i s f y
c ert a i n n eed s
but ,
mo re
i mp o rt a n t l y,
ref l ec t a n d rei n f o rc e t he c o n s umer's o wn
a t t i t ud es , t a s t es , d i s p o s i t i o n ,
a s p i ra t i o n s
a n d s o o n . C o n s i d era bl e res ea rc h ha s been un d ert a ken t o s ho w t he n a t ure o f t hi s
p erc ep t i o n , gi ven
c ert a i n en vi ro n men t a l c ha ra c t eri s t i c s
(i .e. s ho p p i n g a l t ern a t i ves ), i n c l ud i n g
a l s o t he
d evel o p men t
o f va ri o us
t ec hn i ques
t o mea s ure i n d i vi d ua l a t t ri but es a n d t he c o n s t ruc -
t i o n o f
d ec i s i o n -ma ki n g
mo d el s t o
exp l a i n
a n d
p red i c t res ul t i n g s p a t i a l
beha vi o ur.'2
Thi s
s ubjec t i ve a p p ro a c h
t o
s t ud yi n g
c o n s umer
s p a t i a l
beha vi o ur ha s
c ert a i n l y
t o l d us
mo re a bo ut ho w c o n s umers
beha ve,
but c ri t i c i s ms ha ve been ra i s ed t ha t a s
yet
t here s eems t o be
l i t t l e o rd er t o t he res ea rc h o r
a n y i mp ro ved t heo ry
o f c o n s umer beha vi o ur.
13
Whi l s t mea s ure-
men t o f
s ubjec t i ve
ma t eri a l i s
p o s s i bl e,
t he
p ro bl em
o f
c o mp a ri n g
i n d i vi d ua l res ul t s
ma y
be
f o rmi d a bl e.
Mo reo ver,
t here i s t he
n a ggi n g ques t i o n
o f whet her a c t ua l beha vi o ur
rea l l y
ref l ec t s
t he i n d i vi d ua l 's
p erc ep t i o n
o f t he en vi ro n men t a s s t a t ed .
Fi n a l l y,
t he
p ro bl em rema i n s ,
i n t hi s
a p p ro a c h
a s i n t he
o t her,
o f
d evel o p i n g
s ui t a bl e l evel s o f
a ggrega t i o n (o r d i s a ggrega t i o n )
o f
res p o n s es .14
Fo r
exa mp l e,
t he
wi t hi n -gro up ho mo gen ei t y a s s ump t i o n
mus t wea ken a s t he
a ggrega t i o n p ro c ed ure
c o n t i n ues .
The
emp i ri c a l -beha vi o ura l a p p ro a c h,
o n t he o t her
ha n d ,
i s
t ec hn i c a l l y
l es s d i f f i c ul t t o
ha n d l e s i n c e i t i s n o t c o n c ern ed wi t h t he
s ubjec t i ve i n t erp ret a t i o n
o f en vi ro n men t a l
o p p o r-
t un i t i es
by
t he
res p o n d en t
a n d t hen
by
t he res ea rc her.
In s t ea d ,
a c t ua l c o n s umer beha vi o ur i s
a n a l ys ed
f ro m t he
s t a n d p o i n t
o f va ri o us
o bjec t i ve mea s ures , i n c l ud i n g
t he
t yp e
o f
s ho p p i n g
c en t re a n d res i d en t i a l
a rea ,
t ra vel mo d e a n d t i me a n d t he s o c i o -ec o n o mi c a n d
d emo gra p hi c
428
H.
J.
GAYLER
C l a s s a n d c o n s umer beha vi o ur i n Va n c o uver
c ha ra c t eri s t i c s o f t he c o n s umers t hems el ves . Thes e mea s ures a c t a s
s urro ga t es
o f i n d i vi d ua l
p erc ep t i o n s ,
a n d whi l s t i t c a n be
a rgued
t ha t muc h va l ua bl e
p erc ep t ua l
i n f o rma t i o n i s
t hereby
hi d d en ,
i t rema i n s t ha t
s urro ga t es rep res en t
i n d i vi d ua l
p erc ep t i o n s
t ha t c a n n o t be
ea s i l y
mea s ured a n d a c t a s a
c l a s s i f i c a t o ry
t o o l
by a ggrega t i n g
a
ra n ge
o f
d i f f eri n g p erc ep t i o n s .
Mo reo ver,
a s
s i gn i f i c a n t
va ri a t i o n s a re
(o r
a re
n o t )
f o un d i n a c t ua l beha vi o ur
a c c o rd i n g
t o
va ri o us
s urro ga t e mea s ures ,
i t i s
p o s s i bl e
t o i n f er t he i n f l uen c e o f i n d i vi d ua l
p erc ep t i o n s
a n d
gi ve
d i rec t i o n t o f urt her
c o gn i t i ve-beha vi o ura l
res ea rc h. S o me s t ud i es i n f a c t ha ve been
c o n c ern ed wi t h
c o mbi n i n g
bo t h
a p p ro a c hes ,
f o r
exa mp l e
t he wo rk
by Ll o yd
a n d
Jen n i n gs
whi c h d i f f eren t i a t es c o n s umers '
c o gn i t i ve ra t i n gs
o f s t o res a n d
s ubs equen t
beha vi o ur
a c c o rd i n g
t o
hi gh-
a n d l o w-i n c o me a rea s a n d ra c i a l c ha ra c t eri s t i c s .
I
The
d i s a ggrega t i o n
o f t he t o t a l
p o p ul a t i o n a c c o rd i n g
t o c o n s umers ' s o c i o -ec o n o mi c a n d
d emo gra p hi c c ha ra c t eri s t i c s ,
f o r
exa mp l e,
ha s l ed t o bet t er
exp l a n a t o ry
a n d
p red i c t i ve
mo d el s o f
c o n s umer
s p a t i a l
beha vi o ur
(a n d
where t hi s ha s n o t
ha p p en ed
i t
s ugges t s
ei t her a
l a rger
mea s ure
o f
ho mo gen ei t y
i n t he
p o p ul a t i o n
o r t he n eed t o s eek o t her va ri a bl es o n whi c h t o
d i s a ggrega t e).
Thes e c ha ra c t eri s t i c s c a n be d ef i n ed a s
c ul t ura l , l i f e-c yc l e
a n d s o c i o -ec o n o mi c i n
n a t ure,
a n d
t hey
bo t h ref l ec t a n d c o n d i t i o n c o n s umer
a t t i t ud es ,
va l ues a n d
p erc ep t i o n s .
S t ud i es
by
Murd i e,'6
Ro s e17 a n d
Gra n t ,
8 f o r
exa mp l e,
ha ve s ho wn t ha t f o r va ri o us
p ro d uc t s
a n d s ervi c es
d i f f eren t et hn i c
gro up s
a re mo re
l i kel y
t o
f requen t
o ut l et s
o p era t ed by
members o f t hei r o wn
gro up .
Thi s i n t urn l ea d s t o va ri a t i o n s i n t he
wa y c o n s umers rel a t e t o t he ret a i l
s t ruc t ure,
s i n c e
t here a re
l i kel y
t o be s ho rt er t ha n
a vera ge jo urn eys
where s uc h et hn i c
p ro d uc t s
a n d s ervi c es a re
l o c a t ed i n a n a rea where t ha t
gro up p red o mi n a t es . S i mi l a rl y,
a
l i f e-c yc l e
f a c t o r s uc h a s
a ge
i n f l uen c es n eed a n d
mo bi l i t y. Jo n a s s en ,
f o r
exa mp l e,
s ho wed t ha t o n t hi s ba s i s i t wa s
p o s s i bl e t o
c o n t ra s t t he ret a i l s t ruc t ure bet ween c en t ra l a n d o ut er-c i t y a rea s .
19
Mo s t s t ud i es o f c o n s umer
d i f f eren t i a t i o n ha ve f o c us ed o n s o c i o -ec o n o mi c
va ri a t i o n s , es p ec i a l l y
i n c o me a n d s o c i a l s t a t us
a n d a s s o c i a t ed va ri a bl es s uc h a s
p ers o n a l mo bi l i t y.
It ha s been s ho wn t ha t t he ret a i l s t ruc t ure
va ri es
a c c o rd i n g
t o
hi gh-
o r l o w-i n c o me a rea s o f t he
c i t y, ref l ec t i n g
d i f f eren t c o n s umer d ema n d s
a n d c o n s t ra i n t s
p l a c ed
o n i n c o me.20 Gi ven t wo d i f f eren t i n c o me a rea s a t s i mi l a r d i s t a n c es f ro m
t he C en t ra l Bus i n es s Di s t ri c t
(C .B.D.),
i t wa s f o un d t ha t f o r c o n ven i en c e
go o d s l o wer-i n c o me
c o n s umers were mo re
d ep en d en t
o n l o c a l
s ho p s
o r t he
C .B.D., whi c h c o ul d be rea c hed
ea s i l y by
p ubl i c t ra n s p o rt ,
wherea s
hi gher-i n c o me s ho p p ers f requen t ed
a wi d er
ra n ge
o f c en t res i n o t her
p a rt s
o f t he
c i t y.21
In bo t h a n i n t er- a n d i n t ra -urba n
s et t i n g
i t c a n be s een t ha t
hi gher-i n c o me
c o n s umers t ra vel f urt her t o
s ho p , es p ec i a l l y
f o r c o n ven i en c e
go o d s ,
t ha n t hei r l o wer-i n c o me
c o un t erp a rt s ,
a n d t ha t
t hey
t ra vel mo re t o
hi gher-o rd er c en t res .22 Thi s ref l ec t s d i f f eren c es i n
l evel s o f
mo bi l i t y
a n d va ri a t i o n s i n d ema n d wi t hi n t he o n e
c o mmo d i t y res ul t i n g
i n
va ryi n g
t hres ho l d l evel s .
Thi s
p a p er
i s c o n c ern ed wi t h a f urt her
a s p ec t
o f
d i s a ggrega t i n g
c o n s umers
a c c o rd i n g
t o
s o c i o -ec o n o mi c c ha ra c t eri s t i c s a n d
rel a t i n g
t hi s t o c o n s umer beha vi o ur. The
met ho d o l o gy
emp l o yed
i s
a d a p t ed
f ro m t ha t
f requen t l y
us ed i n
ma rket i n g
a n d
s o c i o l o gy
where t he t o t a l
p o p ul a t i o n
i s d i f f eren t i a t ed
a c c o rd i n g
t o a n umber o f s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s
ra t her t ha n bro a d er
c a t ego ri es
s uc h a s
hi gh
o r l o w i n c o me a n d s t a t us .
Fo l l o wi n g
a bri ef d i s c us s i o n o n t he n a t ure o f
s o c i a l -c l a s s va ri a t i o n a n d t he met ho d f o r
a s s i gn i n g
a c o n s umer t o a s o c i a l
c l a s s ,
t here i s a n
exa mi n a t i o n o f t he
a ggrega t e p a t t ern
o f c o n s umer c ho i c e f o r va ri o us
go o d s
a n d t he n a t ure o f t he
ret a i l
hi era rc hy
i n
met ro p o l i t a n
Va n c o uver. The
s t ud y
t hen
a n a l ys es
t he d i s t a n c e t ra vel l ed t o
s ho p
f o r t he va ri o us
go o d s
t o s ee i f t here a re
s i gn i f i c a n t va ri a t i o n s bet ween s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s ,
a n d t hi s i s
s ubs equen t l y
exa mi n ed f ro m t he
p o i n t
o f vi ew o f d i f f eren c es i n t he
t yp e
o f s t o re a n d
s ho p p i n g
c en t re
f requen t ed .
The d a t a ut i l i zed i n t hi s
s t ud y
were o bt a i n ed f ro m a ra n d o m
s a mp l e
o f 68i ho us eho l d s
whi c h were
s uc c es s f ul l y
i n t ervi ewed i n
met ro p o l i t a n Va n c o uver, C a n a d a .
Res p o n d en t s ,
who
429
430
H.
J.
GAYLER
were
n o rma l l y
t he f ema l e hea d s o f
ho us eho l d s ,
were a s ked where
t hey
ha d
p urc ha s ed
f i ve
go o d s -gro c eri es ,
wo men 's
d res s ,
f urn i t ure, a p p l i a n c es a n d f o o t wea r. In t he c a s e o f
gro c eri es
t he
ques t i o n
a s ked f o r t he n o rma l
(o r regul a r)
d es t i n a t i o n f o r a
ma jo r gro c ery p urc ha s e,
t heref o re
i n vo l vi n g
a rec urren t
jo urn ey;
wherea s f o r t he o t her f o ur
go o d s
t hes e were
p urc ha s ed
l es s
f requen t l y
a n d
res p o n d en t s
were a s ked where
t hey
ha d l a s t ma d e a
ma jo r p urc ha s e. Al s o ,
f o r
t hes e f o ur
go o d s
a n
a rbi t ra ry
t i me
p eri o d
o f o n e
yea r
wa s s et i n o rd er t o red uc e t he
p o s s i bi l i t i es
o f
f o rget f ul n es s
a n d o f a
p urc ha s e ha vi n g
been ma d e f ro m a
p revi o us
ho me. In
a d d i t i o n ,
i n f o rma t i o n
rel a t i n g
t o
o c c up a t i o n ,
ed uc a t i o n a n d i n c o me wa s o bt a i n ed f o r t he
p urp o s e
o f
es t a bl i s hi n g
a c o n s umer's s o c i a l c l a s s .
ES TABLIS HING S OC IAL C LAS S ES
Ma rket i n g
res ea rc h
s ugges t s
t ha t i t i s mo re
mea n i n gf ul
t o d i f f eren t i a t e c o n s umers
a c c o rd i n g
t o
mo re
gen era l i zed
s o c i o -ec o n o mi c mea s ures , ra t her t ha n
a n y s i n gl e a t t ri but e,
s uc h a s i n c o me.23
Ma n y
o f t hes e a t t ri but es a re
i n t errel a t ed ,
a n d t he
wa y
i n whi c h i n d i vi d ua l c o n s umers s c o re o n
s o me i n d ex
rep res en t i n g
t hes e i n t errel a t ed a t t ri but es a l l o ws t he c o n s umers t o be
p l a c ed
i n
f a i rl y
d i s t i n c t a n d ra n ked
gro up s .
The
gro up s
ma y
c o n vey
a wi d er
mea n i n g
t ha n
merel y
t he s um o f
i n d i vi d ua l a t t ri but es . The c o mbi n ed s c o res f o r i n t errel a t ed a t t ri but es , s uc h a s ed uc a t i o n ,
i n c o me,
a n d
o c c up a t i o n ,
ha ve been
o rga n i zed
i n t o
gro up s i mp l yi n g
s o c i a l s t a t us o r c l a s s . But t he
gro up s
a re n o t
jus t
t he res ul t o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . S o c i a l c l a s s es c a n
exemp l i f y
a wi d e
ra n ge
o f
va ri a t i o n i n
va l ues , a t t i t ud es ,
a n d
res ul t i n g beha vi o ur,
a n d t here a re a l s o t he n o t i o n s o f
c o n f l i c t ,
a n d
s up eri o ri t y-i n f eri o ri t y
bet ween
gro up s .24
A
p ro bl em
a s s o c i a t ed wi t h
gen era l i zed gro up s
i s t ha t
t hey
a re l es s
ho mo gen eo us
i n t hei r
c o mp o s i t i o n t ha n ,
f o r
exa mp l e,
i n d i vi d ua l i n c o me
gro up s . Ho wever,
t hi s wea kn es s i s c o un t er-
ba l a n c ed
by
t he f a c t t ha t t hes e
gen era l i zed gro up s
ha ve a n i n t ern a l
c o n s i s t en c y
wi t h
res p ec t
t o
ma n y
f o rms o f o vert beha vi o ur.
Furt hermo re,
C o l ema n c i t es t he wea kn es s o f
us i n g
a
s i n gl e
a t t ri but e t o d i f f eren t i a t e c o n s umer beha vi o ur.25 Three f a mi l i es c a n ea c h ha ve t he s a me
gro s s
i n c o me,
but s i n c e t he hea d s o f ho us eho l d ha ve
wi d el y d i f f eri n g o c c up a t i o n s
a n d
ba c kgro un d s ,
i t
c a n be
exp ec t ed
t ha t
ma n y
o t her va l ues a n d beha vi o ura l
p a t t ern s
wi l l d i f f er.
Whi l s t s o c i a l c l a s s ha s been
rec o gn i zed
a s a n
i mp o rt a n t wa y
i n whi c h t o d i f f eren t i a t e
va ri o us f o rms o f
beha vi o ur,
i t i s
d i f f i c ul t ,
i n t he f i rs t
p l a c e,
t o a s s es s a n i n d i vi d ua l a n d
a s s i gn
hi m
t o a
p a rt i c ul a r
s o c i a l c l a s s .
Fi rs t ,
t here ha s n ever been
a n y a greemen t a mo n gs t
res ea rc hers o f
s o c i a l c l a s s a s t o ho w
ma n y
c l a s s es c a n be i d en t i f i ed .26 The n umber
very
muc h
d ep en d s
o n t he
p ro bl em
a t ha n d -i t s
s c a l e,
i t s
p urp o s e,
t he
p eri o d
i n whi c h i t wa s
un d ert a ken ,
a n d t he l evel o f
d et a i l
requi red . S ec o n d l y,
t here a re
ma n y
d i f f eren t met ho d s o f
a s s i gn i n g
i n d i vi d ua l s t o s o c i a l
c l a s s es . S i n c e t he d i f f eren t s o c i a l c l a s s es ref l ec t d i f f eren c es i n
va l ues , bel i ef s , a t t i t ud es ,
a n d
mo t i va t i o n ,
t here ha ve been
a t t emp t s
t o c ho o s e va ri a bl es whi c h
rep res en t
t hes e a n d where
d i f f eren c es
by
c l a s s a re kn o wn t o
exi s t ,
f o r
exa mp l e,
va ri o us ma t eri a l a n d c ul t ura l
p o s s es s i o n s ,
a n d
p a rt i c i p a t i o n
i n
c o mmun i t y
a c t i vi t i es . 27
Ho wever,
t he va ri a bl es c ho s en
va ry
f ro m o n e
s t ud y
t o
a n o t her,
t hus
ma ki n g c o mp a ri s o n s d i f f i c ul t ;
t hei r rel a t i ve
i mp o rt a n c e
i s o f t en d i f f i c ul t t o
wei gh, t hey ma y
d ef y
qua n t i t a t i ve mea s uremen t ,
a n d t he rel eva n c e o f t he va ri a bl es
ma y c ha n ge
o ver t i me. An a l t ern a t i ve
met ho d ,
whi c h i s mo re
c o mmo n l y a d o p t ed ,
i s t o us e a s ma l l er n umber
o f
s urro ga t e
va ri a bl es . Thes e n o t
o n l y
mea s ure s t ruc t ura l d i f f eren c es i n
s o c i et y
mo re
ea s i l y,
but
a re mo re c o n s i s t en t o ver
t i me,
a n d
a n y
o n e
rep res en t s
a
l a rge
n umber o f va ri a bl es rel a t ed t o
va l ues , bel i ef s ,
a t t i t ud es a n d mo t i va t i o n . A
s urro ga t e va ri a bl e,
s uc h a s
o c c up a t i o n ,
f o r
exa mp l e,
exp res s es
a who l e
ra n ge
o f s t a t us -c o n s c i o us
s i t ua t i o n s , s t emmi n g
f ro m
f a mi l y ba c kgro un d
a n d
a t t i t ud es ,
ed uc a t i o n a l
o p p o rt un i t i es , p ers o n a l
mo t i va t i o n s a n d
res p o n s e
t o o t her s o c i et a l
i n f l uen c es ,
s uc h a s t he ma s s
med i a , p eer gro up s ,
a n d
o rga n i za t i o n s
t o whi c h o n e
bel o n gs .
C l a s s a n d c o n s umer beha vi o ur i n Va n c o uver
Mo reo ver,
o n c e a n
o c c up a t i o n
i s
a t t a i n ed ,
i t t en d s t o
gen era t e f a i rl y ho mo gen eo us
a t t i t ud es a n d
l i f e-s t yl es .
The
i mp o rt a n c e
o f
o c c up a t i o n
ha s res ul t ed i n s o c i a l c l a s s es
bei n g
es t a bl i s hed o n t hi s
va ri a bl e a l o n e.28
Ho wever, ma n y o c c up a t i o n s
a re n o t
s uf f i c i en t l y
c l ea rl y d es i gn a t ed
t o be
a s s i gn ed
t o
a n y
o n e c l a s s
(s ec ret a ry,
f o r
exa mp l e,
c a n mea n a
c o mp a n y s ec ret a ry
o r a s ho rt ha n d -
t yp i s t ),
a n d i n t he
p res en t s t ud y
t wo o t her
s urro ga t e va ri a bl es ,
i n c o me a n d
ed uc a t i o n ,
a re
i n c l ud ed t o
hel p
o verc o me t hi s
p ro bl em.
A c o n s umer's s o c i a l c l a s s wa s es t a bl i s hed o n t he ba s i s o f a f a c t o r
s c o re, us i n g p ri n c i p a l
c o mp o n en t a n a l ys i s .29
As c o ul d be
exp ec t ed ,
t he t hree
va ri a bl es , o c c up a t i o n ,
ed uc a t i o n a n d
i n c o me,
l o a d ed
hi ghl y
o n t he
o rt ho go n a l l y
ro t a t ed
f a c t o r,
a n d a c o n s umer's f a c t o r s c o re wa s t he
s um o f hi s i n d i vi d ua l d a t a o n t ha t va ri a bl e
mul t i p l i ed by
t he va ri a bl e's f a c t o r
l o a d i n g.
The
d i s t ri but i o n o f t he 68
I
f a c t o r s c o res wa s
a rbi t ra ri l y
d i vi d ed i n t o f o ur c l a s s es . Un l i ke s o c i a l a rea
a n a l ys i s ,
where bo un d a ri es bet ween f a c t o r s c o res a re d ra wn a t
regul a r i n t erva l s ,
t he bo un d a ri es
t ha t were d ra wn here
a t t emp t ed
t o
s ep a ra t e
c l us t ers
(res p o n d en t s
wi t h s i mi l a r
a t t ri but es )
a n d
yet i d en t i f y
a s ma l l n umber o f
gro up s
t ha t ha d
mea n i n g
i n t erms o f s o c i a l c l a s s .
The f o ur c l a s s es i d en t i f i ed a re:
(I) Up p er/Up p er-Mi d d l e. Res p o n d en t s
a l l ha ve
p ro f es s i o n a l ,
t ec hn i c a l o r
ma n a geri a l
o c c up a t i o n s ,
mo s t o f whi c h
c a rry p res t i ge a n d /o r
i n vo l ve c o n s i d era bl e
t ra i n i n g.
Al l
ha ve
c o mp l et ed hi gh
s c ho o l a n d
ma n y
ha ve
c o mp l et ed un i vers i t y.
In c o mes a re wel l
a bo ve
a vera ge.30
(2)
Lo wer-Mi d d l e. Thi s
gro up
i n c l ud es t he l es s
p res t i gi o us whi t e-c o l l a r
jo bs ,
s uc h a s ba n k
c l erks a n d c o mmerc i a l
t ra vel l ers ,
a n d
p o s i t i o n s
o f
res p o n s i bi l i t y
i n bl ue-c o l l a r
jo bs .
Few ha ve
un i vers i t y t ra i n i n g,
t he
ma jo ri t y f i n i s hi n g
t hei r ed uc a t i o n o n
c o mp l et i o n o f
hi gh
s c ho o l . In c o me
ra n ge
i s
f a i rl y l a rge
wi t h t he
ma jo ri t y
i n t he
a bo ve-a vera ge
c a t ego ry.
(3) Up p er-Lo wer.
The
ma jo ri t y
o f
p eo p l e
i n t hi s
gro up
ha ve s ki l l ed o r s emi -s ki l l ed ma n ua l
jo bs .
Mo s t ha ve n o t
c o mp l et ed
t hei r
hi gh-s c ho o l ed uc a t i o n ,
a n d t hei r i n c o mes a re
mo s t l y
i n t he
bel o w-a vera ge c a t ego ry.
(4)
Lo wer-Lo wer. Thi s
gro up
c o n s i s t s
p red o mi n a n t l y
o f un s ki l l ed wo rkers , s o me o f who m
a re
un emp l o yed
o r
o n l y s ea s o n a l l y emp l o yed .
The
ma jo ri t y
f i n i s hed s c ho o l a t t he
equi va l en t
o f a
gra d e
8
l evel ,
a n d i n c o mes t en d t o be wel l bel o w
a vera ge.
AGGREGATE C ONS UMER BEHAVIOUR AND THE RETAIL HIERARC HY IN METROPOLITAN
VANC OUVER
Fi gures i -5
s ho w t he
s ho p p i n g-c en t re
c ho i c e o f t he
s a mp l e p o p ul a t i o n
f o r ea c h o f t he f i ve
go o d s .31
Gro c eri es
(Fi g. i )
a re i t ems whi c h a re
requi red f requen t l y,
a n d t he t o t a l
s a mp l e i s
rep res en t ed .
In
t heo ry,
c o n s umers a re n o t
p rep a red
t o t ra vel
un n ec es s a ri l y l o n g
d i s t a n c es f o r
t hei r
p urc ha s e.
The
ra n ge
a n d t hres ho l d o f t hes e s t o res a re
s ma l l ,
a n d s t o res a re f o un d a t a l l
l evel s o f t he ret a i l
hi era rc hy. Ho wever,
t he n umbers a n d
t yp es
o f
gro c ery
s t o res
va ry a c c o rd i n g
t o l evel i n t he
hi era rc hy.
In Va n c o uver's C .B.D. t he s o l e
gro c ery
o ut l et s ,
a p a rt
f ro m
s p ec i a l i zed
s t o res f o r i t ems s uc h a s mea t a n d
f i s h,
a re t he f o o d f l o o rs o f t he
ma jo r d ep a rt men t
s t o re c ha i n s .
Ma n y
o f t he s uburba n
d ep a rt men t
s t o res i n t he
p l a n n ed
a n d
un p l a n n ed regi o n a l s ho p p i n g
c en t res a l s o ha ve f o o d
f l o o rs ,
but t here i s
c o mp et i t i o n
a t t hi s l evel f ro m o n e o r mo re o f t he
ma jo r
s up erma rket
c ha i n s . C o mmun i t y
s ho p p i n g
c en t res
ma y
ha ve mo re t ha n o n e
s up erma rket ,
but
ma n y n ei ghbo urho o d
c en t res ha ve n o
s up erma rket
a t
a l l , es p ec i a l l y
o n t he
ra p i d l y gro wi n g
f ri n ges
o f t he
met ro p o l i t a n
a rea where
i mp ro ved
ret a i l f a c i l i t i es
i n va ri a bl y l a g
behi n d res i d en t i a l
d evel o p men t . S p ec i a l i t y
s t o res o r s ma l l c o rn er
gro c ery
s t o res a re f o un d i n mo s t
c en t res , wi t h
t hei r n umber a n d
t yp e ref l ec t i n g
t he s i ze a n d n a t ure o f t he a rea s erved
by
t he c en t re c o n c ern ed .
431
FIGURE
I. C o n s umer t ra vel f o r
gro c eri es i n
met ro p o l i t a n Va n c o uver
FIGURE2. C o n s umer t ra vel f o r d res s i n
met ro p o l i t a n
Va n c o uver
DE LTA
*
C o mmun i t yC en t re
*
Regi o n a l C en t re
M Pl a n n ed Regi o n a l C en t re
Do wn t o wn Va n c o uver
0 5
Ki l o met
I
K i l o met res
FIGURE
3.
C o n s umer t ra vel f o r f urn i t ure i n
met ro p o l i t a n
Va n c o uver
C OQUITLAM
S URREY
0
h
C 5
Ol
o
I.
a C
II
"Iz
I'
(1)
FIGURE
4.
C o n s umer t ra vel f o r
a p p l i a n c es
i n
met ro p o l i t a n
Va n c o uver
FIGURE
5.
C o n s umer t ra vel f o r f o o t wea r i n
met ro p o l i t a n
Va n c o uver
C l a s s a n d c o n s umer beha vi o ur i n Va n c o uver
It c a n be s een t ha t t he
ma jo ri t y
o f t he
s a mp l e p o p ul a t i o n
t ra vel t o t he n ea res t c en t re t o
ma ke t hei r
ma jo r gro c ery p urc ha s es ;
a n d
ma n y
o f t ho s e who t ra vel t o a mo re d i s t a n t
c en t re,
es p ec i a l l y
i n t he o ut er
met ro p o l i t a n a rea ,
d o s o i n o rd er t o
s ho p
a t t he n ea res t
s up erma rket .
In
o t her i n s t a n c es where t he n ea res t c en t re i s
by-p a s s ed
c o n s umers
n o rma l l y
t ra vel t o a
s up erma r-
ket i n a
l a rger,
o r
hi gher-o rd er,
c en t re. The
l o n ges t
d i s t a n c es t o
p urc ha s e gro c eri es
a re ma d e t o
t he
p l a n n ed
a n d
un p l a n n ed regi o n a l s ho p p i n g
c en t res .
Mo reo ver,
t hes e c en t res ha ve t he
hi ghes t
p ro p o rt i o n
o f
s ho p p i n g t ri p s
whi c h ha ve
by-p a s s ed i n t erven i n g o p p o rt un i t i es .
Thes e f ea t ures
ha ve been n o t ed i n o t her s t ud i es o f
gro c ery p urc ha s i n g.32
In f a c t t he
ma jo r
va ri a t i o n i s
p ro ba bl y
a c ul t ura l o n e. Un l i ke t he
ma n y
Bri t i s h s t ud i es o f
gro c ery p urc ha s i n g,
f o r
exa mp l e,
where t he
C .B.D. i s s een t o a t t ra c t t he
hi ghes t p ro p o rt i o n
o f c o n s umers o ver t he wi d es t
a rea ,
Va n c o uver's
C .B.D. a c t s i n a s i mi l a r f a s hi o n t o t he
regi o n a l c en t res ;
i t s l a c k o f
s up eri o r
f a c i l i t i es res ul t s i n i t s
bei n g
a t t ra c t i ve
o n l y
o ver
p a rt
o f t he
met ro p o l i t a n
a rea .
The o t her f o ur
go o d s -wo men 's d res s , f urn i t ure, a p p l i a n c es
a n d
f o o t wea r-p res en t
a
s o mewha t d i f f eren t
p i c t ure. Fi rs t , t hey requi re
a
l a rger
t hres ho l d i n o rd er t o be
vi a bl e,
a n d t hei r
en t ry
i n t o ret a i l
hi era rc hy
i s a t t he
c o mmun i t y-c en t re l evel ,33
wi t h t he
c o n s equen c e
o f
l o n ger
jo urn eys
f o r t he c o n s umer.
S ec o n d l y, s ho p p i n g
go o d s a re n o t d ema n d ed a s
f requen t l y
a s
c o n ven i en c e
go o d s
(hen c e t he a bs en c e i n ea c h c a s e o f a
p ro p o rt i o n
o f t he t o t a l
s a mp l e
s i n c e a
ma jo r p urc ha s e
ha d n o t been ma d e wi t hi n t he
yea r).
Thi s s ho ul d res ul t i n t he f ri c t i o n s
i mp o s ed
by
d i s t a n c es n o t
bei n g
a s
grea t
a s t ho s e f o r c o n ven i en c e
go o d s ,
a n d t he
grea t er
d i s t a n c es
t ra vel l ed t o
hi gher-o rd er
c en t res a re o f f s et
by
t he
grea t er o p p o rt un i t i es
a va i l a bl e f o r
c o mp a ri s o n
s ho p p i n g.
There a re va ri o us s i mi l a ri t i es i n t he
s ho p p i n g p a t t ern s
f o r t he f o ur
go o d s (Fi gs 2-5).
Va n c o uver's C .B.D.,
wi t h t he
l a rges t
c o n c en t ra t i o n o f s t o res a n d wi d es t
ra n ge
o f s t o re
t yp es ,
i s
by
f a r t he mo s t
f requen t ed c en t re;
i t i s t he f o c a l
p o i n t
o f t he
hi ghes t
d en s i t y
p o p ul a t i o n a rea ,
a n d
i t a l s o a t t ra c t s a
l a rge, d a yt i me
o f f i c e
p o p ul a t i o n . Ho wever,
t he C .B.D.'s a t t ra c t i o n ref l ec t s i t s
ec c en t ri c l o c a t i o n wi t h
res p ec t
t o t he
met ro p o l i t a n
a rea a s a who l e. It i s c l ea rl y d o mi n a n t a s t he
c ho i c e f o r Va n c o uver's c o n s umers , but i n t he
s urro un d i n g mun i c i p a l i t i es
o f
Burn a by
a n d
Ri c hmo n d a n d o n t he No rt h S ho re o f Burra rd In l et t he
ma jo ri t y
o f
s ho p p i n g t ri p s
a re ma d e t o
o t her c en t res . Fa rt her
a wa y
i n New Wes t mi n s t er, Del t a a n d
S urrey
f ewer t ha n
5 p er
c en t o f
s ho p p i n g t ri p s
a re t o t he C .B.D.
The
p l a n n ed
a n d
un p l a n n ed regi o n a l s ho p p i n g
c en t res exhi bi t mo re l o c a l i zed hi n t erl a n d s ,
but c o n s i d era bl e va ri a t i o n exi s t s bet ween t hem f ro m t he
p o i n t
o f vi ew o f
t ri p f requen c y
a n d
d i s t a n c es t ra vel l ed
by c o n s umers . The l o wes t
f requen c y
a n d s ho rt es t d i s t a n c es t ra vel l ed
a p p l y
n o t t o t he s ma l l es t c en t res but t o t ho s e c en t res whi c h l a c k a
d ep a rt men t
s t o re a n d a re l i t t l e mo re
t ha n a c o n c en t ra t i o n o f
c o mmun i t y
a n d
n ei ghbo urho o d
s ervi c es
a l o n g
a n a rt eri a l
hi ghwa y,
f o r
exa mp l e
i n t he n o rt hern
p a rt
o f
S urrey
a n d i n No rt h Va n c o uver.
Amo n gs t
t he c en t res wi t h
d ep a rt men t
s t o res
(t he p l a n n ed c en t res , Ri c hmo n d ,
S o ut h
Burn a by
a n d New
Wes t mi n s t er)
o n l y
o n e ha s a n ext en s i ve hi n t erl a n d whi c h
o verl a p s c o n s i d era bl y
wi t h o t her
regi o n a l c en t res ;
t he c en t re i n S o ut h
Burn a by
c o n s i s t s
l a rgel y
o f t he
p ri n c i p a l d ep a rt men t -s t o re
o ut l et f o r
S i mp s o n S ea rs , a n d t hi s s t o re a t t ra c t s c o n s umers o ver a c o n s i d era bl e a rea f ro m t he ea s t s i d e o f
t he No rt h S ho re
t hro ugh
t o Ri c hmo n d a n d
S urrey.
C o mmun i t y s ho p p i n g
c en t res rec ei ve o n l y a
very
s ma l l
p ro p o rt i o n
o f t o t a l
s ho p p i n g t ri p s ,
a n d t hei r hi n t erl a n d s a re even mo re l o c a l i zed . Two
exc ep t i o n s
i n t he
p a t t ern
o f l o c a l
t ri p s
a re
s een . S o me c o mmun i t y
c en t res c o n t a i n
s p ec i a l i zed
s t o res whi c h a t t ra c t c o n s umers o ver muc h
l o n ger d i s t a n c es ,
f o r
exa mp l e
t he
t ri p s
t o c en t res o n t he wes t s i d e o f Va n c o uver f o r
c l o t hi n g (Fi g.
2).34 S ec o n d l y,
c o n s umers wi l l t ra vel
l o n g
d i s t a n c es t o t ho s e c en t res whi c h ha ve s t o res n o t ed ,
f o r
exa mp l e,
f o r t hei r
ba rga i n s
o r
go o d
a f t er-s a l es s ervi c e. Thes e a re
i mp o rt a n t
c o n s i d era t i o n s
437
when
buyi n g exp en s i ve i t ems ,
s uc h a s f urn i t ure a n d
a p p l i a n c es ,
a n d
ma n y
o f t he
l o n g jo urn eys
t o
c o mmun i t y c en t res ,
s een i n
Fi gures 3-4,
a re o f t hi s n a t ure.
S OC IAL C LAS S VARIATIONS
Exa mi n a t i o n o f c o n s umers '
s ho p p i n g-c en t re
c ho i c es f o r t he f i ve
go o d s
c o n c ern ed wo ul d
i n d i c a t e t ha t i t i s
p o s s i bl e
t o
d i s a ggrega t e
t he t o t a l
p a t t ern a c c o rd i n g
t o t he s i ze o f t he c en t re t ha t
i s
f requen t ed
a n d t he d i s t a n c e t ha t i s t ra vel l ed . The
p urp o s e
o f t hi s
p a p er
i s t o s ee whet her t hes e
va ri a t i o n s i n d i s t a n c e t ra vel l ed a f f ec t a l l c o n s umers
a l i ke,
o r whet her t he
p ref eren c es
o f o n e
s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up ,
a s
o p p o s ed
t o
a n o t her,
d ema n d
s i gn i f i c a n t l y
d i f f eren t d i s t a n c es t o be
t ra vel l ed . Thes e
p ref eren c es
wi l l a l s o be exa mi n ed i n t he c o n t ext o f t he
t yp e
o f s t o re a n d
s ho p p i n g
c en t re t ha t i s
f requen t ed .
It i s
hyp o t hes i zed
t ha t t he
hi gher
t he s o c i a l -c l a s s
p o s i t i o n
o f t he
c o n s umer,
t he
grea t er
t he
d i s t a n c e t ha t i s t ra vel l ed t o
s ho p . Un d erl yi n g
t hi s
hyp o t hes i s
i s t he n o t i o n t ha t d i f f eren t
s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s
ha ve
va ryi n g
t a s t es wi t hi n t he o n e
p ro d uc t t yp e
whi c h n o o n e
s t o re, exc ep t
p erha p s
a
d ep a rt men t s t o re,
c a n c a t er f o r. The
hi gher
t he s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up ,
t he mo re
s p ec i a l i zed , exp en s i ve
a n d
s o p hi s t i c a t ed
t a s t es bec o me.
Ho wever, s p ec i a l i zed -p ro d uc t
s t o res
s erve a
mi n o ri t y
o f t he
p o p ul a t i o n ,
a n d t hus i n
t heo ry t hey
ha ve t he
grea t es t ra n ge
a n d t hres ho l d
a n d t hei r c us t o mers i n c ur t he
l o n ges t
d i s t a n c es t o
s ho p .35
A s ec o n d n o t i o n
s ugges t s
t ha t t he
hi gher
t he s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up ,
t he
grea t er
t he
mo bi l i t y
o f t he i n d i vi d ua l . Numero us s t ud i es ha ve
s ho wn t ha t t he
hi gher
t he s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up ,
t he
grea t er
t he i n c i d en c e o f c a r
o wn ers hi p a n d ,
p erha p s
mo re
i mp o rt a n t ,
t wo -c a r
o wn ers hi p
i n t he
f a mi l y. C o mp a red
t o
p ubl i c t ra n s p o rt
jo urn eys
bec o me f a s t er a n d mo re c o n ven i en t a n d
l o n ger
d i s t a n c es a re
en c o ura ged . Mo reo ver,
t he
hi gher
s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s
c o n s t i t ut e a wo rkf o rc e who ei t her ha ve f ewer t i me res t ri c t i o n s
p l a c ed
o n t hei r n o n -wo rk a c t i vi t i es o r ha ve a
p l a c e
o f
emp l o ymen t
mo re
c l o s el y
t i ed t o s ervi c e
c en t res i n c i t i es t ha n i s t he c a s e f o r l o wer-s t a t us
gro up s . Theref o re,
muc h
s ho p p i n g a c t i vi t y ma y
o ri gi n a t e
f ro m
p l a e f ro m
p l a c e
o f wo rk ra t her t ha n
p l a c e
o f
res i d en c e,
t hus
a c c o un t i n g
f o r
l o n ger
d i s t a n c es
bei n g
t ra vel l ed bet ween ho me a n d
s ho p
a n d
i n t erven i n g o p p o rt un i t i es bei n g by-p a s s ed .
The mea s uremen t o f d i s t a n c e t o
s ho p
i s ma d e bet ween
p l a c e
o f res i d en c e a n d
s t o re,
s i n c e
t he a c t ua l
o ri gi n
o f t he
jo urn ey
i s n o t kn o wn . Di s t a n c e i s a l s o mea s ured o ver t he s ho rt es t l a n d
ro ut es , ra t her t ha n
a l o n g
t he d es i re l i n es s ho wn i n
Fi gures 1-5, s i n c e t he l a t t er ma s k t he
c i rc ui t o us
jo urn eys
t ha t a re o f t en
n ec es s a ry
t o c ro s s Burra rd In l et a n d t he a rms o f t he Fra s er
Ri ver. Fo r t hi s rea s o n mo re d et a i l ed
ma p s , by
s o c i a l
c l a s s ,
a re n o t i n c l ud ed . The mea n a n d
s t a n d a rd d evi a t i o n o f d i s t a n c e f o r ea c h s o c i a l c l a s s a re c a l c ul a t ed i n ki l o met res a n d
a p p ea r
i n
Ta bl e I.
It c a n be s een t ha t t he d i f f eren t s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s
t ra vel
va ryi n g
d i s t a n c es t o
s ho p .
Ho wever,
i t i s
i mp o rt a n t
t o es t a bl i s h f i rs t o f a l l t ha t t hi s s i t ua t i o n d o es n o t a ri s e bec a us e t he
va ri o us
gro up s
o n
a vera ge
l i ve a t d i f f eren t d i s t a n c es f ro m t he ret a i l
f a c i l i t i es ,
i .e. t ha t t he
up p er-mi d d l e
c l a s s t ra vel f urt her f o r
gro c eri es s i mp l y
bec a us e
t hey
l i ve f urt her
a wa y (even
f ro m
t he n ea res t
o ut l et )
t ha n o t her s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s .
Thi s wa s n o t f o un d t o be t rue. In t he d a t a
t here i s c o n s i d era bl e va ri a t i o n wi t hi n
gro up s
i n t erms o f res i d en t i a l l o c a t i o n a n d t he l o c a t i o n o f
t he n ea res t
n ei ghbo urho o d , c o mmun i t y
a n d
regi o n a l c en t res , ref l ec t i n g
t he s ec t o ri a l n a t ure o f
res i d en t i a l
s egrega t i o n
i n
met ro p o l i t a n
Va n c o uver.36 Thi s ha s res ul t ed i n n o o n e
gro up bei n g
a t
a
d i s a d va n t a ge
i n t erms o f d i s t a n c es t ha t ha ve t o be t ra vel l ed .
The n a t ure o f t he va ri a t i o n f o r s o me
p ro d uc t s
wo ul d t en d t o
s up p o rt
t he
hyp o t hes i s
t ha t
t he
hi gher
t he s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up ,
t he
grea t er
t he d i s t a n c e t ra vel l ed t o
s ho p . Up p er/up p er-
mi d d l e-c l a s s c o n s umers t ra vel t he
l o n ges t
a n d l o wer-l o wer-c l a s s c o n s umers t ra vel t he s ho rt es t
mea n d i s t a n c es i n a l l but o n e
c a s e;
bo t h o f t he
exc ep t i o n s
a re f o r
a p p l i a n c es .
The va ri a t i o n
bet ween s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s
i n rel a t i ve t erms i s
grea t es t
f o r
gro c eri es ,
wi t h
up p er/up p er-mi d d l e-
438
H.
J.
GAYLER
C l a s s a n d c o n s umer beha vi o ur i n Va n c o uver
TABLE I
Di s t a n c es t ra vel l ed *
by
s o c i a l
c l a s s f o r p urc ha s es
i n
met ro p o l i t a n
Va n c o uver
S o c i a l c l a s s
Up p er/ Up p er-
Mi d d l e Lo wer-Mi d d l e
Up p er-Lo wer
Lo wer-Lo wer
Pro d uc t Mea n S .D. Mea n S .D. Mea n S .D. Mea n S .D.
Gro c eri es
3-38 3'74 2-72
3-82
2-36 2'94 1-48 1-92
Dres s
8'67 6-58 7'44 5'73 6-49 5'41 5'79 5'04
Furn i t ure
8.24 6'69 7'95 6-51 7'93
7-02 4-26
3.84
Ap p l i a n c es o 0-91
6-9I
I4'43 1142
8-09
7-76 11-92 I2-58
Fo o t wea r 9.14
7'17 7.92 6-64 7-89
7-06
7'15 6-03
439
*
Di s t a n c es mea s ured i n ki l o met res o ver t he s ho rt es t l a n d ro ut e
S o urc e:
S a mp l e S urvey
c l a s s c o n s umers
t ra vel l i n g
o n
a vera ge
mo re t ha n t wi c e t he d i s t a n c e o f t hei r l o wer-l o wer-c l a s s
c o un t erp a rt s .
Fo r t he f o ur
s ho p p i n g go o d s
t he rel a t i ve d i f f eren c es bet ween
gro up s
a re s ma l l er.
Thes e res ul t f ro m t he a bs en c e o r wea kn es s o f t hes e
go o d s
a t t he
n ei ghbo urho o d
a n d
c o mmun i t y
s ho p p i n g
c en t re
res p ec t i vel y
a n d t he n eed f o r a l l c o n s umers t o t ra vel
grea t er
d i s t a n c es .
Furt hermo re, s ho p p i n g go o d s
a re d ema n d ed l es s
f requen t l y a n d , t heref o re,
c o n s i d era t i o n s o f
d i s t a n c e
ma y p l a y
a s ma l l er
p a rt
wi t h a l l c o n s umers . A d ec l i n e i n d i s t a n c e t ra vel l ed f o r d res s a n d
f o o t wea r i s rel a t ed t o s o c i a l -c l a s s
p o s i t i o n ,
but f o r f urn i t ure t he d i s t a n c e f o r t hree o f t he
gro up s
i s
vi rt ua l l y
t he s a me a n d f o r
a p p l i a n c es
n o t ren d i s revea l ed a t a l l .
On e-wa y a n a l ys i s
o f va ri a n c e i s c a rri ed o ut o n t he d a t a t o s ee whet her t here a re
s i gn i f i c a n t
d i f f eren c es i n d i s t a n c es t ra vel l ed bet ween t he va ri o us s o c i a l c l a s s es f o r ea c h o f t he
p ro d uc t t yp es
(Ta bl e II).
The
hyp o t hes i s ,
t ha t t he
hi gher
t he s o c i a l c l a s s t he
grea t er
t he d i s t a n c e t ra vel l ed t o
s ho p ,
i s
a c c ep t ed
a s s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i gn i f i c a n t o n l y
i n t he c a s e o f
gro c eri es
a n d d res s . C l o s er
exa mi n a t i o n o f t he
s urvey
d a t a s ho ws t ha t t he
s i gn i f i c a n t l y grea t er
d i s t a n c es o f t he
hi gher
s o c i a l
c l a s s es ref l ec t c ert a i n ret a i l
p ref eren c es
whi c h i n vo l ve
l o n ger d i s t a n c es ,
ra t her t ha n
s i mp l y
a n
a bi l i t y
a n d d es i re t o t ra vel
l o n ger
d i s t a n c es .
TABLE II
An a l ys i s o f
va ri a n c e t es t
f o r
s o c i a l c l a s s
d i f f ren c es
i n mea n d i s t a n c e
t ra vel l ed f o r p urc ha s es
i n
met ro p o l i t a n
Va n c o uver
Pro d uc t Gro c eri es Dres s Furn i t ure
Ap p l i a n c es
Fo o t wea r
Bet ween
gro up s :
S um o f
s qua res 7-0 138-6 94-8 281-7
33'8
Degrees
o f f reed o m
3 3 3 3 3
Mea n
s qua re 25-6
46-2 21-6
93-9
11.2
Wi t hi n
gro up s :
S um o f
s qua res 2776'- 5678'2 3405'3 3488'7
5112-6
Degrees
o f f reed o m
675 446 204
96 280
Mea n
s qua re 4.1 12-7
i 6-6
36.3
I8-2
F ra t i o
6.24** 3.63* 1-89 2-58
0-62
*
S i gn i f i c a n t
a t t he
0-05
l evel
**
S i gn i f i c a n t
a t t he o -o i l evel
S o urc e.
S a mp l e s urvey
H.
J.
GAYLER
Gro c eri es
Fi gure
i s ho ws a c o n s i d era bl e n umber o f
jo urn eys
where
n ei ghbo urho o d
a n d
c o mmun i t y
s ho p p i n g
c en t re
s up erma rket s
a re
by-p a s s ed
i n f a vo ur o f
gro c ery
o ut l et s i n Va n c o uver's C .B.D.
a n d t he
p l a n n ed
a n d
un p l a n n ed regi o n a l
c en t res . It wa s f o un d t ha t t here wa s a
grea t er t en d en c y
f o r
up p er/up p er-mi d d l e-
a n d l o wer-mi d d l e-c l a s s c o n s umers t o t ra vel t he
grea t er d i s t a n c es ,
a n d
t hi s
i n va ri a bl y i mp l i ed by-p a s s i n g
o n e o f t he
ma jo r s up erma rket
c ha i n s t o res i n f a vo ur o f t he
f o o d f l o o rs i n
d ep a rt men t
s t o res .
The
d evel o p men t o f ,
a n d
grea t er p ref eren c e by
c ert a i n s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s f o r, d ep a rt -
men t -s t o re
gro c ery p urc ha s i n g
i s a n
i n t eres t i n g
f ea t ure o f i n ert i a . Wo o d wa rd 's s t o re i n t he
C .B.D. ha d i n f a c t t he f i rs t
l a rge-s c a l e s up erma rket
i n t he
met ro p o l i t a n
a rea ,
o p en i n g
bef o re t he
S ec o n d Wo rl d Wa r a n d
l o n g
bef o re t he n a t i o n a l
s up erma rket
c ha i n s
bega n d evel o p i n g
t hei r
l a rge
s uburba n s t o res .
La t er,
Ea t o n 's a n d Hud s o n 's
Ba y
s t o res i n t he C .B.D. a l s o es t a bl i s hed
f o o d f l o o rs . As
d ep a rt men t
s t o re
o p era t i o n s
ha ve
d ec en t ra l i zed , a l o n g
"wi t h t he
gro wt h
o f
s uburba n
p o p ul a t i o n
a n d t he
d evel o p men t
o f
p l a n n ed regi o n a l c en t res ,
Wo o d wa rd 's a t
l ea s t ,
ha s ext en d ed i t s
s up erma rket o p era t i o n s
t o i t s s t o res i n New Wes t mi n s t er a n d t he
p l a n n ed
regi o n a l
c en t res o f Pa rk
Ro ya l
i n Wes t Va n c o uver a n d
Oa kri d ge
i n S o ut h Va n c o uver. It
ma y
be
t ha t i n t he
p a s t
t he es t a bl i s hmen t o f
d ep a rt men t -s t o re
f o o d f l o o rs wa s a n i n n o va t i o n whi c h
f o un d
grea t er
f a vo ur wi t h mi d d l e-c l a s s c o n s umers whi l e l o wer-c l a s s c o n s umers were mo re t i ed
t o t he
t ra d i t i o n a l ,
s ma l l er a n d c l o s er
gro c ery
s t o re. Thi s
a l l egi a n c e
ha s
p ers i s t ed
i n
s p i t e
o f t he
f a c t t ha t
d ep a rt men t -s t o re
f o o d
o p era t i o n s t o d a y
ha ve l i t t l e t o
d i s t i n gui s h
t hems el ves f ro m t he
ma jo r s up erma rket
c ha i n s
a n d , bes i d es ,
t he l a t t er a re mo re n umero us a n d bet t er l o c a t ed .
In
c o n t ra s t ,
t he l o wer-l o wer-c l a s s
c o n s umers ,
who t ra vel t he s ho rt es t mea n
d i s t a n c e, a re
mo re
l i kel y
t ha n o t her c o n s umers t o vi s i t t he n ea res t
s up erma rket
o r
gro c ery
s t o re o ut l et . The
ma ke-up
o f t hi s
gro up p ro ba bl y
l en d s i t s el f t o a l es s mo bi l e s t a t e. It i n c l ud es a
hi gher p ro p o rt i o n
o f
p eo p l e
who d o n o t ha ve
p ri va t e t ra n s p o rt a t i o n
t ha n
a n y
o t her
gro up ,
a n d i n
ma n y i n s t a n c es
t hes e
p eo p l e
a re o l d
(i n d i c a t ed
i n t he s urvey d a t a
by
t hei r
bei n g
ret i red f ro m
regul a r emp l o y-
men t )
a n d
l i vi n g
o n
very
l o w i n c o mes . Fewer t ha n
4 p er
c en t o f c o n s umers i n t he
s urvey
regul a rl y
ma ke t hei r
ma jo r gro c ery p urc ha s es
a t a c o rn er s t o re ra t her t ha n a mo re d i s t a n t
s up erma rket ,
a n d
t hey
a re
s o l el y
i n t hi s
gro up .
Mo reo ver, i t wa s f o un d i n s o me i n s t a n c es t ha t
t he c o rn er-s t o re t ha t wa s
p ref erred
wa s
o n l y f ra c t i o n a l l y
c l o s er
t ha n ,
a n d i n t he s a me
s ho p p i n g
a rea
a s ,
a
ma jo r s up erma rket .
Dres s
Three f ea t ures un d erl i e t he
s i gn i f i c a n t
va ri a t i o n s i n mea n d i s t a n c es t ra vel l ed
by
t he d i f f eren t
s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s
t o
p urc ha s e
i t ems o f d res s .
Fi rs t , up p er/up p er-mi d d l e-
a n d l o wer-mi d d l e-
c l a s s c o n s umers t ra vel
l o n ger
d i s t a n c es i n o rd er t o
s ho p
f o r mo re
s p ec i a l i zed
merc ha n d i s e. Thi s
i s
rec o gn i zed
f ro m t he
s a mp l e s urvey
where a
s p ec i a l i zed s ho p
wi t h
s i n gl e
l o c a t i o n i s
f requen t ed
ra t her t ha n a c ha i n d res s
s ho p
wi t h mo re t ha n o n e l o c a t i o n .
S i n gl e-l o c a t i o n s p ec i a l i zed
d res s
s ho p s
a re
ma i n l y
l o c a t ed i n Va n c o uver's C .B.D. o r o n t he wes t s i d e o f Va n c o uver a n d o n t he
No rt h S ho re
(i n
Wes t a n d No rt h
Va n c o uver),
a n d t hus i n c l o s e
p ro xi mi t y
t o t he
l a rges t
s ha re o f
t he ma rket .
Ho wever, Fi gure
2 s ho ws t ha t s o me o f t hes e s t o res
en c o ura ge l o n g jo urn eys
f ro m
o t her
p a rt s
o f t he
met ro p o l i t a n
a rea , i n s o me c a s es f ro m a rea s whi c h ha ve t hei r o wn
s p ec i a l i zed
d res s
s ho p s .
There a re f a r f ewer i n c i d en c es o f t he t wo l o wer-s t a t us
gro up s c ho o s i n g
ei t her a
s p ec i a l i zed
o r c ha i n d res s
s ho p
i n a d i s t a n t
c o mmun i t y
c en t re, f o r
exa mp l e.
A s ec o n d f ea t ure n o t ed a bo ut
up p er/up p er-mi d d l e-
a n d l o wer-mi d d l e-c l a s s c o n s umers i s
t he
grea t er
i n c i d en c e o f
by-p a s s i n g
a n
i n t erven i n g o p p o rt un i t y
o r c l o s er ret a i l o ut l et
(i n
s o me
o t her
d i rec t i o n )
i n f a vo ur o f a mo re d i s t a n t o ut l et . Thi s d o es n o t merel y i n vo l ve by-p a s s i n g a n y
440
C l a s s a n d c o n s umer beha vi o ur i n Va n c o uver
ret a i l o ut l et
s el l i n g
i t ems o f
d res s ,
but
by-p a s s i n g
a l s o o n e o r mo re bra n c hes o f a
p a rt i c ul a r
c ha i n
o r
d ep a rt men t
s t o re i n f a vo ur o f a mo re d i s t a n t bra n c h.
In va ri a bl y,
t hi s mea n s t ha t
d ep a rt men t
s t o res a n d c ha i n s t o res i n
n ea rby
regi o n a l
c en t res a re a vo i d ed i n f a vo ur o f t he s a me s t o re i n t he
C .B.D. Thi s c o n t ra s t s
ma rked l y
wi t h t he
f i n d i n gs
o f Da vi es a n d
Tho ma s ,37
f o r
exa mp l e;
i n t he
Bri t i s h
c a s es ,
t he
o verwhel mi n g
d o mi n a n c e o f t he C .B.D. wi t hi n t he i n t ra -urba n ret a i l s t ruc -
t ure,
f o r
s ho p p i n g go o d s
res ul t s i n t he va ri o us i n c o me a n d s t a t us
gro up s t ra vel l i n g
s i mi l a r
d i s t a n c es .
Two f a c t o rs
ma y
un d erl i e t he
grea t er p ref eren c e by up p er/up p er-mi d d l e-
a n d l o wer-
mi d d l e-c l a s s c o n s umers f o r
s ho p p i n g
i n C .B.D. s t o res ra t her t ha n t ho s e c l o s er t o ho me. Fi rs t ,
t he C .B.D. s t o res a re
l a rger
a n d n o t
o n l y c a rry
a wi d er s el ec t i o n o f
go o d s
but a l s o
c a rry
mo re
qua l i t y
merc ha n d i s e. The C .B.D.
d ep a rt men t s t o res ,
un l i ke t hei r s uburba n
bra n c hes , i n c o p o r-
a t e a s eri es o f
s p ec i a l i t y s ho p s
a s wel l .
S ec o n d l y,
i t ha s been s ho wn t ha t a
hi gh p ro p o rt i o n
o f
s ho p p i n g t ri p s
i n t he C .B.D.
o ri gi n a t e
f ro m t he
wo rkp l a c e
ra t her t ha n f ro m t he ho me.38 The
C .B.D. ha s t he
l a rges t
c o n c en t ra t i o n o f
jo bs
i n t he
met ro p o l i t a n
a rea ,
mo s t l y
wi t hi n a f ew bl o c ks
o f a l l t he
s t o res ;
but mo re
i mp o rt a n t
i t ha s a n even
l a rger
c o n c en t ra t i o n o f t he whi t e-c o l l a r jo bs
t ha t
up p er/up p er-mi d d l e-
a n d l o wer-mi d d l e-c l a s s
p eo p l e
un d ert a ke.
A t hi rd f ea t ure
un d erl yi n g
t he va ri a t i o n i n d i s t a n c e t ra vel l ed f o r i t ems o f d res s c o n c ern s
t he
grea t er p ref eren c e by
t he
hi gher
s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s
f o r
s ho p p i n g
a t t he Hud s o n 's
Ba y
C o .
d ep a rt men t
s t o re i n t he C .B.D. The d a t a revea l ed
s i gn i f i c a n t
s o c i a l -c l a s s va ri a t i o n i n t he
a p p ea l
o f t he C .B.D.
d ep a rt men t
s t o res .
Ho wever,
t he Hud s o n 's
Ba y
C o . ha s
l o n g
a t t ra c t ed i t s
c o n s umers o ver c o n s i d era bl e
d i s t a n c es ,
s i n c e i t res i s t ed s el ec t i o n o f s i t es i n t he
p l a n n ed regi o n a l
s ho p p i n g
c en t res a n d o t her s uburba n l o c a t i o n s un t i l s o me t i me a f t er i t s ma jo r
c o mp et i t o rs .
As
f a r a s d res s
p urc ha s es
a re c o n c ern ed t hi s s t o re i s t he mo s t
i mp o rt a n t
C .B.D. s t o re n o t
o n l y
f o r
hi gher-s t a t us
c o n s umers i n Va n c o uver i t s el f but a l s o f o r t he
s urro un d i n g
a rea s o f
Burn a by,
Ri c hmo n d a n d Wes t a n d No rt h Va n c o uver.
Ot her
go o d s
The
hyp o t hes i s c o n c ern i n g
s o c i a l c l a s s a n d d i s t a n c e i s n o t
s up p o rt ed
wi t h
res p ec t
t o t he o t her
t hree
s ho p p i n g go o d s (Ta bl e II).
In t he c a s e o f f urn i t ure t here i s
vi rt ua l l y
n o d i f f eren c e i n t he
d i s t a n c es t ha t a re t ra vel l ed f o r t hree o f t he s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s (Ta bl e I).
The f o urt h
gro up ,
t he
l o wer-l o wer-c l a s s c o n s umers ,
o n t he o t her
ha n d ,
t ra vel l ed
c o n s i d era bl y
s ho rt er d i s t a n c es t o
s ho p ;
a n d 't ' t es t s f o r t he d i f f eren c e bet ween t wo mea n s f o un d t ha t t he mea n d i s t a n c e f o r t hi s
gro up i s
s i gn i f i c a n t l y
l o wer t ha n f o r t he o t her t hree
gro up s .
Thi s i n
p a rt
ref l ec t s t he c l o s e
p ro xi mi t y
o f
ma n y
l o wer-l o wer-c l a s s c o n s umers
l i vi n g
i n Ea s t Va n c o uver t o d i s c o un t f urn i t ure
o p era t i o n s
o n t he ea s t s i d e o f t he
C .B.D.; s ec o n d l y,
un l i ke t he o t her t hree
gro up s ,
t hi s o n e ha s a
grea t er t en d en c y
t o vi s i t c en t res
n ea rby
ra t her t ha n
by-p a s s
t hem i n f a vo ur o f
regi o n a l
c en t res
a n d t he C .B.D. f a rt her
a wa y.
Thi s i s a s i t ua t i o n
t ha t ,
a s i n t he c a s e o f
gro c eri es
a n d
d res s ,
ref l ec t s
p erha p s
t he
i n a bi l i t y
o r l a c k o f n eed t o s ea rc h a n d
p urc ha s e a n y
f urt her a f i el d . The f a c t t ha t t he
o t her t hree
gro up s
t ra vel
very
s i mi l a r mea n d i s t a n c es f o r f urn i t ure ref l ec t s s i mi l a ri t i es i n t he
a p p ea l
o f va ri o us regi o n a l
c en t res a n d t he C .B.D. a n d t he l o w i n c i d en c e o f a d i s t i n c t i ve
s p ec i a l i t y
t ra d e
en c o ura gi n g hi gher-s t a t us
c o n s umers t o t ra vel
grea t er
d i s t a n c es .
Ho wever,
wi t hi n t he o n e c en t re t here were d i f f eren c es i n t he s o c i a l -c l a s s
a p p ea l
o f va ri o us
s t o res ,
es p ec i a l l y d ep a rt men t
s t o res .
It c a n be s een t ha t f o r
a p p l i a n c es
t he n ul l
hyp o t hes i s o n l y jus t
f a i l s t o be
a c c ep t ed
a t t he
o o 0-05
l evel
(Ta bl e II). Ho wever, a c c ep t a n c e
wo ul d n o t
i mp l y s up p o rt
f o r t he
hyp o t hes i s .
There i s
n o t ren d i n d i s t a n c e t ra vel l ed
by
s o c i a l c l a s s
(Ta bl e I);
a n d 't ' t es t s f o r t he d i f f eren c e bet ween
t wo mea n s i n d i c a t e t ha t l o wer-mi d d l e-c l a s s c o n s umers t ra vel
s i gn i f i c a n t l y l o n ger
d i s t a n c es t ha n
up p er/up p er-mi d d l e-
a n d up p er-l o wer-c l a s s c o n s umers . The s i gn i f i c a n t d i f f eren c es res ul t f ro m
441
p a rt i c ul a r
res i d en t i a l l o c a t i o n s a n d
s ho p p i n g
c en t re c ho i c es . The d a t a s ho w t ha t
up p er/up p er-
mi d d l e- a n d
up p er-l o wer-c l a s s
c o n s umers res i d e
p red o mi n a n t l y
i n a rea s o n t he wes t s i d e a n d
ea s t s i d e o f
met ro p o l i t a n
Va n c o uver
res p ec t i vel y,
a n d
en ga ge
i n mo re 'l o c a l '
jo urn eys
t o
regi o n a l
c en t res o r t he C .B.D.
c o mp a red
t o l o wer-mi d d l e-c l a s s
c o n s umers ;
t he l a t t er ha ve a mo re
d i f f us ed res i d en t i a l l o c a t i o n a n d ma ke a
hi gher p ro p o rt i o n
o f
l o n g-d i s t a n c e t ri p s , e.g.
f ro m
Ri c hmo n d a n d
C o qui t l a m
t o t he C .B.D.
The o rd er
by
s o c i a l c l a s s o f mea n d i s t a n c es t ra vel l ed t o
p urc ha s e
f o o t wea r i s s i mi l a r t o t ha t
f o r d res s
(Ta bl e I).
But t he d i f f eren c e bet ween
gro up s
i s n o t
s i gn i f i c a n t
a n d c o ul d ha ve o c c urred
by
c ha n c e. Un l i ke i t ems o f
d res s ,
f o o t wea r i s a
p ro d uc t
whi c h d o es n o t
gen era t e
muc h
s p ec i a l i t y
s t o re
t ra d e;39
a n d t here
i s , t heref o re,
l es s l i kel i ho o d o f c o n s umers i n c ert a i n
gro up s t ra vel l i n g
grea t er
d i s t a n c es t o
s ho p
t ha n c o n s umers i n o t her
gro up s . Ho wever,
t he d a t a
s ugges t t ha t ,
a s i n
t he c a s e o f
d res s ,
t he t wo mi d d l e-c l a s s
gro up s
ma ke a
hi gher p ro p o rt i o n
o f t hei r f o o t wea r
p urc ha s es
i n t he C .B.D.
c o mp a red
t o t he o t her t wo
gro up s . Mo reo ver,
a
hi gh p ro p o rt i o n
o f
f o o t wea r
p urc ha s es
a re ma d e i n
d ep a rt men t
s t o res i n t he
met ro p o l i t a n
a rea
a n d ,
a s i n t he c a s e o f
d res s a n d
f urn i t ure, s i gn i f i c a n t
va ri a t i o n s
by
s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up
a re f o un d i n t he s t o re t ha t i s
c ho s en .
C ONC LUS ION
The
p a p er
ha s
a t t emp t ed
t o s ho w t ha t
by d i s a ggrega t i n g
t he t o t a l
p o p ul a t i o n ,
i n t hi s c a s e
a c c o rd i n g
t o s o c i a l c l a s s ,
i t i s
p o s s i bl e
t o un d ers t a n d bet t er c ert a i n
a s p ec t s
o f
s p a t i a l
beha vi o ur
rel a t i n g
t o d i s t a n c e t ra vel l ed a n d
s ho p p i n g
c en t re a n d s t o re c ho i c e.
Ho wever,
f o r t he f i ve
p ro d uc t s
t ha t a re c o n s i d ered
(gro c eri es , d res s , f urn i t ure, a p p l i a n c es
a n d
f o o t wea r),
i t c a n be
s een t ha t t here i s n o c o n s i s t en t t ren d i n t he d i s t a n c e t ra vel l ed
by
s o c i a l c l a s s . Even i n t he t wo
i n s t a n c es where t he
hyp o t hes i s ,
t ha t t he
hi gher
t he s o c i a l c l a s s t he
grea t er
t he d i s t a n c e t ha t i s
t ra vel l ed t o
s ho p ,
i s
s up p o rt ed ,
d i f f eren t rea s o n s a re t o be f o un d f o r s uc h va ri a t i o n s . Fo r
gro c eri es ,
t here i s a
grea t er p ref eren c e a mo n gs t hi gher
s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s
f o r
s ho p p i n g
a t
d ep a rt men t -s t o re
f o o d
o ut l et s ,
ra t her t ha n t he c ha i n
s up erma rket o f f eri n g
t he s a me
go o d s
c l o s er
t o t he
p l a c e
o f
res i d en c e,
a n
exa mp l e p erha p s
o f s t o re
a l l egi a n c e
a n d
p erc ei ved p ro d uc t
d i f f eren c es . Yet f o r i t ems o f d res s t he
grea t er
d i s t a n c es t ra vel l ed
by
s o c i a l c l a s s a re a ref l ec t i o n o f
t he n eed f o r
p ro d uc t s p ec i a l i za t i o n ,
t he
grea t er a va i l a bi l i t y
o f c ho i c e a t t he
hi gher-o rd er
c en t re
a n d t he a s s o c i a t i o n bet ween
wo rkp l a c e
a n d
s ho p p i n g.
In a f urt her t wo i n s t a n c es , f urn i t ure a n d
a p p l i a n c es ,
whi l e n o t ren d i s
evi d en t ,
t here a re s i mi l a ri t i es i n t he d i s t a n c es t ra vel l ed
by
s o me o f
t he
gro up s
a n d c o n t ra s t s wi t h o t hers .
Mo reo ver,
t he s i mi l a ri t i es ma s k t he f a c t t ha t even wi t hi n
t he o n e c en t re va ri o us
gro up s ma y
ha ve a
p ref eren c e
f o r d i f f eren t
t yp es
o f s t o re o r d i f f eren t f i rms
(i .e. d ep a rt men t s t o res ).
In
c a rryi n g
o ut t he
a n a l ys i s
i t ha s been
p o s s i bl e
t o un c o ver a n umber o f
p ro bl ems
s o me o f
whi c h ei t her s ubs t a n t i a t e
queri es
t ha t ha ve been ra i s ed el s ewhere o r
p o s e ques t i o n s
t o be
a n s wered l a t er. Whi l e i t i s
mea n i n gf ul
t o
d i s a ggrega t e
i t i s un rea s o n a bl e t o
exp ec t
t ha t a n
umbrel l a
a p p ro a c h
i s f ea s i bl e o r t ha t s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s
wo ul d rea c t i n t he s a me
wa y
t o a l l
p ro d uc t s
a l i ke. It i s
n ec es s a ry
t o c o n s i d er ea c h
p ro d uc t s ep a ra t el y
even
t ho ugh
t here a re
s i mi l a ri t i es i n t he d i s t ri but i o n o f hi t hert o bro a d
c a t ego ri es
o f
p ro d uc t s (e.g. s ho p p i n g go o d s ).
In
s o me i n s t a n c es
d i s a ggrega t i o n by
s o c i a l c l a s s o f f ers n o bet t er
un d ers t a n d i n g
o f va ri a t i o n s i n t he
d i s t a n c e t ra vel l ed t o
s ho p ;
t hi s
s ugges t s
ei t her a ra n d o m
p ro c es s a f f ec t i n g
a l l c o n s umers
a l i ke,
t heref o re
s up p o rt i n g
a mo re
a ggrega t e
l evel o f
t rea t men t ,
o r t he n eed t o s eek a mo re ref i n ed
d i s a ggrega t i o n .
In t he
met ro p o l i t a n
Va n c o uver c a s e i t c a n be s een t ha t
d i s a ggrega t i o n
i s
p o s s i bl e,
whet her o r n o t t here a re
s i gn i f i c a n t
va ri a t i o n s i n d i s t a n c e
t ra vel l ed , a c c o rd i n g
t o
s ho p p i n g
c en t re a n d s t o re c ho i c e. Mo s t
c o mmun i t y
c en t res a n d s o me
regi o n a l
c en t res s erve
mo re l o c a l i zed a n d o f t en mo re
s o c i a l l y s egmen t ed ma rket s ;
a n d where
regi o n a l
c en t res a n d t he
442 H. J.
GAYLER
C l a s s a n d c o n s umer beha vi o ur i n Va n c o uver
C .B.D. s erve a muc h
l a rger
a n d mo re
s o c i a l l y
va ri ed ma rket t here a re s o c i a l -c l a s s va ri a t i o n s i n
s t o re
p ref eren c e
wi t hi n ea c h
c en t re,
i n
p a rt i c ul a r
t he c ho i c e o f
d ep a rt men t
s t o re whi c h a s i t
ha p p en s
a c c o un t s f o r t he
hi ghes t p ro p o rt i o n
o f s t o re
p ref eren c es
f o r
s ho p p i n g go o d s
i n t he
met ro p o l i t a n
a rea .
It mus t be
rec o gn i zed
t ha t o t her va ri a bl es bes i d es s o c i a l c l a s s i n f l uen c e t he d i s t a n c e t ha t i s
t ra vel l ed a n d
s ho p p i n g
c en t re a n d s t o re
p ref eren c e.
Thes e were d i s c us s ed a t t he o ut s et i n t he
c o n t ext o f t he mul t i -f a c et ed
a p p ro a c h
t o
s t ud yi n g
c o n s umer
s p a t i a l
beha vi o ur.
Ho wever,
t here
i s a l s o a n eed t o
i n c o rp o ra t e
s o me o f t hes e va ri a bl es i n o rd er t o
p ro vi d e
f o r a bet t er
exp l a n a t i o n
a n d
exp a n s i o n
o f t he s o c i a l -c l a s s
ques t i o n .
Whi l s t s o c i a l c l a s s i s a
s urro ga t e
va ri a bl e
rep res en t -
i n g
a n umber o f o t her
va ri a bl es ,
t hes e va ri a bl es a re i n t errel a t ed a n d t heref o re s o c i a l c l a s s i s
un i d i men s i o n a l . A mul t i d i men s i o n a l
a p p ro a c h
wo ul d exa mi n e s o c i a l -c l a s s va ri a t i o n s
a c c o rd i n g
t o l i f e
c yc l e,
c ul t ura l a n d
p erc ep t ua l
va ri a bl es . In t hi s
wa y
i t bec o mes
p o s s i bl e
t o o bt a i n a mo re
d et a i l ed
d i s a ggrega t i o n
o f t he
p o p ul a t i o n .
In t erms o f t hei r o vert beha vi o ur s o c i a l -c l a s s
gro up s
a re n o t
ho mo gen eo us ;
t he
gro up s
a re
rep res en t ed by
s o me
a vera ge s t a t i s t i c ,
a n d t he l a c k o f
s i gn i f i c a n t
d i f f eren c es bet ween
gro up s
i s i n d i c a t i ve o f
grea t er wi t hi n -gro up
t ha n
bet ween -gro up
va ri a t i o n . The i n c l us i o n o f o t her va ri a bl es c a n be
res p o n s i bl e
f o r
o bt a i n i n g
a bet t er un d ers t a n d -
i n g
o f s uc h
wi t hi n -gro up
va ri a t i o n . In t hi s
p a p er
i t c a n be s een t ha t wi t hi n t he l o wer-l o wer-c l a s s
gro up ,
f o r
exa mp l e,
t here i s a d i s t i n c t c o n t ra s t i n d i s t a n c e t ra vel l ed a n d s t o re
p ref eren c e
f o r a
n umber o f
p ro d uc t s a c c o rd i n g
t o
a ge
a n d whet her o r n o t t he
f a mi l y
o wn s a c a r.
Fi n a l l y,
i t i s
i mp o rt a n t
t o
rec o gn i ze
t he o vera l l c ul t ura l mi l i eu i n whi c h t he
s t ud y
i s
un d ert a ken .
Met ro p o l i t a n
Va n c o uver i s a n urba n a rea o f
a p p ro xi ma t el y
o n e mi l l i o n
p eo p l e
where a
s t ro n g
C .B.D. ret a i l
s ec t o r, s ervi n g
a
ma jo r p o rt i o n
o f t he ma rket , exi s t s
a l o n gs i d e
wel l -es t a bl i s hed a n d
exp a n d i n g hi gh-o rd er
c en t res i n s uburba n a rea s . Thi s c o n t ra s t s
ma rked l y
wi t h
l a rge
c i t i es i n t he Un i t ed S t a t es where t he mo re d o mi n a n t ro l e o f s uburba n
ret a i l i n g a n d
t he
c ha n gi n g
ra c i a l
c o mp o s i t i o n
o f t he
p o p ul a t i o n en c o ura ge s el f -i mp o s ed
res t ri c t i o n s o n
mo vemen t a n d c ho i c e. Mea n whi l e,
i n Bri t a i n a n d mo s t
Euro p ea n
c o un t ri es t he
s up rema c y o f
t he C .B.D. f o r
hi gh-o rd er,
a n d o f t en
l o w-o rd er, go o d s
res ul t s i n a
grea t er d egree
o f
s i mi l a ri t y i n
t he beha vi o ur o f va ri o us c o n s umer
gro up s .
AC KNOWLEDGEMENT
The a ut ho r wi s hes t o t ha n k Bro c k Un i vers i t y f o r f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e t o wa rd s t he c o s t o f i l l us t ra t i o n s .
NOTES
i . Fo r
exa mp l e, BERRY, B. J. L. a n d GARRIS ON, W. L. (1958) 'The f un c t i o n a l ba s es o f t he c en t ra l p l a c e hi era rc hy', Ec o n .
Geo gr. 34, 145-54; BAS KIN, C . (1966) The c en t ra l p l a c es o f S o ut hern
Germa n y (En gl ewo o d C l i f f s ), t ra n s l a t ed f ro m C HRIS TALLER,W.
(1933)
Di e Zen t ra l er Ort e i n S ud d eut s c hl a n d (Jen a ); MARS HALL, J. U. (1969) The l o c a t i o n o f s ervi c e t o wn s
(To ro n t o )
2.
IS ARD, W. (1960) Met ho d s o f regi o n a l a n a l ys i s (C a mbri d ge, Ma s s .) p p .
493-568
3. WILS ON, A. G. (1970) En t ro p y i n urba n a n d regi o n a l mo d el l i n g (Lo n d o n )
4. HUDS ON, R.
(1976) 'Li n ki n g s t ud i es o f t he i n d i vi d ua l wi t h mo d el s o f a ggrega t e beha vi o ur: a n emp i ri c a l exa mp l e', Tra n s .
In s t . Br.
Geo gr.
N.S . I, 159-74
5. BUC KLIN, L. P. (1971) 'Ret a i l gra vi t y mo d el s a n d c o n s umer c ho i c e', Ec o n . Geo gr. 47, 489-97
6.
DOWNS , R. M. (1970) 'Geo gra p hi c s p a c e p erc ep t i o n : p a s t a p p ro a c hes a n d f ut ure p ro s p ec t s ', Pro g. Geo gr. 2,
65-i o 08
7. C ADWALLER, M. (1975) 'A beha vi o ra l mo d el o f c o n s umer s p a t i a l d ec i s i o n ma ki n g', Ec o n . Geo gr. 51,339-49; HUDS ON,
o p .
c i t .
8.
THOMAS , C .
J. (1976) 'S o c i o s p a t i a l d i f f eren t i a t i o n a n d t he us e o f s ervi c es ', i n HERBERT, D. T. a n d JOHNS TON, R. J. (ed s )
S o c i a l a rea s i n c i t i es (Lo n d o n ), Vo l . 2, p p . 45-53
9. BOW'LBY, S . R. (1972) 'S p a t i a l va ri a t i o n s i n c o n s umers ' i n f o rma t i o n l evel s ', un p ubl i s hed Ph.D. t hes i s , No rt hwes t ern
Un i vers i t y, Eva n s t o n , Il l .
10. HANS ON, S . (1976) 'S p a t i a l va ri a t i o n i n t he c o gn i t i ve l evel s o f urba n res i d en t s ', i n GOLLEDGE, R. G. a n d RUS HTON, G.
(ed s ) S p a t i a l c ho i c e a n d s p a t i a l beha vi o r (C o l umbus , Ohi o ) p p . 157-77; HANS ON, S . (1977) 'Mea s uri n g t he c o gn i t i ve l evel s o f urba n
res i d en t s ', Geo gr. An n a l r S er. B, 59, 67-81
II.
BURNETT, P. (1977) 'Tes t s o f a l i n ea r l ea rn i n g mo d el o f d es t i n a t i o n c ho i c e: a p p l i c a t i o n s t o
s ho p p i n g t ra vel
by
het ero gen eo us p o p ul a t i o n gro up s ', Geo gr. An n a l r S er. B, 59, 95-108
12. Fo r s t ud i es o f s ho p p i n g t ri p s s ee, f o r exa mp l e, DOWNS , R. (1970) 'The c o gn i t i ve s t ruc t ure o f a n urba n s ho p p i n g c en t er',
443
444
H.
J.
GAYLER
En vi ro n .
Beha v. 2, 13-39; HUDS ON,
R.
(I974) 'Ima ges
o f t he
ret a i l i n g
en vi ro n men t : a n
exa mp l e
o f t he us e o f t he
rep ert o ry gri d
met ho d o l o gy',
En vi ro n . Beha v.
6, 470-90;
REC KER, W. W. a n d
KOS TYNIUK,
L. P.
(1978)
'Fa c t o rs
i n f l uen c i n g
d es t i n a t i o n c ho i c e f o r
t he urba n
gro c ery t ri p ', Tra n s p n
7, 19-33; LLOYD, R. a n d
JENNINGS ,
D.
(1978) 'S ho p p i n g
beha vi o ur a n d i n c o me:
c o mp a ri s o n s
i n a n
urba n
en vi ro n men t ',
Ec o n . Geo gr.
54, 157-67; S C HULER,
H.
J. (1979)
'A
d i s a ggrega t e
s t o re-c ho i c e mo d el o f
s p a t i a l d ec i s i o n -ma ki n g',
Pro f Geo gr. 31, I46-56; TAYLOR,
S . M.
(I979)
'Pers o n a l
d i s p o s i t i o n s
a n d huma n s p a t i a l
beha vi o ur',
Ec o n . Geo gr.
55, i 84-95
13. DAVIES ,
R. L.
(1976)
Ma rket i n g geo gra p hy:
wi t h s p ec i a l ref eren c e
t o ret a i l i n g (Lo n d o n ), 224; BUNTING,
T. E. a n d
GUEI.KE,
J. (1979)
'Beha vi o ra l a n d
p erc ep t i o n geo gra p hy:
a c ri t i c a l
a p p ra i s a l ',
An n . As s . Am. Geo gr.
69, 448-62
14. BURNETT,
K. P. a n d
PRES TWOOD,
D. C . L.
(1976)
'The
d evel o p men t
o f d i s a ggrega t e
t ri p -d i s t ri but i o n mo d el s ',
i n
S TOPHER,
P. R. a n d
MEYBURG,
A. H.
(ed s )
Beha vi o ra l t ra vel -d ema n d mo d el s
(Lexi n gt o n , Ma s s .) p p . 109-24
I5.
LLOYD a n d
JENNINGS , o p .
c i t .
I6. MURDIE,
R. A.
(I965)
'C ul t ura l d i f f eren c es i n c o n s umer
t ra vel ',
Ec o n . Geo gr.
41, 211--33
17. ROS E,
H.M.
(1970)
'The s t ruc t ure o f ret a i l t ra d e i n a ra c i a l l y
c ha n gi n g
t ra d e
a rea ', Geo grl
An a l ys i s 2, 135-48
I8.
GRANT,
K. F.
(I972)
'Fo o d ha bi t s a n d f o o d
s ho p p i n g p a t t ern s
o f Greek
i mmi gra n t s
i n
Va n c o uver',
i n MINGHI,
J.
V.
(ed .) Peo p l es o f t he l i vi n g l a n d : geo gra p hy o f c ul t l ra l d i vers i t y
i n Bri t i s h C o l umbi a , B.C ., Geo gr.
S eri es No .
15 (Va n c o uver) p p . 125-44
19.
JONAS S EN,
C . T.
(1955)
The
s ho p p i n g
c en t er vers us Do wn t o wn
(C o l umbus , Ohi o )
20.
DAVIES ,
R. L.
(1968)
'Ef f ec t s o f c o n s umer i n c o me d i f f eren c es o n t he bus i n es s
p ro vi s i o n s
o f s ma l l
s ho p p i n g
c en t res ',
Urba n S t ud .
5, I44-64; HOLLY,
B. P. a n d
WHEELER, J.
0.
(1972)
'Pa t t ern s o f ret a i l l o c a t i o n a n d t he
s ho p p i n g t ri p s
o f l o w-i n c o me
ho us eho l d s ',
Urba n S t ud .
9, 215-20
21.
DAVIES ,
R. L.
(I969)
'Ef f ec t s o f c o n s umer i n c o me d i f f eren c es o n
s ho p p i n g
mo vemen t
beha vi o ur', Ti jd s c hr.
ec o n . s o c .
Geo gr. 60,
I I-21
22.
THOMAS ,
C .
J. (I974)
'The ef f ec t s o f s o c i a l c l a s s a n d c a r
o wn ers hi p
o n i n t ra -urba n
s ho p p i n g
beha vi o ur i n Grea t er
S wa n s ea ',
C a mbri a I, 98-126; LENTNEK, B., LIEBER,
R. R. AND
S HES KIN,
I.
(1975)
'C o n s umer beha vi o r i n d i f f eren t
a rea s ',
An n . As s .
Am. Geo gr.
65, 538-45; LENTREK, B., C HARNEWS ,
M. a n d
C OTTER, J.
V.
(1978)
'C o mmerc i a l f a c t o rs i n t he
d evel o p men t
o f
regi o n a l
urba n
s ys t ems :
a Mexi c a n c a s e
s t ud y',
Ec o n . Geo gr. 54, 291-308
23. C ARMAN, J.
M.
(1965)
The
a p p l i c a t i o n o f
s o c i a l c l a s s i n ma rket s egmen t a t i o n (Berkel ey, C a l i f .)
24. GORDON,
M. M.
(1958)
S o c i a l c l a s s i n Ameri c a n
s o c i o l o gy (Durha m, N.C .)
25. C OLEMAN,
R. P.
(I96I)
'The
s i gn i f i c a n c e
o f s o c i a l s t ra t i f i c a t i o n i n
s el l i n g',
i n Ma rket i n g: a
ma t uri n g d i s c i p l i n e,
Pro c eed i n gs
o f t he Wi n t er C o n f eren c e o f t he Ameri c a n
Ma rket i n g As s o c i a t i o n ,
1960
(C hi c a go ) p p . 171-84
26. Fo r
exa mp l e, BOOTH, C .
(1889) Li f e
a n d l a bo ur
o f
t he
p eo p l e (Lo n d o n ) I, 33,
i d en t i f i es
ei ght
c l a s s es i n hi s c l a s s i c s t ud y o f
Lo n d o n 's
p o o r,
but wherea s t here a re
very
f i n e d i vi s i o n s bet ween t he s i x
wo rki n g-c l a s s gro up s ,
Lo n d o n 's
up p er-
a n d mi d d l e-c l a s s
p o p ul a t i o n
c o n s t i t ut e t wo
very het ero gen eo us gro up s ; LYND,
R. S . a n d
LYND,
H. M.
(1929)
Mi d d l et o wn
(New Yo rk) p p . 23-24,
rec o gn i ze o n l y
t wo
c l a s s es ,
a
wo rki n g c l a s s a n d a bus i n es s
c l a s s ,
i n t hei r
s t ud y
o f a s ma l l Mi d -Wes t ern i n d us t ri a l
c i t y; WARNER,
W. L.
(1949)
S o c i a l c l a s s i n Ameri c a : t he eva l ua t i o n
o f s t a t us (C hi c a go )
es t a bl i s hes s i x c l a s s es o n t he ba s i s o f hi s wo rk i n a s ma l l New
En gl a n d
t o wn :
up p er-up p er (a
t o wn 's el i t e
f a mi l i es , p o s s es s i n g
wea l t h a n d
p o wer); l o wer-up p er (t he n o uvea ux-ri c hes , s t ri vi n g
t o
es t a bl i s h
t hems el ves ); up p er-mi d d l e (p ro f es s i o n a l
a n d
ma n a geri a l p eo p l e);
l o wer-mi d d l e
(t he
l o wes t
p a i d
whi t e-c o l l a r
wo rkers );
up p er-l o wer, (s ki l l ed
a n d s emi -s ki l l ed ma n ua l
wo rkers );
a n d l o wer-l o wer
(un s ki l l ed
a n d
s p o ra d i c a l l y emp l o yed wo rkers )
27.
Fo r
exa mp l e, C HAPIN,
F. S .
(I928)
'A
qua n t i t a t i ve
s c a l e f o r
ra t i n g
t he ho me a n d s o c i a l en vi ro n men t o f mi d d l e-c l a s s
f a mi l i es i n a n urba n
c o mmun i t y',J.
Ed uc . Ps yc ho l . 19,
99-111
28.
BLIS HEN,
B. R.
(1958)
'The c o n s t ruc t i o n a n d us e o f a n
o c c up a t i o n a l s c a l e',
C a n .
J.
Ec o n .
p o l i t .
S c i .
24, 519-31.
The
s t a t us
gro up i n gs a d o p t ed by
t he Bri t i s h
C en s us ,
f o r
exa mp l e,
a re
ma i n l y
ba s ed o n
o c c up a t i o n
o f t he hea d o f ho us eho l d
29.
Fo r a d i s c us s i o n o f t he met ho d us ed
s ee,
f o r
exa mp l e, C ARMAN, o p . c i t ., DAULTREY, S .
(1976) Pri n c i p a l c o mp o n en t s
a n a l ys i s , C o n c ep t s
a n d
Tec hn i ques
i n Mo d ern
Geo gra p hy
No . 8
(No rwi c h)
30.
The t i t l es us ed f o r t he va ri o us c l a s s es a re t ho s e
a d o p t ed
i n
Wa rn er, o p .
c i t . The s i ze o f t he
s a mp l e
wa s s uc h t ha t t he
n umber o f
res p o n d en t s
i n t he t wo
up p er-c l a s s c a t ego ri es
wa s t o o s ma l l f o r
a n y mea n i n gf ul
c o n c l us i o n s t o be d ra wn . T hes e t wo
c l a s s es were c o mbi n ed wi t h t he
up p er-mi d d l e
c l a s s
31. Fi gure
i s ho ws t he d i s t ri but i o n o f a l l ret a i l c en t res . In f o rma t i o n o n t he s i ze o f t he c en t res wa s o bt a i n ed f ro m t he
Pl a n n i n g
Of f i c e o f t he Grea t er Va n c o uver
Regi o n a l
Di s t ri c t . Fo r t he
p urp o s e
o f
ma p p i n g
a n d
a n a l ys i s
t he
f o l l o wi n g gro up i n g
o f
c en t res wa s ma d e:
(I) Nei ghbo urho o d
c en t res : f ro m
a p p ro xi ma t el y 900 m2 o f ret a i l
s p a c e (t he
c o rn er
gro c ery s t o re, ga s s t a t i o n , et c .)
t o
14
000
m2
(a gro up
o f
c o n ven i en c e-t yp e
s t o res i n c l ud i n g a
l a rge s up erma rket )
(2) C o mmun i t y
c en t res : bet ween a bo ut
14 o o o m2 a n d
37
o o o m2, c o n t a i n i n g
a mi xt ure o f c o n ven i en c e a n d
s ho p p i n g go o d s
s t o res a n d
i n c l ud i n g
s o me
s p ec i a l i zed
s t o res a n d s ma l l
d i s c o un t -d ep a rt men t
s t o res
(3) Regi o n a l
c en t res : bet ween a bo ut
37
o o o m2 a n d 40 00o o o m2, c o n t a i n i n g
a c o n c en t ra t i o n o f t he
t yp es
o f s t o re f o un d i n t he
c o mmun i t y
c en t re
a n d ,
i n
a d d i t i o n ,
t he
f ul l y f l ed ged d ep a rt men t
s t o re i n s o me c en t res
(4)
Pl a n n ed
regi o n a l
c en t res : o ver
37
o o o m2 a n d
d i s t i n gui s hed by
t hei r o f f -s t reet l o c a t i o n a n d
s i n gl e o wn ers hi p .
Al l t he
c en t res c o n t a i n o n e o r mo re
d ep a rt men t
s t o res .
(5)
Va n c o uver C .B.D: i n exc es s o f
370
o o o m2,
i n a d d i t i o n t o c o n ven i en c e a n d
s ho p p i n g-go o d s s t o res , c o n t a i n i n g
t he
l a rges t
s ha re o f
s p ec i a l i zed
s t o res a n d t he
ma jo r d ep a rt men t -s t o re
o ut l et s i n t he
met ro p o l i t a n
a rea
32. C LARK,
W. A. V.
(1968)
'C o n s umer t ra vel
p a t t ern s
a n d t he
c o n c ep t
o f
ra n ge',
An n . As s . Am.
Geo gr. 58, 386-96
33.
In
Fi gs 2-5
t he
o n l y n ei ghbo urho o d
c en t re o f
a n y i mp o rt a n c e
t o f ea t ure i n
s ho p p i n g-c en t re
c ho i c e wa s Whi t e Ro c k's
C .B.D.
Al t ho ugh
t hi s a rea wa s c l a s s i f i ed a s a
n ei ghbo urho o d
c en t re i n t erms o f i t s
s i ze,
t he i s o l a t i o n o f t he a rea f ro m o t her c en t res
d o es res ul t i n i t
o f f eri n g
a n umber o f
c o mmun i t y-c en t re
f un c t i o n s
34. LEIGH,
R.
(1965) S p ec i a l i t y ret a i l i n g:
a
geo gra p hi c a l a n a l ys i s ,
B.C .
Geo gr.
S er. No . 6
(Va n c o uver)
C l a s s a n d c o n s umer beha vi o ur i n Va n c o uver
445
35. Ibi d ; S C HILLER,
R. K.
(I97I)
'Lo c a t i o n o f
s p ec i a l i s t s ervi c es ', Reg. S t ud .
5, I-IO; S C HILLER,
R. K.
(1972)
'The
mea s uremen t o f t he a t t ra c t i ven es s o f
s ho p p i n g
c en t res t o mi d d l e-c l a s s
l uxury c o n s umers ', Reg. S t ul d . 6, 291-7.
It c a n be s een t ha t
t here i s a
t en d en c y
f o r s uc h s t o res t o l o c a t e ei t her
i n ,
o r c l o s e
t o ,
t he C .B.D. a n d t hus be i n
t ra d i t i o n a l l y
t he mo s t a c c es s i bl e l o c a t i o n
t o t he t o t a l
met ro p o l i t a n ma rket ,
o r i n a n
up p er-mi d d l e-c l a s s
s uburba n a rea
a n d , t heref o re, c l o s el y a d ja c en t
t o a t l ea s t o n e
s egmen t
o f t he ma rket
36. HARDWIC K,
W. G.
(I974)
Va n c o uver
(To ro n t o ) p p . 100-42; PATTERS ON,
M.
(I974)
'Fa c t o ri a l
ec o l o gy
o f Va n c o uver
us i n g
en umera t i o n
d a t a ', un p ubl i s hed
M.A.
t hes i s ,
Un i v. o f Bri t i s h C o l umbi a
37.
DAVIES
(I969), o p . c i t .; THOMAS , o p .
c i t .
38. HARDWIC K, o p .
c i t . p . 69
39. LEIGH, o p .
c i t . p . 6I