Reigadas. BAR

Hunter-Gatherers from a
High-Elevation Desert:
People of the Salt Puna
Northwest Argentina
Edited by
Elizabeth Pintar
BAR International Series 2641
2014
Published by
Archaeopress
Publishers of Britsh Archaeological Reports
Gordon House
276 Banbury Road
Oxford OX2 7ED
England
bar@archaeopress.com
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BAR S2641
Hunter-Gatherers from a High-Elevaton Desert: People of the Salt Puna, Northwest Argentna
Archaeopress and the individual authors 2014
ISBN 978 1 4073 1278 1
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7
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1. Hunter-gatherer archaeology of a high elevation desert: current and future research themes in the
Argentine Salt Puna
Elizabeth L. Pintar 9
2. Hunter-Gatherers of the Puna in a temporal perspective (10,500-3500 BP): the case of Antofagasta
de la Sierra (Catamarca, Argentina)
Carlos A. Aschero 25
3. Late Quaternary paleoenvironments, South Andean Puna (25-27 S), Argentina
Pablo Tchilinguirian and Daniel Olivera 43
4. Contributions to the knowledge of natural history and archaeology of hunter-gatherers of
Antofagasta de la Sierra (Argentine South Puna): the case of Peas de las Trampas 1.1
Jorge Martnez 71
5. Desert hunter-gatherers: mobility and aridity thresholds. A view from the Argentine Salt Puna
Elizabeth L. Pintar 95
6. Holocene hunter-gatherers in the Puna. Integrating bones and other zooarchaeological evidence
in Antofagasta de la Sierra (Argentina)
Mariana Mondini and Dolores Elkin 117
7. The exploitation and use of faunal resources. The role of Quebrada Seca 3 and Cueva Cacao 1A
(Antofagasta de la Sierra, Catamarca, Argentina)
Mara del Carmen Reigadas 125
8. Archaeobotany and vegetal resources. Settlement systems and mobility in the Argentine South
Puna
Mara Fernanda Rodrguez 145
9. Grinding, processing, settlement and mobility in hunter-gatherers of the Argentine South Puna
(ca. 7400-3200 BP)
Mara del Pilar Babot 169
10. Continuities and discontinuities in the process of transition to food production in Antofagasta de
la Sierra (Argentine South Puna): the case of faked stone tools
Salomn Hocsman 201
125
Introduction
The Late PleistoceneEarly Holocene hunter-gatherers of
the area of Antofagasta de la Sierra, in the South Puna of
Argentina, had an economy based primarily on the hunting
of wild camelids, especially Vicugna vicugna (Aschero et
al. 1991, Elkin 1996, Reigadas 2006). They used different
hunting techniques, including spear throwers with projectile
points of various designs and of predominantly local raw
materials (Pintar 2006; Martnez 2007; Pintar 2008).
Climate and environmental studies show that around 8500
BP the cold and wet weather of the early Holocene changed
towards an increase in temperature and aridity. This process
intensified between 6300 and 3900 BP (Tchilinguirian et
al. 2007), a situation that in northern Chile caused the
abandonment of areas previously occupied (Nez et al.
2002). This situation does not seem to have occurred in
Antofagasta de la Sierra, where the archaeological record
indicates the continuous presence of human groups.
Some changes in the strategies for exploiting the
environment are suggested from the Mid-Holocene
onward (Olivera and Elkin 1994; Olivera and Vigliani
2000-2002), as well as an intensification of the interactions
between humans and camelids (Mondini and Reigadas
2007). Several factors are at play in the analysis of this
process, such as climatic variations during the Altithermal
(Pintar 1996), as well as changes in the mobility of the
bands (Pintar 1996, 2009), changes in the technological
repertoire and organization (Pintar 1996, 2004; Martnez
2007; Pintar 2009), in residential mobility (Aschero and
Hocsman 2011), changes in the management of resources
in an environment with available forage supply (Olivera
and Vigliani 2000-2002), changes in the behaviour and
territoriality of camelids (Yacobaccio 2001), and the
emergence of phenotypic variations in these camelid
populations which were expressed in changes in the
morphology of the fibres and composition of their mantles,
or coats (Reigadas 2001a, 2006).
Further, the consolidation of more sedentary groups has
been proposed around 3000 BP; in later contexts these
groups would make up a productive system based on the
management of the Lama glama species, with agricultural
components of different scales, in valley-floor villages,
and hunting and herding sites in high gorges (quebradas).
CHAPTER 7
THE EXPLOITATION AND USE OF FAUNAL RESOURCES. THE ROLE OF QUEBRADA SECA
3 AND CUEVA CACAO 1A (ANTOFAGASTA DE LA SIERRA, CATAMARCA, ARGENTINA)
Mara del Carmen Reigadas
Taking the diversity of independent lines of evidence
(environmental, faunal, demographic, technological, etc.)
that account for this process of socio-economic change
in Antofagasta de la Sierra as a starting point, this paper
presents the data available from the study of animal fibres
as part of the information that supports this change. This
chapter presents the results derived from the study of
fibres, present as a raw material (fleece) and manufactures
(threads, ropes and strings), recovered at all levels of
occupation at Quebrada Seca 3 site and from the ritual
event and late occupation at Cacao1A site, located in
different sectors of Antofagasta de la Sierra, Catamarca,
Argentina. Both sites reflect much of the occupational
history of the area, from early times ca. 10,000 BP until
late times ca. 1000 BP, providing evidence relevant for the
search of indicators that allow us to evaluate changes in
the exploitation and use of animal resources.
Environment and context
The area of Antofagasta de la Sierra (Catamarca Province)
is part of the high desert called Puna de Atacama. It is
located in the South Puna of Argentina (22 and 27 S and
65 10 and 68 50 W) in the so-called Salt Puna with
severe arid conditions (Figure 1).
The area is covered by mountains, with an average height
of the basin floor of 3450 m asl. The hydrographic network
is endorheic, with a regime dependent on summer thaws
(November to March) and underground water. The Laguna
de Antofagasta is formed by the flow of the Calalaste-
Toconquis-Punilla/Antofagasta river system and their
tributaries (Las Pitas and Mirihuaca). The mean annual
rainfall is less than 150 mm, which defines an arid Andean
Puna climate. The average annual temperature is 9 C, with
a very wide daily and seasonal temperature range (Olivera
and Vigliani 20002002). Stable water sectors are located
on the bottom of lateral basins and ravines, the distribution
of resources being heterogeneous and predictably located,
but not abundant (Olivera and Elkin1994).
The shrub steppe dominates this environment, though
herbaceous steppes and meadows are present as well
(Cabrera 1968). This type of habitat currently supports
a variety of fauna composed mainly of vicua (Vicugna
126
Hunter-gatherers from a high-elevation desert. People of the Salt Puna (northwest Argentina)
vicugna), llamas (Lama glama), rodents (Ctenomys sp.,
Lagidium sp.), carnivores such as the puma (Felis concolor),
and birds such as the suri (Pterocnemia pennata). Three
types of ecologically distinct sectors are seen in the area:
the basin bottom, the intermediate sectors and high gorges
(Olivera 1992).
to ca. 9800 BP (UGA 9257) for level 2b19 (Hocsman
2002) (Table 1).
This site provides early and continuous human evidence in
the South Puna of Argentina beginning the early Holocene,
and also during the middle Holocene an arid period
during which some authors had proposed an abandonment
of certain Puna areas (Nez et al. 2002). It is therefore an
interesting site not only for the study of the colonization of
the area (sensu Borrero 19941995) but also for observing
changes in hunter-gatherer societies in the Middle and
Late Archaic.
The observed variations in lithic assemblages (degree of
maintenance, utilization patterns of raw materials) suggest
changes in residential mobility, as suggested by Pintar
(1996, 2004, 2008) who mentions a high mobility between
patches in the early Holocene and a reduction of residential
mobility and increased logistics for the middle Holocene.
In this sense, it has been proposed that during the early
occupations, this site may have been used as a base for
hunters with high residential mobility; in the middle
levels, from ca. 7800 BP, a hunting station with ephemeral
occupation of the site, and in later levels, around 4400
BP, a site with periodic reoccupation, and changes in the
organization of the space (Aschero et al. 19931994). New
designs in projectile points beginning with level 2b13, ca.
7800 BP, are provided as evidence of the use of different
weapons and hunting techniques aimed at vicua and
guanaco hunting (Pintar 2009).
Faunal studies have also been made at this site, and there are
taxonomic results from bones, teeth and fibre morphology.
Modern taxa were exploited (Elkin 1996), and camelids
predominate with over 90% NISP. In all occupation levels
assignments to Vicugna vicugna and Lama guanicoe
were made from dental characteristics and osteometric
values. Osteometrical analysis has allowed establishing
two size groups of adult camelids, the smaller specimens
corresponding to vicua and the largest to guanacos. The
presence of vicua is also verified from incisors.
An intermediate ecological sector was also established for
this area, located at altitudes between 3550 and 3800 m
asl, with predominant vegetation units corresponding to
the pre-Puna and Puna subunits.
In the Punilla River sector, 20 km north of Antofagasta de
la Sierra, in the Curuto gorge, several sites with evidence
comparable to the regional Formative were located. One of
them is the Cacao Cave 1 (CC1A) located at 3700 m asl.
Plant macroremains of cultigens (corn, quinoa, peanuts,
squash) have been recovered there, as well as of wild
species (algarrobo, chaar and cebil), and faunal
remains (fleeces, bones), manufactures (yarns, twines),
artefacts on allochthonous materials such as a gourd
rattle (Lagenaria sp.) with a marine shell from the Pacific
Ocean, constituting a possible offering at this site (Olivera
et al. 2001). Like other sites in the area with rock art, it
Figure 1. Locaton of Catamarca Province
Archaeological evidence reveals occupation of the area
from the late Pleistocene until the Spanish-Indian encounter.
The archaeofaunal record of the region, which generally
shows good integrity, is dominated by camelids and also
includes rodents, birds and canids, as well as locusts
(Elkin 1996, Reigadas 2001a, Mondini and Elkin 2006,
Mondini and Reigadas 2007). From the beginning, faunal
exploitation was restricted to modern taxa, and although
remains of Pleistocene megafauna have been found in the
area, those studied so far show no traces of human activity
(Elkin 1996, Martnez et al. 2004). The hunting of vicuas,
guanacos, birds and rodents, the probable gathering of
locusts and the consumption of roots and tubers make up
a mixed strategy for obtaining resources, diversified, with
variable procurement costs (Mondini and Reigadas 2007;
Pintar 2009).
The Quebrada Seca 3 site (QS3) is located in the sector of
high gorges, to the east of the confluence of the Quebrada
Seca and Real Grande gorges, which flow into the Las
Pitas River (Figure 2). The site is located at 4100 m
asl and overhangs the south bank of the wetland (vega)
of the Quebrada Seca gorge at 67 25 W and 26 5 S.
Currently, the environmental conditions include moderate
summer rainfalls, winter snowfalls and annual frosts;
vegetation units correspond to those of high Andean and
Puna wetlands.
Excavations have revealed a series of stratified occupation
levels without ceramic findings. The context consists of
plant remains, bones, abundant stone tools, wood and bone
artefacts, many fleeces, basketry and pigments. Four major
stratigraphic units have been differentiated: Layer 0, 1, 2a
and 2b, where various levels of human occupation have
been detected (lower, middle and upper) using radiocarbon
dates ranging from ca. 2500 BP (Elkin 2006, Pintar 1996)
127
Mara del Carmen Reigadas The exploitation and use of faunal resources. The role of Quebrada Seca 3 ...
is close to a wetland and territories suitable for hunting
and gathering. This rock art at this site is interpreted
functionally (Aschero 1999) as a territorial marking.
The estimated chronology of this site extends from 8000
to 5500 BP based on rock art (Aschero 1999) and ca. 3400
BP to 870 BP based on radiocarbon dating (Olivera and
Vigliani 20002002; Hocsman 2002) (Table 1).
Characteristics of some animal species autochthonous to
the study area
In this section only some of the species that are relevant to
archaeological studies will be mentioned. Within the Order
Artiodactyla, Family Cervidae, the Hippocamelus bisulcus
(huemul), which is in close phylogenetic relationship
with the Pudu pudu (Pudu), colonized Patagonia from
northwestern South America. Akin to Pudu pudu, the
Mazama, which is represented by three species, lives
in northern Argentina. Two of the species, the Mazama
americana (red cervid) and Mazama gouazoubira (brown
cervid), live up to 2500 m asl., while Mazama rufina lives
in jungle areas. The north of this region was also colonized
by Hippocamelus antisensis (taruca or northern
huemul) with a steppe habitat between 3000 and 4000 m
asl (Olrog and Lucero 1989), sharing similar environments
with Camelidae (Benavente et al. 1993). The original
distribution range of these species extended from 34 S to
the Straits of Magellan at 54 S. The factors that led to their
retraction and current distribution are manifold: the activity
of predators, hunting by human groups, introduction of
exotic species, and low reproductive rates of some of
them, among others. The data available for these species
differs qualitatively. For taruca there is no available
information about weight and measurements, except for
some gathered information that suggests a weight of 41 kg
for a male of 2 3 years with a length of 136 cm from nose
to tail, and 90 cm in height. Group size varies between
1 and 13 individuals, and the larger ones include males,
females and fawns. Specific groups have large territories
(Benavente et al. 1993).
The Order Artiodactyla, Family Camelidae, at the
taxonomical level of tribe is divided into Lamini and
Camelini, with two genera, Lama and Vicugna for the
New World, and Camelus for the Old World. Both tribes
were separated from the suborder Pecora (ruminants)
40 million years ago (Wheeler 1995). The Lamini tribe,
represented by fossils of the Pliauchenia genus, originated
in the western plains of North America 11 million years
ago. Ten million years ago two genera, Alforjas and
Hemiauchenia, evolved from Pliauchenia. Alforjas and
their descendants, Camelops, remained in North America,
while Hemiauchenia migrated to South America during
the Pliocene/Pleistocene transition three million years ago.
Lama and Vicugna evolved two million years ago from
the latter genus. Palaeolama is another descendant of
Hemiauchenia (Wheeler 1995). Only Lama and Vicugna
survived the end of the Pleistocene 10,000 years ago, while
Camelops, Hemiauchenia and Palaeolama disappeared.
The Lama guanicoe species developed two subspecies:
Lama guanicoe guanicoe and Lama guanicoe cacsilensis
(Franklin 1983; Torres 1985). Its distribution is the
broadest of all South American camelids. Pleistocene
fossils were found in Argentina and Bolivia. At the time
of Spanish contact ... it covered the entire territory of
Argentina, Chile, the western portion of Peru and much of
the eastern territory of Bolivia, covering the north-western
Figure 2. Locaton of archaeological sites
Site Level Radiocarbon
age (BP)
Laboratory
number
Source
CC1A Level II 890 60 UGA 7533 Olivera pers.
comm.
CC1A Level III 870 60 UGA 7534 Olivera pers.
comm.
CC1A Structure 1,
deposit
970 60 UGA 7535 Olivera pers.
comm.
CC1A Sandal
leather
2870 40 UGA 9066 Olivera et al.
(2001)
CC1A Human hair
braid
3000 80 UGA 8627 Olivera pers.
comm.
CC1A Level 5 3390 110 LP 507 Hocsman
(2002)
QS3 2b2 4410 60 UGA 8357 Hocsman
(2002)
QS3 2b2 4510 100 Beta 27801 Aschero et
al. (1991)
al. (1991)
al. (1993-94)
QS3 2b8 6160 100 AC 1117 Elkin (1996)
QS3 2b10 6080 70 Beta 77745 Elkin (1996)
QS3 2b11 7130 110 LP 269 Elkin (1996)
QS3 2b13 7760 80 Beta 77746 Elkin (1996)
QS3 2b14 7350 80 Beta 59928 Elkin (1996)
QS3 2b16 8330 110 LP 267 Elkin (1996)
QS3 2b17 8660 80 Beta 77747 Elkin (1996)
QS3 2b18 8640 80 Beta 59929 Elkin (1996)
QS3 2b19 9790 50 UGA 9257 Hocsman
(2002)
QS3 2b22 9050 90 Beta 59930 Elkin (1996)
QS3 2b25
summit
9250 100 LP 895 Hocsman
(2002)
QS3 2b25
botom
9410 120 LP 881 Hocsman
(2002)
Table 1. Radiocarbon datng (dates are uncalibrated)
128
Chaco of Paraguay (Torres 1985; editors translation).
Today this species is scattered along the Andes from 8 S
(Peru) to 55 S (Tierra del Fuego). The wide distribution
of guanaco (Lama guanicoe) reflects its adaptability to
different ecological conditions, which is due in part to its
browser-grazer nature (Wheeler 1995). It lives between 0
- 4250 m asl.
Lama guanicoe guanicoe is reddish brown, between 110
and 120 cm in height, 167210 cm in length and an average
weight of 120.2 +12.2 kg. Lama guanicoe cacsilensis is a
lighter brown with beige tones in the northern populations,
with a white chest, belly and the inside of the legs. It is
90 to 100 cm in length and weighs about 96 kg (Franklin
1982). Studies of Lama guanicoe guanicoe determine that
they have a basic pattern of polygamous groups, male
herds, solitary males, females and young, and mixed
groups (Franklin 1982). They maintain annual territories
and marginal areas, with both sedentary and migratory
habits.
Regarding Vicugna vicugna, there is paleontological
evidence from the Argentine Pampa dating to two million
years ago (Cabrera 1932). Much later, ca. 97,000 to 73,000
years ago, they are found in Bolivian deposits. With the
establishment of the current weather conditions, they
occupied the high Puna in the Peruvian Andes about 12,000
years ago (Wheeler et al. 1976). This also occurred in our
study area. Currently, their distribution corresponds to the
Andean Puna, covering a smaller ecological diversity than
the guanaco, perhaps because they are exclusively grazers
(Menegaz et al. 1989). The altitudinal distribution is also
narrower, between 3200 and 4600 m asl (Franklin 1983).
Geographically, they occupy the strip that extends from 9
50 S to 27 S.
Two subspecies of vicua have been described, Vicugna
vicugna vicugna (18 and 29 S) and Vicugna vicugna
mensalis (9 30 S and 18 S). This distinction is based
on differences in colour, height and molar length. V.v.
vicugna is 90 cm in height, has 57 mm long molars, a very
light cinnamon colour and is partially white on its ribcage
and hind legs. It has no pectoral tuft. V.v. mensalis is 70 cm
in height, but according to some sources it is 86-90 cm in
height, and its total length is 96-110 cm, while weighing 36
kg. Some authors increase these figures (Miller et al. 1973).
Its colour is brown cinnamon on the dorsal and lateral side
of the body, neck and dorsal portion of the head. The chest,
belly, inner legs and lower part of the head are white. It
has a pectoral tuft. Studies on Vicugna vicugna mensalis
suggest their social organization follows the same pattern
as the guanaco. Unlike the latter it has a sedentary lifestyle
and is almost exclusively a grazer; it is more territorial and
forms more fixed family groups. The preferred feeding
territory is characterized by grasses (Festuca, Stipa, Poa,
Calamagrostis genera) with 46%, 12% of Cyperaceae,
12% Compositae, 14% Rosaceae, 4% Leguminosae, 6%
Caryophyllaceae, 4% Malvaceae, 3 % Juncaceae and the
rest of unidentified elements (Franklin 1983). They graze
the tola (Lepidophyllum) only if necessary.
Lama glama has adapted to a wide range of environmental
conditions. It is currently distributed between 1 N in
Colombia and 27 S. Several phenotypic varieties are
recorded; one of them, Qara, Kara or without
wool, receives other denominations such as pelada
or carguera. Another variety is called Chaku or
lanuda, also known as tapada, peluda, tampullis,
and corresponds to the chaco, tapa or lacho type,
differing from the first variety in the fleece characteristics,
the degree of coverage and overall morphology (Maquera
Llanos 1991). These names correspond to the simple and
double coat types defined by Frank and Amuchastegui
(1993). Finally, group A with llama-like features is known
as the intermediate type, and is an intermediate variety
between the two previous ones (Lamas 1994). Their colour
varies from white to black, and from white to brown with
respective intermediate colours. It is 109-119 cm in height,
and weighs 108 to 130-155 kg (Franklin 1983). These
camelids are organized in flocks of males and females,
with a dominant male and a permanent territory. They
are both grazers and browsers and can therefore adapt to
multiple environmental conditions.
Thus, of the three species of South American camelids
present in Argentina, llamas and guanacos (grazers-
browsers) have the largest geographical distribution of all
and are the most adaptable to different ecosystems. Vicuas
are restricted in the habitats they can occupy because they
are merely grazers.
Menegaz et al. (1989) assert that the different dental
adaptations and the distribution of camelids are the result of
longstanding coevolutionary relationships that relate to the
presence of microthermic grasses. We must recall that the
expansion of stipoid grasses occurred simultaneously with
the arrival of ungulates (Equidae and Camelidae) to South
America in the Plio-Pleistocene (Patterson and Pascual
1972). Microthermic grasses correspond to temperate and
cold climates, with an average annual temperature of 10
C and an average winter temperature lower than 5 C. The
current distribution of camelids would not be the result of
adaptations to mountain habitats, but of the consumption
of certain pastures. Further, human activity, which includes
geographic expansion and the modification of habitats and
activities such as hunting, and the competition between
herbivores, must also be taken into consideration.
Other mammals in the region are wild canids such as
Pseudalopex culpaeus (red fox) and P. griseus (gray
fox) (Olrog and Lucero 1981). The red fox has an
average weight of 5-13 kg and occupies pampas, steppes
and mountain habitats up to 4500 m asl. It has a broad
omnivorous diet mainly based on small mammals. The
grey fox has an average weight of 4.4 kg and lives in
plains, grasslands, deserts and low mountains, although its
presence is recorded up to 4000 m asl (Mondini 2000).
Rodentia, including the Chinchillidae and Ctenomydae
families, which were consumed by early humans, are also
present in the region.
129
Humans preyed on wild camelids and cervids, as well as
on other local species such as the puma (Felis concolor)
and the red fox (Pseudalopex culpaeus). The Lama glama
species appeared as a product of the ever more intense
relationship between humans and camelids, reflecting
the conspicuous human intervention on a segment of the
available wild resources. Humans thus became, in relation
to this new species, protectors rather than predators.
Usefulness of animal fibre studies for the study of
archaeological contexts
The relevance and usefulness of fibres for explaining
processes linked to the type of wildlife exploitation and
utilization can be assessed in two ways:
-Socioeconomically: this concerns the relationship between
humans and animals, their coevolutionary nature, and has
the potential for explaining the continuity and/or change in
the economic and technological spheres.
-Biologically and genetically: these aspects characterize the
structure under study, and have the potential of assessing
the extent of human and environmental intervention.
The study of the morphology of the structures of animal
fibres is of particular interest, not only for the taxonomic
classification of species, but also for assessing the
various sources of morphological variation. The latter
include the domestication processes, as well as seasonal,
environmental, internal, and other processes.
We will briefly mention that during embryonic
development, epidermal cells invade the dermis to form
sweat glands and follicles that secrete hairs, which
distinguish mammals from other vertebrates. Two classes
of follicles are responsible for the production of coarse and
fine fibres. These are identified as primary and secondary
fibres, and their number is genetically determined. Most
mammals possess a bi-mantle, or double layer of fibres:
one of shorter and thinner fibres (wool, undercoat, or
secondary fibres), and one of longer and thicker fibres
(hair, uppercoat, or primary fibres). Their parameters
vary depending on the species considered. In the case
of camelids with domestication the range of thicknesses
changes and medium fibres appear.
Transversely, the fibres are composed of an outer layer,
or cuticle, which forms various patterns of scales and an
inner layer, or cortex, which forms the body of the fibres.
In cross-section, the cells of the cortex show a polygonal
shape. Unlike the cuticle scales (outer layer), they are
arranged vertically or longitudinally, with a nuclear residue
in their centre. Some fibres have a third central structure,
or central medulla (Wildman 1955).
For taxonomic purposes, the data derived from extrinsic,
intrinsic and structural characteristics of the fibres are very
useful, as some of them are specific to families, genera
and species (Wildman 1955; Clement et al. 1980). While
some qualitative characteristics are shared among different
taxonomic levels, the core description is useful for Order
level classifications and even Family level (Camelidae,
Cervidae) (Vzquez et al. 2000).
Regarding quantitative traits, distances between
measurement ranges that typify secondary, medium and
primary fibres of each species can be observed, despite
intraspecific variability and overlapping ranges at the
interspecific level. These ranges form patterns discernible
by the percentage of each type of fibre (mantle composition),
the thickness distribution in intervals corresponding to
each type of fibre and the medullation of each type of
fibre (Reigadas 2001a). Therefore, the study of follicles
and fibres from their qualitative and quantitative variables
(Dransart 1991; Reigadas 1992; Gecele et al. 1997) is of
value in determining the variations present in different
mammals, given that both structures give the fleece unique
characteristics for each species.
The transverse microscopic examination of the cell
structure of the fibres enables us to distinguish the cortex,
or cell layer (Ryder and Stephenson 1968). Two types of
cortical cells can be distinguished by their composition,
density, elasticity, dye-binding capacity (Fraser et al.
1972) and appearance under an electron microscope:
the ortho-cortex (basophilic, low density, soft, rich in
proteins with low sulphur content and good dye-binding
capacity) and the para-cortex (more dense, less elastic,
with high content of sulphur-rich proteins and with little
dye-binding capacity). There are interspecific differences
in camelids in terms of the arrangement of the types of
cells (Tucker et al. 1988; Tucker et al. 1990, Reigadas
2012).
Further, the morphology of stranglings, cracks and changes
in the thickness of the fibres is associated, among other
causes, with nutritional factors, which is of interest when
making inferences about environmental conditions (Ryder
1973; Carpio 1993).
Finally, the study of the structure of fibres and of
the composition of the mantles not only allows us to
identify the source of the fibres within the archaeological
technofactures, but also allows us to discriminate the fibre
selection by type, to detect the sources of selection and
to identify selection patterns. Further, this study allows us
to distinguish patterns of absence that enable taxonomic
identifications from the goods produced, despite not
having the natural fleece. Further, it also enables us to
detect functional changes in the primary and/or secondary
production, which is of interest when studying the use of
these resources.
Therefore, we consider the fibres as relevant evidence for
the study of archaeofaunas and the information generated
as useful for solving various methodological, analytical
and contextual problems. The analysis of animal fibres
recovered from the sites mentioned above is presented
next.
130
Materials and methods
Comparative and archaeological samples
The comparative sample consists of 200 fleeces. In the
case of the llama fleeces, they were collected by age
(first and second shearing), sex (male and female), body
regions (front and rear legs, back, stomach, neck), types
or varieties (pelada, lanuda and intermediate)
and environments (differentiated by resource supply and
distribution of pasture areas), in the towns of Susques,
Timn Cruz and Ro Grande, in the Province of J ujuy. The
fleeces of wild forms are from Susques and Abra Pampa in
the case of the vicua, and from Quebrada de Reyes in the
case of guanaco. The fleeces were collected according to
age, sex and body part (Reigadas 2001a).
In order to get a comparative sample of manufactures, a
study of the procedures performed during various stages
of production, such as collection and cleaning of fleeces,
the selection of fibres for spinning, their composition, and
spinning and/or weaving was carried out (Reigadas 1994,
2001b). The information was obtained from observations
and questionnaires, using both methods in two domestic
production units (DPU) for each locality (Reigadas 2008).
The sample includes: cordage, ropes, fine and coarse
woollen manufactures, and slingshots, among others.
The total sample of archaeological fibres is formed by 275
samples. Of this total, 202 correspond to 191 fleeces from
all levels of occupation of the Quebrada Seca 3 site (QS3)
and 11 cords from the upper levels of this site. From the
Cacao Cave 1A site (CC1A), 73 samples correspond to 20
fleeces, 11 threads and 42 cords from levels 3 and 1, and
from structures1 and 2.
Variables / Observations
The selected variables and the observations followed
the methodological criteria outlined in Reigadas (1992,
2010).
For the designation of taxa:
1. Intrinsic variables:
a) Total fibre diameter (thickness)
b) Medulla diameter in microns ()
2. Extrinsic variables:
a) Fibre type (primary or thick fibres, hair or
uppercoat; secondary or thin fibres, wool or
undercoat)
b) Colour
3. Structural variables
a) Type of medulla (spongy, serial, other)
b) Medulla distribution: absent (A), fragmentary (F),
discontinuous (D) and continuous (C)
c) Medullation Index (MI) or the portion of the fibre
occupied by medulla
d) Total Medullation Percentage (TMP), medullation
percentage of primary fibres (MPPF) and the
medullation percentage of secondary fibres
(MPSF)
e) Cortex: presence and distribution of para- and
ortho-cortex
Some of these variables are discriminant at an interspecific
level, such as fibre thickness, the composition of the mantle
(fibre type distribution), and medullation index and colour.
Other variables discriminate intraspecific variations for
llama (types), such as fibre thickness and composition of
the mantle.
Furthermore, variations in thickness can relate to internal
factors such as age, sex, body part and pigmentation
(Duga 1993; Frank and Amuschstegui 1993). The quali-
quantitative variables mentioned above were taken into
account in order to evaluate these internal factors, by
considering age (at first and second shearing), sex and
body part (neck, front and hind legs, belly, back).
Some authors (Carpio 1993) relate environmental sources
to thickness variations and mention effects on fibre growth
based on the diet during foetal follicular development, and
on different seasonal pasture conditions during the lifetime
of an individual. The average fineness of the fibres could
then be related to nutritional/seasonal factors that work in
different ways depending on the species. Similarly, Ryder
(1973) and Carpio (1993) suggest that a poor diet causes a
reduction in the strength of the fibre (which is associated
with decreased thickness) to the point where it may break.
Thus, stranglings, cracking and changes in the thickness
of the fibres are taken into account evaluating external
environmental sources.
Finally, the observation of the mantle origin (by species
and type), the selection procedures (cina/desmote),
the composition (fibres used after selection and discard)
and the source/pattern/item/purpose relationship are of
interest in order to understand the variations resulting from
the use of fibres as a raw material. Thus, the following
are taken into consideration: a) the procedures performed
in the production stages, b) the patterns deduced from
microscopic analysis of the fibres used in the production of
strings, cords, ropes, woollen manufactures, slingshots and
fleeces, and c) the evaluation of the sources of selection,
procedures and composition of the fibres in each case.
The sample preparation for morphological analysis
followed conventional standards for biological microscope
observation (with calibrated micrometre scale) (Reigadas
2001a). For the study of cortex, the fibres comprising each
sample were sliced into thin sections. They were fixed
in 2% glutaraldehyde in phosphate buffer; post fixed in
1% osmium tetroxide and embedded in Epon resin. Later,
ultrathin sections of 60 nanometres (nm) were made with
a Reichert Supernova-J ultramicrotome and were mounted
on copper grids. They were then contrasted with uranyl
acetate and lead citrate and examined in a transmission
131
electron microscope (TEM) J EM 1200 EX II (Central
Electronic Microscope Services, Veterinary Science
Department, Universidad Nacional de La Plata).
After the descriptive analysis of the data the general
distribution of thickness values was examined, starting
with intervals of 5 . The type of fibre is determined by
the upper limit of the known ranges for each species. For
archaeological samples, the upper limit chosen for thin
fibres is 31 , for intermediate fibres it is 66 , and greater
than 66 for thick hairs. The Medullation Index (MI),
Total medullation percentages (TMP) and fibre types
(MPPF and MPSF) were also obtained.
Comments on methodology
As for the reference sample, a positive evaluation can be
given to it, as it covers diverse sources of variation (inter
and intraspecific, internal and external). Observations can
be made without difficulty on archaeological samples,
since fibres maintain an unchanged structure. Another
advantage is that individual intraspecific variability of
the fleeces is very low, but very high between species
(Frank and Amuchstegui 1993). Some variables are
indicative of species level differences, which are of
taxonomic interest.
The evidence allows us to track early changes in the
phenotypes and is useful in cases where osteometry is not
suitable (e.g. problems with ambiguous size data) or when
there is a lack of tooth and bone material. Additionally, the
composition analysis of mantles overcomes the ambiguity
that sometimes appear with generate information from age
profiles (Reigadas 2001a). Further, the evidence creates
expectations regarding the usefulness of the data coming
from external sources of variation (environmental and
seasonal) and allows the analysis of technofactures from
the perspective of a production chain, independently of
technology and design (Reigadas 2009).
Results
Tables 2 and 3 provide a summary of the results from the
comparative sample of fleeces (n =200). The information
generated coincides with bibliographic data. Absolute
detected values for rodents are lower than 25 , which
is an interval corresponding to thin fibres, with a small
percentage for mean values.
Thickness distributon
(%)
Medulla distributon
(*)
Medulla type TMP MI Mean
<31 31- 66 66 <31 31- 66 >66 %
Rodenta 80 20 0 C C - U-series 100 0.8/0.9 12
Felis concolor 70 20 10 F/C C C Spongy 80 0.4/0.5 30
Vicugna vicugna 70 0 30 A/F - C Spongy 20 0.3/0.5 23
Lama glama 50 40 10 F/D F/D/C D/C Spongy 70 0.1/0.5 32
Lama guanicoe 55 16 29 F/D/C D/C C Spongy 90 0.3/0.8 40
Hippocamelus 0 0 100 - - C Retculated 100 0.9 -
Table 2. Interspecifc parameters
* C: contnuous; D: discontnuous; F: fragmented; A: absent
Types Sex/
Age (2 years or frst shearing;
4 years or second shearing)
Thickness distributon
(%)
Maximum
thickness
Mean
<31 31- 66 > 66
Pelada, double coat Female/ 2 years old 44 54 2
115 38
Pelada, double coat Female/ 4 years old 38 6 6
Pelada, double coat Male/ 2 years old 44 28 28
Pelada, double coat Male/ 4 years old 40 33 25
Intermediate Female/ 2 years old 54 44 2
80 33
Intermediate Female/ 4 years old 45 45 10
Intermediate Male/ 2 years old 60 38 2
Intermediate Male/ 4 years old 44 48 8
lanuda, simple coat Female/ 2 years old 64 34 2
71.4 29
lanuda, simple coat Female/ 4 years old 34 64 2
lanuda, simple coat Male/ 2 years old 58 42 0
lanuda, simple coat Male/ 4 years old 62 37 1
Table 3. Intraspecifc parameters (for Lama glama)
132
The medulla is in all cases continuously distributed;
it is shiny and in this case is present as a uniseriate
with interruptions of cortex segments consistent with
the specifications of Wildman (1955) and the data of
Fernndez and and Rossi (1998). A distinction based on
species should complete a detailed study of the differences
between uni, bi and tri-seriate.
All guanaco fibres present a medulla in three kinds of
distribution (continuous, discontinuous and fragmented),
which is consistent with the observations of Duga (1993).
High medullation indices are recorded (0.5 to 0.9), which
is a characteristic of this species. That author establishes
a lower thickness layer between 15 and 19 , and an
upper thickness layer between 25 and 35 . Other authors
consider less than 30 as a criterion for wool (undercoat
fibres) and more than 30.5 for hair (uppercoat fibres)
as criteria to distinguish guanaco. We now wish to clarify
that uppercoat, or primary fibres, are excluded from these
studies because they are used for the commercialization of
fibres. Thickness values shown in the table are consistent
with the data provided by Vzquez et al. (2000) for hair,
which is the category discussed in their studies, as well
as that in Duga (1993). There are coincidences in all
parameters for vicua and llama with the authors used as
reference (Frank et al. 1985; Carpio 1991; Maquera Llanos
1991; Frank and Amuchstegui 1993, among others).
Differences can be observed in thickness distribution by
fibre type that accounts for the characteristic bi-mantle in
wild forms (guanaco and vicua), as well as interesting
divergences in MI, means, TMP and colour (cinnamon
and light brown) with respect to domesticated forms
(white, ranges of brown, black). Figure 3 corresponds to
the patterns observed in the three species of camelids in
northwest Argentina.
The intraspecific differences (types) of Lama glama consist
of the following: a) The pelada type (double coat) has
less coverage and a high presence of primary fibres (hair).
The thickness values are the highest of all three types, with
an average of 38 and a maximum thickness of 115 . It is
the type with the lowest proportion of medium fibres (31-
66). This type is associated to transport activities. b) The
intermediate type has an average thickness of 33 and
a maximum thickness of 80 and is associated to wool
and meat production. c) The "lanuda (simple coat) type,
associated to wool production, has a greater coverage, with
no primary fibres (hair); the average thickness of fibres is
29 , with an absolute thickness value of 71.4 (Reigadas
1994).
Table 4 summarizes the information obtained for
the procedures observed in the production of current
manufactures.
1a: guanaco 1b: llama 1c: vicua
Figure 3. Current wild and domestc camelids of northwest Argentna
Species Fibre type Body part Procedure Compositon
Cords Vicua Wool (secondary) /Hair (primary) Bordel (legs,
paws, belly and
neck)
Partal cina cina feece is
discarded
Llama Wool (secondary)/Medium/Hair
(primary)
Ropes Llama Wool (secondary/Medium/Hair
(primary)
cina cina and bordel
feece
Cordage and
slingshots
Llama Medium/Hair (primary) Paws (lower secton
of the legs)
cina cina and paw feece
Fine woollen
goods
Vicua Wool (secondary) Back cina/
desmote
cina and desmote
feece is discarded
Llama Wool (secondary)/Medium
Coarse woollen
goods
Llama Wool (secondary)/Medium/Hair
(primary)
Legs and fanks Partal cina desmote and whole
feece
Table 4. Fibre selecton, procedures and spinning compositon
Cina: partal or total removal of uppercoat (primary fbres or hairs)
Desmote: eliminaton of uppercoat (primary fbres or hairs) and/or damaged fbres
Paws: > thickness (); Back < thickness ()
133
Archaeological samples
The comparison of archaeological fleeces and
technofactures with reference patterns allowed species-
level taxonomic assignments for wild (Lama guanicoe-
Vicugna vicugna) and domestic (Lama glama) camelids,
which was at the type-level for Lama glama, the order-
level for Rodentia, and family-level for Cervidae (Reigadas
2001a, 2010).
Quebrada Seca 3 (QS3)
In the lower level samples that correspond to the Early
Holocene (levels 2b14 to 2b19) there are high percentages
of fine fibres (< 31), presence of medium fibres (31 to 66
) and low percentages of thick hairs over 66 .
Disaggregated analysis provides details of those levels:
18 samples with means between 27 and 31 , with 50%
of the fibres with values lower than 31 , and 40% of
the fibres between 31 and 66 , and 10% of thick hairs.
The accentuated bi-mantle characteristic of wild forms
is not observed in these samples. These samples are
instead more homogeneous with significant percentages
of medium and thin fibres, some low thickness hairs, as
well as similar percentages by fibre type and thickness
range to those assigned to the current intermediate type.
Other parameters (medulla, MI, TMP and colour) were
comparable to the domesticated pattern. The designation
of early "llama pattern" was assigned to those samples
that appeared as isolated evidence, without indicators of
effective domestication and/or pastoralism, as well as in
samples with modifications in the associated osteological
assemblage, layers of guano, and other indicators that
result from contextual analyses.
Thirteen samples (from the same QS3 levels) that were
assigned to Vicugna vicugna were analysed. They show
thin fibres (secondary fibres or wool) with absolute
values lower than 21, and thick fibres (primary fibres
or hair) with values between 66 and 75 . The medium
fibres present in the samples described above were not
observed in this case, thus matching the characteristic coat
of wild species. Lama guanicoe is represented by four
reddish coloured samples, with very dark cortex and very
high absolute values for the primary fibres. A set of four
fleeces can be assigned to the Order Rodentia. Its fibres
are grey/tan, with absolute values lower than 25 , and
few medium fibres with values below 35 . The medulla is
in all cases continuously distributed; it is shiny and has a
uniseriate form or U-shape with bars, with cortex segment
interruptions. The TMP is 100 and has a high MI.
Broken fibres are observed in 2b19 and 2b18 levels. We
should mention that several authors support the hypothesis
that diet affects the characteristics of the mantle. The
appearance of hair, according to Ryder and Stephensson
(1968), is a common way of judging the condition of the
animal. Those supporting the idea that nutritional aspects
are factors that affect the quality of the fibres suggest
that a poor diet causes a reduction in the strength of the
fibres until they break. This phenomenon is associated
with a decrease in thickness (in cases of extreme thinness
the fibres may stop growing). Some possible effects are,
thus, decreased diameter of the fibres, less fleece weight
per individual, strangling (information provided by the
Department of Animal Husbandry Universidad Nacional
de La Plata), and brittle and/or broken fibres (Ryder 1973;
Carpio 1993). If we support this hypothesis, the appearance
of broken fibres would not be inconsistent with available
paleoclimatic information which points at environmental
degradation (Tchilinguirian and Olivera, this volume).
The comparison of the overall thickness distribution of
samples from the Mid-Holocene, or intermediate levels
(2b13 to 2b6 levels), with that from the Early Holocene
levels shows a decrease in the percentage of fibres with
thicknesses lower than 31 , an increase of medium
fibres, and the presence of fibres greater than 66 . Some
fibres have very high absolute values that exceed 135 ,
which correspond to the samples assigned to guanaco.
Forty-two samples were assigned to Vicugna vicugna,
33 to llama pattern, and nine to Lama guanicoe the
latter taxon corresponds to the 2b6 level. The rodent fibre
pattern is observed in 13 samples from levels 2b12, 2b11,
2b10 and 2b9.
The trend observed in these intermediate levels is more
defined in the upper levels (corresponding to Late Holocene).
In these levels (2b5, 2b4, 2b2) there is an increase in fibres
with thicknesses ranging from 31 to 66 as compared to
intermediate levels. Thirty-four samples (fleeces) and four
cords were assigned to vicua, which contribute thick and
thin fibres of low values. Twenty- five samples (fleeces)
and seven cords were also assigned to the llama pattern,
with similar percentages of medium and thin fibres, with
few hairs. Finally, nine samples correspond to guanaco.
These samples provide the lowest values for thin fibres and
the highest values for frequencies above 66 .
The samples corresponding to the llama pattern have
medullar characteristics typical of the llama, in which a
TMP of 80% and a low MI (0.1 to 0.5) is observed. The
distribution of thin and medium fibres is fragmentary,
while that of thin, medium and thick fibres is discontinuous
and interrupted, and that of medium and thick fibres is
continuous. The medullar characteristics of the samples
assigned to vicua match the comparative pattern. They
have low TMP of 20%, with a higher MI than the llama
(0.3 to 0.5), a continuous and discontinuous distribution,
which is interrupted for the thicker fibres, and fragmented,
or absent for the thinnest. The same occurs in the samples
assigned to guanaco, which have a very high TMP of
90% and a high MI (0.1 to 0.8). In terms of the medullar
distribution, it is continuous in the whole range of
thicknesses, discontinuous in thin and medium fibres, and
fragmentary in thin fibres.
In all cases the colour is consistent with the comparative
sample. If we consider that the greatest variation in the
134
mantle colour of camelids occurs in domesticated animals,
a fact which becomes functional for textile production
and for herd recognition (Novoa and Flores Ochoa 1991;
Reinieri 1993, 1995), then the colours of the samples
observed become significant.
In the group of natural fibres, cinnamon corresponds
to vicua and reddish to guanaco. The llama pattern
colours do not match the wild variants, but are brown
and white. Thus there are differences in all parameters,
including this qualitative variable. It is worth noting that
white appears also in the inner flanks and the belly of the
wild forms. Whatever the explanation for the presence of
these differences, in the case of the white samples studied,
their thickness rules out the possibility that they belong
to vicua or guanaco. Their presence in this context is
of interest because these fibres were used, like those of
vicua, for making cordage, a fact unlike guanaco fibres.
Aside from natural fibres, dyed fibres are also observed.
This is the case of two samples from the Early Holocene
levels (2b17 and 2b15) assigned to vicua. These samples
include fibres of natural colours mixed with red and blue
fibres respectively. One sample (from level 2b14), also
assigned to vicua, is yellow, whereas three samples from
the upper levels (2b5, 2b4 and 2b3), which are assigned to
llama pattern, had fibres that were dyed red.
Therefore, the microscopic analysis of animal fibres from
QS3 allows us to differentiate groups that are homologous
to known patterns. In these groups the presence of wild
camelids is confirmed: Vicugna vicugna (Figure 4) and
Lama guanicoe (Figure 5), as well as a group that does
not fit the classical morphological patterns of the wild
forms, and which we have called llama pattern similar
to intermediate actual type, associated with wool and
meat production (Reigadas 2001a, 2001b, 2006, 2009)
(Figure 6).
This type has also been detected by osteometric techniques
from Peas Chicas 1.5 dated around ca. 3800 AP (Aschero
et al. 2012). Mengoni and Yacobaccio (2006) also reported
size changes around 4000 AP from sites of the North Puna
of Argentina.
Given that the early llama pattern is relevant to assess the
changes in hunter-gatherer societies, we submitted some
samples to an independent control for morphological
analysis. This consists in the analysis of the cellular
structure of fibres and incorporates the analysis of the
cortex. The goal was to establish new interspecific
indicators that could enable a greater understanding of the
changes detected.
The samples selected for the cortex study correspond to
20 fibres from a white colour sample from 2b4 level at
QS3 (Cal. 3684- 4226 1s) (Aschero et al. 1993-1994)
that were assigned to the llama pattern by morphological
studies (Figure 6). The result obtained by examination
on the TEM shows the presence of both ortho and para-
cortex, but without a defined arrangement, and more
presence of nuclear waste (Figure 7), a situation which is
consistent with literature available for llama (Tucker et al.
1988; Carpio 1991). This arrangement differs from that of
wild camelids, where a defined bilateral arrangement is
observed, as is the case in Cueva Salamanca 1 (Reigadas
2012).
The ability to distinguish between vicua/guanaco and
llama/llama pattern based on the type and arrangement of
cortical cells is of great interest: it allows us to confirm
the assignments already made, independently from
morphological analysis. This strengthens the results for
the samples identified as early llama pattern in contexts in
which the bone sample reveals only the presence of wild
forms.
Figure 4. Vicua from QS3, level 2b4
Figure 5. Guanaco from QS3, level 2b5 (400X)
Figure 6. Llama patern 2b4 (400X)
135
General considerations on manufacturing procedures
identified in northwest Argentina
The use of fibres for the production of textiles and cordage
(Reigadas 1996, 2001a, 2001b, 2009) has been studied at
various archaeological sites from northwest Argentina,
such as at Inca Cueva 4 layers 2 and 1a, dated from ca.
10,620 to ca. 5200 BP (Aschero 1984; Aschero and Podest
1986); Huachichocana Cave III, dated from ca. BP 10,200
to post-Hispanic times (Fernndez Distel 1974); Morro del
Cinego Chico dated ca. 2750 - 2460 BP; Chulpa Chayal,
ca. 260 BP (Yacobaccio et al. 1998) in the North Puna of
Argentina and others in Antofagasta de la Sierra, such as
Peas de la Cruz dated ca. 79007200 BP (Martnez 2007)
and Punta de la Pea 4 ca. 4060960 BP (Aschero 2005).
These studies have led us to conclude that fibres were
intensively used from early times. Further, there was a
relationship between the type and purpose of manufactures
as well as the selection of raw material and the species and
type of fibre employed. Special considerations were made
for aesthetic aspects and resistance.
The results show that for technofactures made with llama
fibres, the procedure used for spinning was cina. Medium
fibres from the legs and belly are used for cords, whereas
the fibres from the back are only used in fine textiles
manufactures. As for the fibre resistance, medium fibres
were used for the composition (mixture for spinning) in
cordage and coarse textiles, and paw fibres (lower section
of legs) were exclusively used in strings, while bordel
fibres (legs, paws, belly, neck) were used in strings with
many strands. The selection of secondary and medium
fibres is more visible in textiles and cordages. For strings,
ropes and coarse manufactures, thicker fibres were used,
with more hairs selected for this use. Low micron fibres
appear in burial-related manufactures. In such contexts,
there is a high use of secondary fibres, within the ranges
corresponding to each species.
With respect to primary production factors, the use of
mantles pertaining to the intermediate llama pattern was
observed beginning with the early occupations, whereas
lanuda or simple coat llama mantles, with a direct
reduction of the cina procedure, are associated with later
occupations.
The spinning with fibres of wild forms involved the
selection of thick fibres in the case of the guanaco and thin
fibres or full mantle for vicua. Interestingly, wild camelid
fibres were not used in ropes or cords used for fastening,
a fact that enhances our interest in llama pattern mantles.
Guanaco hairs were used in textiles and twines with an
aesthetic sense, as occurred with vicua dyed fibres that
were used for cordage. The use of vicua secondary fibres
in twines and textiles, and of guanaco primary fibres in
strings, appears to be associated with burials. A greater
contribution of vicua undercoat is recorded beginning
with the early occupations. In turn, guanaco hairs were
used for making manufactures in the North Puna (Reigadas
1992, 1995), but their use has not been recorded at sites in
the South Puna, except in Cueva Salamanca 1.
The assessment of the continuities and discontinuities in
the manufacturing procedures in a space-time framework
leads to conclude that the selection of fibres that was
associated with the type, characteristics and use of
goods remained stable over time. Moreover, no regional
variations are observed in the manufacturing aspects,
excluding the observation on the use of guanaco, however,
changes related to the economic strategy are observed in
both areas in the long run.
The production of secondary goods in Quebrada Seca 3
Both vicua and llama pattern fibres were used in
manufacturing cordage, with a prevalence of the latter in
the samples from the upper levels (2b4, 2b3 and 2b2) of
this site. Interestingly, thick cords are exclusively made
with early llama pattern fibres. This situation is repeated
for all sequences of the above-mentioned sites.
Seven of the 11 string samples analysed were made
with white and brown coloured fibres and were assigned
to llama pattern, while four samples were made with
cinnamon coloured fibres and were assigned to vicua. In
this context, a selection of fibres by species is observed
in cords made from fibres of the llama pattern, although
cina and/or desmote selection (removal of primary
fibres for spinning) are not observed. Hence, it appears
that thick fibres from the mantle were selected. These
fibres were present as well in the fleece samples assigned
to this llama pattern. Of the four cords made from vicua,
two show an intentional selection of fibres per type and
were made with thin fibres, thus discarding the thicker
fibres. They are associated with a funerary bundle from
level 2b2 (ca. 4900 BP). Interestingly, this procedure
appears in all contexts studied. The greatest amount
of work invested in the production of technofactures
(e.g. a high selection of fine fibres for spinning without
impurities) is always linked to goods that were not related
to domestic activities. In the other two cord samples
there are primary as well as secondary fibres. Finally,
Figure 7. Llama patern 2b4 (para and ortho-cortex) (8000X)
136
we can say that guanaco fibres havent been used in the
manufacture of cordage in QS3.
Cueva Cacao 1A (CC1A)
Twenty fleeces from this site were studied, and three of
them derived from two swabs and a rattle respectively.
Fibres are of various colours: red, black, brown, grey,
blue, cream, white, tan, light tan and yellow. The white
fibres that correspond to one of the swabs belong to a
sample identified as Lama glama. Several black hairs were
identified as human hairs, although two black samples
were identified as Lama glama. The red, blue and yellow
fibres were stained and also correspond to this species.
The remaining colours are natural: the various shades of
brown, white (Figure 8) and black correspond to Lama
glama, and the grey possibly corresponds to vizcacha
(Figure 9). The latter colour is also present in the llama
due to the casual mixture of white and pigmented fibres
(Renieri 1993). However, the sample was identified as
rodent by the thickness of the fibres, with values lower
than 10.7 and the presence of uniseriate medulla.
Brown, tan, white and black form the colour scheme
for the domesticated species. Solid colours, reddish for
guanaco and tan and/or cinnamon for vicua, distinguish
the wild forms. Natural and dyed fibres, such as the red and
blue, were used as raw materials. This situation reflects
the development of the practices that are associated with
textile production, which used procedures that involved
biological and aesthetic characteristics.
the first evidence of black fleeces for Tuln 85 and 54,
affirming that the inhabitants had domesticated camelid
herds. This statement is supported by the rare but significant
occurrence of black fibres, and by Gilmores (1950, cited
in Dransart 1991) comments that melanism does not occur
in guanaco populations. We also have the record of this
colour in other sites from the region of Antofagasta de la
Sierra, such as Cueva Salamanca 1, Level 1 ca. 3500 BP
(dated by projectile point morphology, Pintar 1996) and
a later occupation of Punta de la Pea 4 (Rodriguez et al.
2006).
Brown, tan, white and black are colours present in
Lama glama, and their presence in this context reveals
reproductive control over the camelid population. Given
that selection does not operate on what is visible, but
on the genetic history of the animal (Koenig 1989), the
constant and directed management must have been a way
to maintain certain mantle colours. Their fibres were
selected for spinning, for making ropes and other items, as
seen in the recovered materials.
The thickness distribution analysis and the percentages by
fibre type have enabled the identification of Lama glama
and rodents. There are also four samples corresponding
to black human hair, which have fibres with intermediate
values near 66 (20%) and very thick medullated fibres
with absolute values exceeding 100 (80%). One of
these samples forms part of the rattle. Further, two black
samples correspond to llama: one has thin fibres (60%)
and medium fibres (40%), with a mean thickness of 26 ,
while the other consists of thin fibres that match one the
swabs. Another group of white, and white/cream samples
was assigned to this taxon; one of them corresponding to a
swab consisting of 30% medium fibres and 70% thin fibres
with a mean of 30 . Black fibres assigned to llama have
a lower average diameter, and white fibres are thicker,
an observation that coincides with Cardozo and Martnez
(198l). Tan, red and brown fleeces were also assigned
to this species. This includes one sample with 40% thin
fibres and 60% medium fibres, and the other with inverse
proportions. Their means were 27 and 29 respectively.
The medullar characteristics of all fleece samples coincide
with the reference patterns.
One interesting observation arises from fleeces identified
as llama. The comparison of the archaeological samples
analysed here with the description of the three types of
llamas reveals that these samples are basically formed by
thin and medium fibres, with no coarse hairs; they exhibit
a very uniform distribution of thickness and have the
lowest means for the species. These features do not seem
to correspond to those assigned to the intermediate llama
or the carguera; they resemble, instead, those described
for the lanuda type, which has also been detected by
Yacobaccio and Paz (2006) in the North Puna of Argentina,
in the Quebrada de Humahuaca ca. 1100 AD.
The 11 cords analysed are composed of twined fibres. Three
cords are stained red and blue, whereas six cords have the
Figure 8. Llama lanuda (400X)
Colour is, from the genetic point of view, a qualitative
(Mendelian) trait. Koenig (1973) suggests that crossing is
less predictable in the case of Mendelian traits, such as
colour, given that the dominant alleles hide the expression
of the recessive alleles. This situation brings about a slower
genetic progress for these traits than for quantitative ones.
It is interesting that in the studied sample there are black
fibres in fleeces, yarns and cords. Dransart (1991) presents
137
natural fleece colour: two are black, three are brown and
one is white. All correspond to llama. Two cinnamon cords
are identified as vicua: one is composed of primary and
secondary fibres, but the second one is made of secondary
fibres only. The cords have the same thickness, medulla
and colour characteristics than the fleeces described
above. The exceptions are a cord assigned to vicua and a
red cord that has a lower mean than the other red fleeces,
a situation that is explained by the selection of secondary
fibres for processing. This same procedure was previously
observed in the black swab.
Among the studied materials there are strings made by
simple spinning, molin cords (which are defined as
having threads of at least two different colours or elements),
and mishmido cords (which are the product of very loose
spinning done with thicker fibres and a spinning stick)
(Rolandi de Perrot and Pupareli J imenez 1985; Reigadas
2001b).
Of the 42 analysed cords 11 are tan, two red, eight light
tan, five white/cream, three white, two light brown, four
brown, three dark brown and four black, all of which are
composed of two twined threads or cords.
Production of secondary goods in CC1A
Fibres of various colours, corresponding to llama, vicua
and rodent, were used for making swabs and assorted
cordage. The total sample provides evidence for three
stages: selection of the type of raw material, spinning
with and without selecting fibres, and textile manufacture
(Reigadas 2001a, 2001b, 2006b).
In Cacao 1A, the llama fleece was most commonly
selected, whereas vicua was chosen to a lesser extent. In
the case of the rattle, human hairs were selected too, as
was observed also in other contexts such as Chulpa Chayal
in Susques (Yacobaccio et al. 1997-1998). Regarding the
type of llama fibres selected, the use of secondary fibres
(<31 ) and medium fibres (31 and 66 ) is observed in
proportions that are similar to those in the fleeces, where
the presence of primary fibres is an exception. In a non-
significant number of cases (brown samples), medium
fibres and secondary fibres (dyed vicua fibres) seem to
be the ones selected.
However, as a whole, the differential fibre selection stage
does not occur in cord manufacture given the above-
mentioned llama fleece characteristics (with parameters
similar to the lanuda or simple coat type). Rather, fibre
selection operates on the totality of fibres present in this
type of mantle (which includes thin and intermediate
fibres). This explains the similarity in thickness distribution
for fleeces, yarns and cords. Therefore, in Cueva Cacao
1A the procedures of cina and/or desmote (removal of
coarse fibres) have not been detected, unlike at other sites
in northwest Argentina.
With respect to colours, we see the use of natural and dyed
fleeces present in both yarns and twines. The production of
coloured cords with diverse morphology could be evidence
of new elements associated with pastoralism, which relate,
on one hand, to the individual and private ownership of
herds and also to the possibility of recognizing llama
populations as belonging to the productive unit (animal
marking), and, on the other hand, to a sacred set of
practices (propitiatory rituals) which would guarantee the
multiplication of the flock. Currently, various practices in
the community, such as the sealada, serve to guarantee
the continuity of production/reproduction of the wellbeing
of individual/society. This is accomplished through certain
organized obligations with material expressions such as
figurines, pompoms, vests, bags adorned with threads and
strings, among others. There are different kinds of items
such as swabs that are beyond domestic consumption, in a
strict sense. Moreover, the existence of cords of different
morphologies suggests their use for different purposes.
Two aspects reflect, then, the development of herding in
this context. The first consists in the production of animals
with an aim shifted away from their primary use. The
second consists in the acquisition of a raw material of better
quality for the production of secondary goods, in which the
profusion of colours and techniques employed potentially
Figure 9. Rodent fbre corresponding to a string (600X)
The cords assigned to llama have the same thickness,
medulla and colour characteristics as the fleeces and
threads described above (with the exception of two dark
brown samples in which medium fibres were used, and
two of the six white strings which are made of secondary
fibres). Three cords are made from human hair: one is
composed of human hair and light brown llama fibres, and
the other two combine white and brown fibres, and cream
and brown fibres respectively. In the group of looser and
thicker strings there are some made with natural white
fibres and others with red dyed fibres, but none of the
goods are made from blue fleeces and cords. The use of
rodent fibres in the production of two strings should be
noted, which shows the intensive and guided use of all
available resources, even in later times.

138
enables the production of goods with differentiated use
and exchange value.
Regardless of the importance of herding in relation to other
activities, these two aspects define this productive activity
as a result and as an agent of higher social and economic
complexity. In the first place, herding reveals the continuity
and intensification of the relationship between humans and
animal resources available in the area. Second, herding
develops and maintains a specialized animal husbandry
that is based on the biological qualities obtained by human
selection. Third, it enables new social relations embedded
in the development of potential exchanges of goods that
would enhance the social exchange networks of the social
units of production and consumption. Fourth, it links
material goods with the symbolic world of the society that
produces them by using some of the products in activities
not directly related to subsistence.
Discussion
Does the lack of lithic diagnostic indicators in the upper
levels of Quebrada Seca 3, Real Grande 5 and Quebrada
Seca 7 sites (Aschero et al. 1991) during the Late Holocene
result from a change in site function and the settlement
system? If so, the upper levels at Quebrada Seca 3 may
no longer correspond to a hunting camp but an alternative
control post within a transitional economy. Thus, it
is possible to envision a practice that involved the local
camelid population that would allow the accumulation
of the observed variations in the thickness distribution,
fibre medulla, colour and fleece composition within the
established adaptive structure.
Some considerations with respect to early changes in the
fibres that are related to osteological indicators should
be emphasized. Dental characteristics and osteometric
values allowed assignments to Vicugna vicugna and
Lama guanicoe in all occupation levels of the Quebrada
Seca 3 site. We observe that the determinations of wild
forms match: a) with Vicugna vicugna assignments
in lower, intermediate and upper levels of this site, b)
with provisional assignments to Lama guanicoe in the
intermediate and upper levels, and c) with assignments to
rodent species.
If osteometric and dental indicators were only used in this
faunal context, then it would appear that the phenotype of
camelids remained constant in wild forms (Elkin 1996;
Mondini 2003). On the contrary, if the morphological
characteristics of the fleeces are taken into account we
observe that variation has been generated without human
intervention. This is reflected in the appearance of a mantle
pattern that is homologous to that of llama. This pattern
begins in the early levels of the sequence and has been
discussed in several studies (Reigadas 2001a, 2000-2002,
2006, 2008; Mengoni and Yacobaccio 2006; Mondini and
Elkin 2006).
The increase in the comparable llama fleeces along
the sequence of QS3 indicates that the individuals that
carried this variation were protected. Their maintenance
was related to decision-making and utilitarian factors, for
example, manufacturing selection, and could be assessed
as an element that was linked to a comprehensive change
in the management of this resource. This instance has been
suggested for later moments of the sequence (Aschero et
al. 1993-1994). Thus Pintar (1996) proposes, on the basis
of lithic analysis (and the increase of non-standardized
instruments), that in the Late Holocene there might have
been a reduction of the risk for obtaining food. This
situation could have occurred under two conditions: climate
change at the end of the Altithermal and the presence of
domesticated herds. As we commented above, around
4000 AP osteometric data show changes in size that may
be related to the appearance of new fleece colours.
The presence of a basket with Formative characteristics in
the upper levels (ca. 2500 BP) suggests changes in relation
to a new economic system that was later consolidated
in the area (Olivera and Vigliani 2000-2002). Early
morphological variations of the fibres would mark the
beginning of the process in which the reduction of hunter-
gatherer mobility was necessary in order to control and
reproduce the phenotype with the detected variations.
The characteristics of the mantles assigned to the llama
pattern (intermediate type) can be useful to weigh the
potential benefits offered by this new variety. On this point
we can mention the economic utility studies of anatomical
parts of the llama and guanaco made by Mengoni (1996),
which connect the efficiency of available meat in the llama
as a relevant aspect of the domestication process.
If we consider that the domesticated species has a
generalized production profile that is suitable for various
uses, then not only would food production be the central
activity of pastoral economies, but the production of other
items would be as well. This characterization also leads
us to consider that the secondary production of fibres
for manufactures was of vital importance in the process
of domestication and of early pastoralism. The cordage
produced in QS3 (upper levels) from modified fleeces is an
example of decisions made in reference to this secondary
production. We already discussed the interesting situation
about the exclusive use of fibres of the llama pattern for
making thick cords and ropes beginning with early human
occupation of northwest Argentina.
The domestication of camelids includes handling behaviours
through observation, protection and intentional captivity of
a generalized phenotype that formed a meat-fibre system
(Reigadas 2001a). Territorial and reproductive control, or
pastoralism, organizes multiple ecological, technological,
institutional and economic variables. This process not only
results in the reconfiguration and rearticulation of new
territories that is based on the progressive control of water
and/or pasture which are necessary for the organization
of herd management. The new productive technology is
139
also accompanied by drastic social transformations. These
transformations include the emergence of individual
property and the inheritance rights of herds, in a society in
which domesticated animals play a role in kinship ties and
in the formation of new social ties and lines of status.
Local developments of this new system in northwest
Argentina generated differences in pastoral strategies that
can be classified according to their productive profile as
mixed economies with pastoralism and agriculture in a
small and/or large scale (pastoralism with complementary
agriculture, agriculture with complementary pastoralism)
and pure pastoral economies. This evolutionary
development culminates, in later contexts in this area, in
a production system based on pastoralism of the Lama
glama species, with an agricultural component of various
scales.
Cacao 1A, as was explained by Olivera and Vigliani
(2000-2002), forms a mixed pastoral system with an
agricultural component. This site participated in a system
in which the production goal incorporated the production
of lanuda animals, with better quality wool. This change
could be a result of the intensification of production due to
a kind of technological management that might have given
prominence to this aspect. The storage of standing fibres
was added to that of meat on the hoof. This resulted in
the inversion of the meat-fibre to fibre-meat productive
equation.
Three stages of the textile manufacturing process were
recovered at this site: selection of raw material, spinning and
manufacturing (making cords and swabs). As a consequence
of the mentioned characteristics of the fleeces assigned to
llama in this context, the manufacture of these cords was
not preceded by a specific selection of fibres, but rather
the fibres composing the available mantles (single coat or
lanuda llama) were selected. Regarding the colours, we
see the use of natural and dyed fleeces in both threads and
cords. The production of dyed cords has an early record
in the area, but in this case the detected diversity could be
revealing new elements such as pompoms, and cords for
bags, among others, that are related to practices associated
with pastoralism (animal marking, religious and/or festive
practices). It is possible that wool swabs were not strictly
linked to domestic activities. Moreover, the existence of
cords of different colours, tensions and morphologies
suggest different uses.
Thus, two aspects reflect the development of animal
husbandry in this context: on the one hand, the maintenance
of a population of camelids that provided good quality
wool, which offers a wide range of colours in both its
natural and/or dyed state, and on the other, the production
of manufactures for different purposes. This change in
pastoral strategy is suggested from other lines of evidence,
such as variations detected in the age profiles of the
camelids belonging to later pastoral context in comparison
to those of early herders (Madero 1993).
A greater complexity of the settlement pattern and the
agricultural production sectors is also noted for this sector
of the Puna. However, the development of an extensive
strategy for this type of production did not obscure the
place that pastoralism occupied in this society, even more
so if agriculture had largely foraging purposes (Olivera
1997).
Interestingly, toward 1000 BP Olivera et al. (2004)
suggest a peak of environmental dryness that coincided
with new agricultural technologies, including the use of
artificial irrigation, which increased production yields.
An intensification of the economy as a whole is suggested
by agricultural and herding practices toward 1000 BP.
This intensification included qualitative changes in the
technological-productive sphere, as well as continuity in
hunting activities through historical times.
Conclusions
The selection of camelids among exploited taxa is observed
beginning with the early occupations in this area. Camelids
were used for food, as well as for the production of textile
manufactures, bone artefacts and leather manufactures
(Mondini and Reigadas 2008).
In the South Puna there is no record of early storage of
fleeces assigned to the intermediate type of the early llama
pattern, a situation that does occur in Inca Cueva 4 (layer
2). However, this type of fibre is present throughout the
Quebrada Seca 3 sequence, as it is in other early sites
in the region, such as Peas de la Cruz 1and Pea de las
Trampas 1.1. At these sites too, there is a similar use of
these fibres in a wide range of manufactures (some only as
thick cords and ropes).
The use of these fibres may have acted as a pivot for
the intensification in the relationship between hunter-
gatherer groups and a segment of the camelid population.
The increase in the percentage of manufactures and
the appearance of colours associated with camelids
management in the upper levels of Quebrada Seca 3 and
other aforementioned sites adds relevant information for
evaluating the observed changes beginning 4000 BP that
necessarily precede the comprehensive reorganization of
the economy towards 3000 BP.
Cacao 1A signals the appearance of single coat or lanuda
llama fibres that are the result of a form of pastoralism
guided by a process of selective breeding already
consolidated in the area. These fibres express a change
in the goal of the productive strategy, which was initially
oriented towards meat-fibre production, and later changed
to fibre-meat. One of the substantial effects of pastoralism
was the improvement of wool and the reduction of cina
in the manufacturing procedures, as well as the preventive
availability, via shearing, of wool.
140
The data presented here reflect only one of the aspects that
played a role in the observed changes in the study area.
These data are studied in the framework of a regional
development, while assuming that the cases analysed are
partial segments in the scale of the study of the evolutionary
history of Antofagasta de la Sierra.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Carlos Aschero, Daniel Olivera, Mariana
Mondini, Elizabeth Pintar and J orge Martnez for their
generosity in providing materials for study and for what
I have learned from their extensive and intense work in
Antofagasta de la Sierra.
I would also like to acknowledge the technicians Roxana
Peralta and Fernanda Faissal at the Central Electron
Microscopy Service of the Veterinary College of the
Universidad Nacional de La Plata for the laboratory work
on cortex and the photographs.
The Ministry of Science and Technology of the Universidad
Nacional de J ujuy and the Ministry of Science and
Technology of the Universidad de Buenos Aires provided
funds for research.
The Institute of High Altitude Biology of the Universidad
Nacional de J ujuy provided their laboratory and
photographic support.
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