Industrial Crops and Products 59 (2014) 96104

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Industrial Crops and Products
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Performance, emissions, and heat losses of palm and jatropha
biodiesel blends in a diesel engine
M.J. Abedin

, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam

, A. Sanjid, S.M. Ashrafur Rahman,

I.M. Rizwanul Fattah
Centre for Energy Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 22 January 2014
Received in revised form30 April 2014
Accepted 4 May 2014
Available online 27 May 2014
Keywords:
Diesel engine
Performance
Emission
Heat loss
Biodiesel
a b s t r a c t
After the successful implementation of B5, 5% palm(Elaeis guineensis) based biodiesel, in Malaysia on June
1, 2011, the Malaysian government is now looking to phase out B5 byreplacing it with B10or even ahigher
blending ratio. Being non-edible feedstock, jatropha (Jatropha curcas) can play a vital role along with the
existing palm oil. This experiment was conducted in a four-cylinder diesel engine fuelled with B5, 10%,
and 20% blends of palm (PB10 and PB20) and jatropha (JB10 and JB20) biodiesel and compared with fossil
diesel at full load and in the speed range of 1000 to 4000 RPM. The brake power was decreased on average
2.3% to 10.7% while operating on 10% and 20% blends of palm and jatropha biodiesel. An average of 26.4%
BSFC increment was observed for PB20 and JB20 blends. An average of 30.7% carbon monoxide (CO) and
25.8% hydrocarbon (HC) emission reductions were found for 20% blends. On average, the nitrogen oxides
(NO
x
) emission is decreased by 3.3% while operating on PB10 and PB20 blends, whereas it is increased
by 3.0% while operating on JB10 and JB20 blends.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Climate change, limited efciency of automotive engines and
stringent antipollutionlaws imposed by governments have created
a stimulus to explore more efcient engines with acceptable emis-
sions level. In this context, biodiesel can be a promising solution
duetoits comparableproperties withfossil diesel fuel (Abedinet al.,
2013; Jayedet al., 2009). It is non-toxic, non-ammable, biodegrad-
able, and also environment-friendly. In addition, biodiesel can be
usedeither pureor blendedwithfossil diesel fuel at anyproportions
and can be burnt by existing diesel engines without any further
modications (Mojur et al., 2013; Rahman et al., 2013).
Abbreviations: BSFC, brake specic fuel consumption [g/KWh]; B5, 5% palm
biodiesel +95% diesel; B10, 10% biodiesel (any) +90% diesel; FAME, fatty acid methyl
ester; FFA, free fatty acid; LPG, liqueed petroleum gas; LHV, lower heating value
[kJ/kg]; PB10, 10%palmbiodiesel +90%diesel; PB20, 20%palmbiodiesel +80%diesel;
IC, internal combustion; JB10, 10%jatropha biodiesel +90%diesel; JB20, 20%jatropha
biodiesel +80% diesel; RPM, revolution per minute.

Corresponding authors at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, University

of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel.: +60 1 82697028/+60 3 79676863;
fax: +60 3 79675317/+60 3 79674448.
E-mail addresses: joynul06me@siswa.um.edu.my (M.J. Abedin),
kalam@um.edu.my (M.A. Kalam).
Oilseeds, in particular palm oil, are the main (about 73%)
agricultural product of Malaysia. According to the United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA), Malaysia is the Worlds second
largest producer (32.7%) and exporter (40.0%) of palm oil, behind
Indonesia (production, 53.3%, and export, 49.5%) (United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA), 2013). As a non-edible feed-
stock, Jatropha curcas has drawn the attention of the Malaysian
government. Fewprojects on jatropha cultivation have started and
57,601 hectares of jatropha are expected by 2015 (Mojur et al.,
2012). Palmoil based B5 biodiesel rst rolled out in central regions
of Malaysia on June 1, 2011, and then nationwide in early 2013. B5
is nowavailable at 247 BHPetrol stations in Kuala Lumpur and con-
sumes 1.03 million liters of palm-oil biodiesel each month, which
saves nearly 12.4 million liters of fossil diesel fuel consumption per
year (Paultan.org, 2011). After the successful implementationof B5,
the Malaysiangovernment is nowlooking to go beyond5%(i.e., 10%
or even higher) by mid-2014 (Mysinchew.com, 2013).
Most of the articles published regarding palm and jatropha
biodiesel are based on single-cylinder engines and are subjected
to biodiesel properties, engine performance, and emission anal-
yses. It is reported that in a four-cylinder diesel engine (Canakci
et al., 2009) at full load and different engine speeds using various
palmbiodiesel blends (5%, 10%, 20%, andso on), the power is almost
same as diesel for 10% biodiesel and decreased with the increase of
the blend ratio. The same article also reported that BSFC is higher
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.05.001
0926-6690/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M.J. Abedin et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 59 (2014) 96104 97
Nomenclature
C specic heat [kJ/kgK]
m
-
mass owrate [kg/s]
N engine speed [rev/s]
P power [kW]
Q heat [kJ]
T temperature [K]
Subscripts
a air
b brake
exh exhaust
f fuel
g gas
oil lubricating oil
s supplied
w water
un unaccounted
for palm biodiesel compared to diesel fuel. They also found lower
CO, HC, and smoke emissions and higher NO
x
emission for palm
blends. In a six-cylinder engine (Ozsezen and Canakci, 2011) using
palm biodiesel, it is observed that the power is decreased about
2.5% and the BSFC is increased about 7.5%. The article also reported
lower CO(86.89%), HC (14.29%), and smoke (67.65%) emissions and
higher NO
x
(22.13%) emissioncomparedtodiesel fuel. Inajatropha-
fuelled three-cylinder engine (Sahoo et al., 2009), it is reported that
the brake power is slightly increased and the BSFC is much higher
compared to diesel at full load and different engine speeds. It is
also reported that HC and smoke emissions are lower and CO and
NO
x
emissions are higher for jatropha blends. In a jatropha-fuelled
four-cylinder engine (Manickamet al., 2009), it is reported that the
power is decreased except at optimised injection timing, and the
BSFC is always higher at full load and different engine speeds. In
the same literature, it is observed that all emissions except NO
x
are lower compared to diesel fuel. However, according to single-
cylinder engine reports, the results are similar (lower brake power
and higher BSFC) for palm (Ndayishimiye and Tazerout, 2011; Ng
and Gan, 2010; Sharon et al., 2012) and jatropha (Chauhan et al.,
2012; Ganapathy et al., 2011; Mojur et al., 2013) biodiesel, though
afewexceptions arealsofound(Agarwal andAgarwal, 2007; Huang
et al., 2010; Tan et al., 2012). Similar emission results are reported
for single-cylinder engines, but two researchers (Jindal et al., 2010;
Sundaresan et al., 2007) reported higher COemission while operat-
ing on jatropha biodiesel blends, and a few researchers (Kinoshita
et al., 2003; Ng et al., 2012) reported slightly lower NO
x
emission
while operating on palm biodiesel blends. According to the pre-
viously cited articles, the lower caloric value, higher kinematic
viscosity, and density of biodiesel cause poor fuel spray and atom-
isation which results in lower brake power, and higher BSFC. The
contradictory results are attributed to the complete combustion
characteristics of biodiesel for having more oxygen molecules in
their structure. This factor is also responsible for the lower CO
and HC emissions of biodiesel. Researchers claimed that the high
in-cylinder combustion temperature associated with oxygenated
biodiesel is the main reason for higher NO
x
emission. The contra-
dictory emission results, like lower NO
x
emission, are attributed to
the lower in-cylinder temperature due to the lower caloric value
of biodiesel.
An IC engine is a complex of machinery and instrumentation,
all of which must work together as a whole. It can be considered
as a thermodynamic (open) system, which is an effective concept
for understanding the thermodynamic behaviour of the system. It
is linked to the idea of control volume, a space enclosing the sys-
tem and surrounded by an imaginary surface often known as the
control surface (Fig. 1). If one can identify all the mass and energy
ows into and out of a system, then it is possible to visualise the
inside of that system by drawing up a thermal balance sheet of
the inows and outows (Abedin et al., 2013). Heat loss analysis
andthermal balancing are investigatedby using hydrogen-gasoline
(Yksel and Ceviz, 2003), alcohol-diesel blends (Ajav et al., 2000),
LPGfuel (i.e., liqueed petroleumgas) (zcan and Sylemez, 2006),
and biodiesel (Canakci and Hosoz, 2006; Debnath et al., 2013). They
reported that all the heat losses are higher except exhaust heat loss
while using biodiesel. The reason is attributed to the promotion of
better combustion of biodiesel. The reason for lower exhaust heat
loss is attributedtothe lower concentrationof HCandCOemissions
in the exhaust gas for biodiesel (Canakci and Hosoz, 2006).
The objective of this experiment is to nd out the variations in
engine performance and emissions as well as heat loss characteris-
tics while operating on diesel, B5, and 10%, and 20% blends of palm
and jatropha biodiesel.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Biodiesel production
Crude vegetable oils were converted to biodiesel by applying
(a) acid esterication and (b) base trans-esterication processes.
Crude palm oil only needed base trans-esterication process but
crude jatropha oil required both steps because the acid value was
greater than 4mg KOH/gm. Methanol was used as solvent with
H
2
SO
4
and KOHfor the rst and second process, respectively. Using
acid catalyst, free fatty acid (FFA) level of crude jatropha oil was
reduced about 12%. A Favorit jacket reactor of 1l capacity was
used with IKA Eurostar digital stirrer and Wiscircu water bath
arrangement. One liter crude oil, 200ml methanol, and 0.5%H
2
SO
4
(v/v) were mixed in a ask for acid-catalysed esterication. The
mixture was constantly stirred at 700RPM, 50

C to 60

C tempera-
ture, and maintained at atmospheric pressure by circulating hot
water through the jacket. A sample of 5ml was taken from the
ask at 10min intervals to determine the FFA level. After com-
pleting the acid esterication process, the product was poured
into a separating funnel where H
2
SO
4
and excess alcohol including
impurities were moved to the top. Then the top layer was sepa-
ratedandthelower layer was collectedfor basetrans-esterication.
The same experimental setup was used for the alkaline-catalysed
trans-esterication process. Meanwhile, 1% KOH (w/w) dissolved
in 25%methanol (v/v) was poured into the ask. Then the mixture
was stirred at 700 RPMand at 70

C temperature. The mixture was

heated and stirred for 3h and again poured into a separating funnel
where it formed two layers. The lower layer contained glycerol and
impurities, andthe upper layer was methyl ester of crude vegetable
oil. The lower layer was discarded and the yellowupper layer was
washed with hot distilled water (100%v/v) and stirred gently to
remove the remaining impurities and glycerol. Then the biodiesel
was taken in an IKA RV10 rotary evaporator to reduce the moisture
content. Finally, moisture was absorbed using sodiumsulphate and
the nal product was collected after ltration.
2.2. Fatty acid (FA) composition
The fatty acid compositions of palmand jatropha biodiesel were
tested using the MPOB test method (Malaysian Palm Oil Board
(MPOB), 2005). Aspecied amount (0.02g) of biodiesel was diluted
with1.5ml hexane ina small vial. APerkin-Elmer GCequippedwith
a ame ionisation detector (FID) was charged with 2l of diluted
sample for FAC analysis. Identication of each peak was done by
98 M.J. Abedin et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 59 (2014) 96104
Fig. 1. IC engine control volume showing all energy ows [2].
comparing it with an external standard reference mixture of fatty
acid methyl esters. The concentrations of the identied peaks were
addedas anabsolutevalue. Thepercentageof eachfattyacidmethyl
ester (FAME) was calculated based on this value. Table 1 shows
the FA composition of palmand jatropha biodiesel. Palmbiodiesel
consists of twelve components; seven saturated fatty acid esters,
three mono-unsaturated fatty acid esters and two polyunsaturated
fatty acid esters. Among them, methyl oleate is the dominating
ester (44.2%), with methyl palmitate (38.1%) at second position.
Thus, it contains 44.1% saturated, 44.6% mono-unsaturated and
11.3% polyunsaturated methyl esters. Jatropha biodiesel consists of
eight ester components; four saturatedfatty acidesters, two mono-
unsaturated fatty acid esters and two polyunsaturated fatty acid
esters. Among them, methyl oleate is the dominating ester (41.8%),
with methyl linoleate (32.9%) at second majority. Thus, it contains
24.3% saturated, 42.6% monounsaturated and 33.1% polyunsatu-
rated methyl esters.
2.3. Fuel property measurement
Four different biodiesel blends (i.e., 10% and 20% of each
biodiesel) were prepared for this experiment. The 10% blends will
be denoted as PB10 and JB10 for palm and jatropha biodiesel,
respectively. Onthe other hand, the 20%blends will be presentedas
PB20 and JB20 for palmand jatropha biodiesel, respectively, where
the numerical value denotes biodiesel percentage inthe blends. The
quality of biodiesel depends upon the feedstock quality, chemical
composition of feedstock, production process, storage and hand-
ling process. Crude palmand jatropha oil were provided by Forest
Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM). Diesel and B5 (5% palm+95%
diesel) biodiesel were bought bythe authors froma BHPetrol oil ll-
ingstationnear theUniversityof Malaya. Theoils wereconvertedto
the biodiesel, and the properties were measured at the Department
of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, Malaysia.
Saponication Number (SN), Iodine Value (IV), and Cetane
Number (CN) of the produced biodiesel were calculated using
equation, SN=

(560A
i
/MM
i
), IV=

(254DB
i
A
i
/MM
i
), and
CN=[46.3+(5458/SN) (0.225IV)], respectively. Where A
i
is the
percentage of each component, DB
i
is the number of double bonds,
and MM
i
is the molecular mass of each component (Rizwanul
Fattah et al., 2014). Table 1 is used for the calculation. The mea-
sured fuel properties of all the tested fuels are listed in Table 2
along with equipment specications.
2.4. Experimental setup and procedure
The experiment was performed in a four cylinder diesel engine.
The schematic diagramof the test bed and engine specications are
given in Fig. 2 and Table 3, respectively.
Table 3 Technical specication of the tested engine The engine
was loaded with a water-cooled passive eddy-current dynamome-
ter. It was operated at full load condition and varying speeds
Table 1
Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) compositions of the tested biodiesels.
FAME Structure Molecular mass Formula Palmbiodiesel
a
Jatropha biodiesel
a
Methyl laurate 12:00 214.34 CH
3
(CH
2
)
10
COOCH
3
0.3 0
Methyl myristate 14:00 242.4 CH
3
(CH
2
)
12
COOCH
3
1 0.1
Methyl palmitate 16:00 270.45 CH
3
(CH
2
)
14
COOCH
3
38.1 17.7
Methyl palmitoleate 16:01 268.43 CH
3
(CH
2
)5CH CH(CH
2
)7COOCH
3
0.2 0.8
Methyl stearate 18:00 298.5 CH
3
(CH
2
)
16
CO
2
CH
3
4.1 6.4
Methyl oleate 18:01 296.49 CH
3
(CH
2
)7CH CH(CH
2
)7COOCH
3
44.2 41.8
Methyl linoleate 18:02 294.47 CH
3
(CH
2
)
3
(CH
2
CH CH)
2
(CH
2
)7COOCH
3
11 32.9
Methyl linolenate 18:03 292.46 CH
3
(CH
2
CH CH)
3
(CH
2
)7COOCH
3
0.3 0.2
Methyl archidate 20:00 326.56 CH
3
(CH
2
)
18
COOCH
3
0.4 0.1
Methyl eicosenoate 20:01 324.54 CH
3
(CH
2
)
16
CH CHCOOCH
3
0.2 0
Methyl behenate 22:00 354.61 CH
3
(CH
2
)
20
COOCH
3
0.1 0
Methyl lignocerate 24:00 382.66 CH
3
(CH
2
)
22
COOCH
3
0.1 0
Saturation 44.1 24.3
Mono-unsaturation 44.6 42.6
Poly-unsaturation 11.3 33.1
Unsaturation 55.9 75.7
a
Compositions are presented as wt.%
M.J. Abedin et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 59 (2014) 96104 99
Fig. 2. Schematic layout of the test engine.
from 1000 to 4000 RPM at an interval of 500 RPM. REO-dCA sys-
tem software has been used as an engine test bed controller and
data acquisition system. It provides full test sequence control with
automatic and manual data logging options. The transducer box
provides 16K/J thermocouple input channels, where a total of eight
K-type thermocouples were used at eight different locations to
measure the temperature of cooling water, lubricating oil, and
exhaust. It alsoprovides thefacilityof fuel ow, oil ow, andair ow
measurements. Rotameters have been used to measure the engine
cooling water ow. The whole engine test including the exhaust
emissions were performed at the Heat Engine Lab of the Depart-
ment of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, Malaysia. A
Bosch (BEA- 350) exhaust gas analyser was used for the measure-
ment of engine emissions. The specications of the analyser are
provided in Table 4.
The uncertainty level of NO
x
emission for B5 is 1.63% (Table 5).
3. Theory of heat loss calculation
From Fig. 1, if we consider the IC engine as a control volume
(surrounded by control surface), than the energy ows fromand to
the engine can be expressed by the equations as follows:
The steady ow1st lawof thermodynamics for this control vol-
ume will be (Heywood, 1988)
Q
s
= P
b
+Q
w
+Q
oil
+Q
exh
+Q
un
(1)
Where Q
s
is the supplied fuel energy and is given by
Q
s
= m
f
Q
LHV
(2)
m
f
and Q
LHV
are the mass ow rate and caloric value of the fuel,
respectively.
The engine brake power (P
b
) can be computed by
P
b
= 2 N

rev/s

T (Nm) 10
3
(3)
where N and T are the engine speed and torque, respectively.
The cooling water heat loss (Q
w
) can be calculated by using the
following equation:
Q
w
= m
w
C
w
T
w
(4)
where m
w
and C
w
are the mass owrate and specic heat of water,
respectively and T
w
is the temperature difference between the
cooling water inlet and outlet.
Now, if we can measure the required heat to increase the
temperature of the total mass (air +fuel) fromthe outside air tem-
perature (T
a
) to the exhaust gas temperature (T
g
), then we can
compute the exhaust heat loss (Q
exh
) from the engine. The spe-
cic heat of air at mean exhaust gas temperature is assumed as the
average specic heat (C
g
) of the exhaust gases for exhaust heat loss
calculation (zcan and Sylemez, 2006). The equation for exhaust
heat loss calculation will be
Q
exh
= ( m
f
+ m
a
) C
g

T
g
T
a

(5)
Like cooling water heat loss, the lubricating oil heat loss (Q
oil
)
can be found by using
Q
oil
= m
oil
C
oil
T
oil
(6)
where m
oil
and C
oil
are mass ow rate and specic heat of lubri-
cating oil, respectively, and T
oil
is the temperature difference
between the lubricating oil inlet and outlet. Finally, the unac-
counted heat loss (Q
un
) can be estimated by applying subtraction
rule
Q
un
= Q
s
(P
b
+Q
w
+Q
exh
+Q
oil
) (7)
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Performance characteristics
4.1.1. Engine brake power (P
b
)
The usable power delivered by an engine is known as brake
power (P
b
). This is the nal output power of the engine, which is
the product of engine torque and angular speed (Eq. (3)). Fig. 3
shows the variation of brake power of the tested biodiesel blends
with varying engine speeds at full load. The brake power increased
steadily with the increase of engine speed to a maximumpoint for
all fuel blends, then falls slightly at the end. Diesel fuel resulted in
higher brake power throughout the speed range compared to other
fuels. The maximumbrake power observed is 39kWfor diesel fuel
at the rated speed (3000 RPM). An average of 2.3% to 10.7% brake
power reduction was observed for 10% to 20% biodiesel addition
of both palm and jatropha at all speeds. Researchers (Buyukkaya,
Fig. 3. Engine brake power (P
b
) variations for all tested blends.
100 M.J. Abedin et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 59 (2014) 96104
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Table 3
Technical specication of the tested engine.
Parameter Specication
Engine type In-line four cylinder
Bore 92mm
Stroke 96mm
Displacement 2.5l (2476cm
3
)
Compression ratio 21:1
Power 55kWat 3000 RPM
Torque 142Nmat 2000 RPM
Fuel injection system Distributor type jet pump (indirect injection)
2010; Mojur et al., 2013; Sahoo et al., 2009) attributed the reasons
to lower caloric value, higher viscosity and density of biodiesel
than fossil diesel. Biodiesel contains higher oxygen content than
fossil diesel which results in lower caloric value. Density and
viscosity have great inuence on engine performance. Higher den-
sity and kinematic viscosity inuence the fuel atomisation process
which slows down the fuel-air mixing rate. Poor atomisation rate
results in uneven combustion, hence lower brake power (Ozsezen
and Canakci, 2011). Cetane number of biodiesel also greatly inu-
ence the combustion process hence engine brake power. Higher
cetane number makes auto-ignition easily and gives shorter igni-
tion delay which means combustion starts earlier for higher cetane
number fuel. Shorter ignition delay period ensures higher peak
in-cylinder pressureandhigher heat releaserateat pre-mixedcom-
bustionphase. Therefore, highcetane number is desirable for better
combustion and high brake power (Candeia et al., 2009; Kannan
et al., 2011; Tesfa et al., 2013). Table 1 ensures palm biodiesel has
higher saturation level, saponication number and cetane number
than the jatropha biodiesel. Palm biodiesel exhibits slightly lower
caloric value than the jatropha biodiesel. But it was observed
that the kinematic viscosity and density of jatropha biodiesel were
much higher than the palmbiodiesel. Due to higher kinematic vis-
cosity, density and lower cetane number, jatropha biodiesel blends
showed an average of 5.3% lower brake power than the palm
biodiesel blends.
4.1.2. Brake specic fuel consumption (BSFC)
Fig. 4 shows the nature of BSFC for all the tested fuel blends with
varying engine speeds. Fuel properties like density, viscosity, and
caloric value clearly inuence BSFC (Qi et al., 2010). For example,
fuel is injected on a volumetric basis in the combustion chamber
and the density being much higher for biodiesel than diesel fuel
indicates that the fuel injection pump is injecting more biodiesel
mass as compared to that of diesel mass for same power output
(Ozsezen and Canakci, 2011). Again, higher kinematic viscosity of
biodiesel may cause poor atomisation of the fuel, hence poor mix-
ing with air resulting in higher BSFC (Ganapathy et al., 2011). Diesel
fuel has the highest caloric value, the lowest viscosity, and den-
sityamongall thetestedblends. JB20blendhas thehighest viscosity
Fig. 4. BSFC of all tested fuel blends.
M.J. Abedin et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 59 (2014) 96104 101
Table 4
Exhaust gases analysis specications.
Gas analyser Emissions Method Maximumlimit Accuracy
BOSCH BEA-350 CO Non dispersive infrared 10vol.% 0.001vol.%
CO
2
Non dispersive infrared 18vol.% 0.001vol.%
HC Flame ionisation detector 9999ppm 1ppm
NOx Electro-chemical transmitter 5000ppm 1ppm
Table 5
NOx emissions of B5 with engine speed.
Speed (RPM) NOx emission (ppm) Uncertainty (%)
1000 124 2.42
1500 180 1.67
2000 195 1.54
2500 216 1.85
3000 236 1.69
3500 263 1.14
4000 272 1.10
Total uncertainty level 1.63
anddensityamongall thetestedblends. Clearly, diesel fuel andJB20
exhibited the lowest and highest BSFC throughout the speed range,
respectively. An average of 5.0%, 19.0%, and 26.4% BSFC increments
were observed for the addition of 5%, 10%, and 20% biodiesel (both
palmandjatropha), respectively. Palmblends showedanaverageof
14.4%lower BSFCcomparedtojatropha blends due tolower density
and viscosity in spite of having slightly lower caloric value. Sim-
ilar results are reported by other researchers (Buyukkaya, 2010;
Kinoshita et al., 2007; Mojur et al., 2013).
4.2. Emission characteristics
4.2.1. CO emission
CO is formed during the combustion process whenever charge
is burned with an insufcient air supply with lowin-cylinder tem-
perature (Rizwanul Fattahet al., 2014). COemissiondecreasedwith
the increase of biodiesel percentage, especially at higher engine
speeds. Diesel fuel resultedinthehighest COemissionamongall the
tested blends (Fig. 5). An average of 20.0% and 30.7% CO emission
reductions were observedfor 10%and20%biodiesel blends, respec-
tively. COemissionof jatrophablends was slightlyhigher compared
to palm blends. This can be attributed to the higher viscosity
and density of jatropha biodiesel. Higher viscosity, and density of
biodiesel result in inadequate fuelair mixing, especially at lower
engine speeds, and COemission increases with inadequate fuelair
mixing. At lower engine speeds, the in-cylinder combustion rate
is relatively poor. Incomplete combustion is a reason for higher
CO emission at lower engine speeds (An et al., 2012). This effect
becomes less signicant at higher engine speeds, when the cylin-
der temperature is high. At higher engine speeds, the in-cylinder
combustion is more complete. The oxygen-rich biodiesel results
Fig. 5. Carbon monoxide (CO) emission for all tested blends.
in more complete combustion of the blends. As a result, the trend
is more dominant at higher engine speeds (Chauhan et al., 2012;
Mojur et al., 2013). A higher cetane number exhibits a shorter
ignition delay and allows a longer combustion duration. Then the
oxygen content of biodiesel comes into play, which enhances the
combustion process (Ozsezen and Canakci, 2011). Lower viscosity
and density along with higher cetane number and oxygen content
are the reasons of lower CO emissions (on average 8.8%) of palm
blends compared to jatropha blends.
4.2.2. HC emission
Locally over-lean and over-rich fuel-air mixtures are the two
major sources of HC emission in heterogeneous combustion envi-
ronment of diesel engines. At over-lean condition, the mixture is
tooleantoautoigniteor tosupport apropagatingameandat over-
rich condition, the mixture is too rich to ignite or support a ame
(Heywood, 1988). As a result incomplete combustion occurs dur-
ing these two conditions. Over-leaning is a dominant mechanism
at lower engine speeds andover-richmixture is dominant at higher
engine speeds (Dhar and Agarwal, 2014). Oxygenated biodiesel
reduces the deciency of oxygen during over-rich condition at
higher engine speeds. At higher speeds, palmblends showed lower
HC emission than jatropha blends (Fig. 6) (Rahman et al., 2013).
Higher cetane number alsoreduces HCemission(Buyukkaya, 2010;
Ozsezen and Canakci, 2011). Besides higher engine speed ensures
better mixing of fuel and air, hence better combustion (Rahman
et al., 2013). Over-leaning depends on the amount of fuel injected
and mixing rate with air during the ignition delay period. Higher
ignition delay increases HC emission. As higher cetane number
shortens the ignition delay period, palm blends showed slightly
lower HC emissions than jatropha blends at lower engine speeds
when over-leaning is dominant. Another reason can be the higher
viscosityanddensityof jatrophabiodiesel whichcauses unevenand
incomplete combustion. An average of 17.5% and 25.8% HC emis-
sionreductions were observedfor using 10%and20%blends of both
palm and jatropha biodiesel, respectively. Diesel fuel showed the
highest HC emission, and the palm blends showed 2.2% (average)
lower HC emission compared to jatropha blends.
4.2.3. NO
x
emission
Studies investigating the effect of biodiesel on NO
x
emission
reported mixed responses, ranging from increased NO
x
emis-
sion for using biodiesel at all operating points to decreased NO
x
Fig. 6. Hydro carbon (HC) emission characteristics.
102 M.J. Abedin et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 59 (2014) 96104
Fig. 7. NOx emission characteristics of all tested blends.
emission at all operating points (Lapuerta et al., 2008; Sun et al.,
2010). The higher NO
x
emission of biodiesel is mainly attributed
to better combustion due to high oxygen content. But according to
literature review, the NO
x
emission behaviour doesnt completely
depend on a change in a single fuel property, rather it is the result
of a number of coupled mechanisms whose effects may tend to
reinforce or cancel one another under different conditions, depend-
ing on operating conditions and fuel characteristics (Mueller et al.,
2009; Sun et al., 2010). NO
x
emission increases considerably with
theincreaseof doublebounds (Sunet al., 2010; Tsolakis et al., 2007).
The unsaturation of FAME is strongly correlated with the increase
of NO
x
emission. The higher the unsaturation level of methyl esters
the higher the ignition delay. Because unsaturation lowers cetane
number which results in higher NO
x
emission (Kannan et al., 2011;
Mueller et al., 2009). On the other hand, pure saturated fatty acid
compounds show a considerable reduction in NO
x
emission. The
number of carbon single bonds in the molecule reects degree of
saturation. Theiodinenumber is ameasureof saturation, wherelow
iodine number indicates high saturation (increased single bonds).
Several studies correlate the degree of saturation to NO
x
emission;
highly saturated fuel molecules produce lower amounts of NO
x
emission (Kinoshita et al., 2003; McCormick et al., 2001; Sun et al.,
2010). Kalamet al. (2011) explained that the higher viscosity leads
to a bigger droplet size and higher NO
x
emission. It is reported that
NO
x
emission increases with the increase of fuel density (Ozsezen
and Canakci, 2011). Therefore, higher cetane number along with
lower viscosity, and density are the main reasons of lower NO
x
emission of palmbiodiesel compared to jatropha biodiesel (Fig. 7).
The NO
x
emission is decreased by 3.3% for the addition of 10% to
20% palmbiodiesel, whereas it is increased by 3.0% for the addition
of 10% to 20% jatropha biodiesel. A moderate level of NO
x
emission
was observedfor diesel fuel comparedtopalm, andjatrophablends.
Diesel fuel exhibits better viscosity, and density compared to palm
biodiesel but the cetane number is muchlower thanpalmbiodiesel.
In comparison with jatropha biodiesel, diesel fuel exhibits a lower
cetane number but the viscosity, and density are much lower.
4.3. Heat loss analysis
4.3.1. Supplied fuel energy (Q
s
)
The supplied fuel energy (Q
s
) is the amount of fuel entering the
combustion chamber of an engine multiplied by its caloric value.
Biodiesel has higher density and lower caloric value than fossil
diesel (Mojur et al., 2013). The mass ow rate is higher for all
blends, but the volume ow rate is same since it is controlled by
the fuel injector. Biodiesel increment decreased the supplied fuel
energy of the blend as it lowered the caloric value (Canakci and
Hosoz, 2006). The supplied fuel energy for diesel fuel was the high-
est since its caloric value was the highest among all the tested
Fig. 8. Variation of supplied fuel energy with RPM.
blends. As the speed increased, more fuel was required to burn
in the combustion chamber. As a result, the supplied fuel energy
increased with the increase of engine speed (Fig. 8).
4.3.2. Water heat loss (Q
w
) and lubricating oil heat loss (Q
oil
)
Both the water heat loss (Q
w
) and the lubricating oil heat loss
(Q
oil
) increased with the increase of biodiesel percentage in the
blends at all speeds (Figs. 9 and 10). As explained earlier, biodiesel
promotes better fuel combustion; hence, the in-cylinder combus-
tiontemperature, pressure, andheat release rate were higher when
the engine is running on biodiesel. The water heat loss and the
lubricating oil heat loss were increased on average 0.83.5% and
1.04.7%, respectively for 10% biodiesel increment (both palmand
jatropha). These two heat losses were increased on average 6% to
9.5%for 20%blends at all speeds. This trendof heat loss is supported
by other researchers (Debnathet al., 2013; Tat, 2011). It is clear that
withtheincreaseof enginespeed, boththesuppliedfuel energyand
the brake power increased. Similarly, all the heat losses increased
withenginespeed, but theincrement was not samefor all. Bothheat
losses were slightly higher for palm blends compared to jatropha
blends. It indicates that the palm blends have higher combustion
Fig. 9. Water heat loss (Qw) characteristics.
Fig. 10. Lubricating oil heat loss (Q
oil
) analysis for all tested blends.
M.J. Abedin et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 59 (2014) 96104 103
Fig. 11. Exhaust heat loss (Q
exh
) of all tested blends.
efciency, hence higher brake power, compared to the jatropha
blends (Fig. 3). Despite the higher heat losses, the palm blends
showedhigher brakepower becausetheextraheat losses arerecov-
ered by the lower exhaust heat loss and unaccounted heat loss.
Some researchers (Abedin et al., 2013; Aydin, 2012; Canakci and
Hosoz, 2006) have suggested providing ceramic insulation around
the cylinder walls and head to reduce these two heat losses, which
will eventually increase the exhaust heat loss.
4.3.3. Exhaust heat loss (Q
exh
)
Diesel fuel resulted in the highest exhaust heat loss (Q
exh
) com-
pared to other blends (Fig. 11). This can be attributed to the high
concentration of CO and HC emissions associated with diesel fuel
compared to biodiesel blends (Canakci and Hosoz, 2006). The palm
blends resulted in lower CO and HC emissions compared to jat-
ropha blends, and here, the palmblends have shown lower exhaust
heat loss. FromFig. 11, it is also clear that the biodiesel increment
decreased the exhaust heat loss. This trend of exhaust heat loss can
also be explained by the exhaust gas temperature characteristics.
Lower exhaust gas temperature signies lower exhaust heat loss.
A decreasing exhaust gas temperature trend was observed with
the increase of biodiesel percentage. A similar trend of exhaust
gas temperature is reported by other researchers (An et al., 2012;
Muralidharan et al., 2011; Rahman et al., 2013). The exhaust heat
loss was reduced on average 1.5% to 8.0% for the addition of 10%
biodiesel.
Finally, the unaccounted heat loss (Q
un
) was computed by sub-
tracting the summation of all heat losses from the supplied fuel
energy. It covers mostly the convection and radiation heat losses
from the cylinder walls and also other unknown heat losses from
the engine (Abedin et al., 2013). The trend of this heat loss was not
denite. Similar results for unaccounted heat loss are reported in
(zcan and Sylemez, 2006) and (Yksel and Ceviz, 2003).
5. Conclusions
The followingconclusions are drawnbasedonthis experimental
investigation.
(1) The brake power was decreased on average 2.3% to 10.7% while
operating on 10% to 20% blends. The palmblends produced an
average of 5.3% higher brake power than the jatropha blends.
An average of 5.0%, 19.0%, and 26.4% BSFC increments were
observed for the addition of 5%, 10%, and 20% biodiesel (both
palmand jatropha), respectively. The palmblends provided an
average of 14.4% lower BSFC compared to jatropha blends. Vis-
cosity, density, andcetane number of the fuels playedvital roles
in engine performance.
(2) An average of 20% CO and 17.5% HC emission reductions were
observed for 10% blends. And an average of 30.7% CO and 25.8%
HCemissionreductions wereobservedfor 20%blends. Thepalm
blends produced an average of 8.8% and 2.2% lower CO and HC
emissions, respectively than the jatropha blends. Higher cetane
number i.e., shorter ignition delay and higher oxygen content
of biodiesel are the main reasons of lower COand HC emissions
compared to diesel fuel. Viscosity and density also inuence
these emissions. At higher engine speeds, these emissions were
considerably lower.
(3) The NO
x
emissionis decreasedby 3.3%andincreasedby 3.0%for
the addition of 10% to 20% palmand jatropha biodiesel, respec-
tively. Diesel fuel exhibited a moderate level of NO
x
emission.
It was observed that higher saturation (higher cetane number),
lower viscosity and density are the most desirable properties
of biodiesel for lower NO
x
emission.
(4) Onaverage, boththewater heat loss andlubricationoil heat loss
were increased in the range of 0.8% to 4.7% and 6% to 9.5% for
using 10% and 20% blends, respectively. A decreasing exhaust
heat loss trend was observed for biodiesel addition. Overall, the
palm blends provided better heat loss characteristics than the
jatropha blends.
In conclusion, biodiesel can be used up to 20%, especially the
palmbiodiesel without any major modication of the engine.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge University of Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia for nancial support through High
Impact Research Grant entitles: Development of Alterna-
tive and Renewable Energy Career (DAREC) grant number:
UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/60.
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