Appendix A

Fundamentals of Matrices
A. l Introduction
Matrix notation is used extensively in laminate analysis. The mathematics of matrix
manipulation provides a shorthand method of expressing cumbersome sets of equa-
tions. The aspects of matrix algebra considered to be most applicable to classical
lamination theory are presented herein.
A.2 Definitions and Notation for Matrices
A matrix is an array of elements containing a specified number of m rows and n
columns:
[AI =
-a11 a12 .... aln
a21 a22 . . . . a211
. .... .
. .... .
. .... .
-a,l am2 .... amn
This matrix is commonly called an m x n matrix, where m x n defines the order
of the matrix. A matrix in which m #n is called a rectangular matrix. A row
matrix is one in which m = 1 and n > 1, and a column matrix (load or strain) is
one in which m > 1 and n = 1. The notation for each of these is presented below.
Row matrix:
Column matrix:
[ A] = [411u12.. . al n]
283
284 Laminar Compo&es
- 1 0 0 . . 0-
0 1 0 . . 0
0 0 1 * * 0
1 . 0
1 0
. . .
I =
. . . .
-0 0 0 0 0 1-
'l)pically, a set of brackets ([ 1) is used to define rectangular and row matrices,
while braces ({}) are used to define column matrices.
A special case of the rectangular matrix is the symmetric matrix in which m = n.
A square matrix has special properties and is used extensively in structural theory.
A matrix can be expressed in an abbreviated form as
where the subscripts i and j define the row and column location of the element
ai, within the matrix.
The transpose of a matrix is an important operation useful in many cases. Any
matrix (column, row, or rectangular) may be transposed. The transpose of a matrix
is commonly expressed as [AIT or [A]'. In order to transpose [A] into [AIT, every
element ai, in [A] is replaced by aji:
In forming the transpose, the first column of [A] becomes the first row of [AIT,
the second column of [A] becomes the second row of [AIT, etc. The transpose of
a row matrix is a column matrix, and the transpose of a column matrix is a row
matrix.
A.3 Matri x Arithmetic
Matrix multiplication or division by a scalar is often used in laminate analysis. In
these operations each element of the matrix is multiplied (or divided) by the scalar.
Fundamentals of Matrices 285
The second operation of interest is addition or subtraction of matrices. These
operations can only be performed if the matrices in question are of the same
order. In adding or subtracting matrices, the corresponding elements of each are
added or subtracted. From the definition of matrix addition or subtraction, both
the commutative and associative laws hold.
[A] + [B] = [B] + [A]
[A] + ([B] + [C]) = ([A] + [B]) + [C]
Commutative:
Associative:
Matrix multiplication in which the product of two matrices ([A][B]) is to be deter-
mined can only be performed if the number of columns of [A] equals the number
of rows of [B]. This condition of conformability of matrices can be expressed by
the following equation:
[AI P I = [CI
(m x n) (n x PI (m x P)
The mathematical definition of matrix multiplication is
n
k= I
where n = number of columns of [A] or rows of [B]. This process is illustrated
by the following:
- [ 1 21 [5 6 7 1 = [21 24 271
- 3 4 8 9 1 0 47 54 61
in which
From the definition of matrix multiplication it can be shown that both the distribu-
tive and associative laws hold.
286 Laminar Composites
It is evident from the preceding discussions that matrix addition, subtraction, and
multiplication are relatively simple topics. The mathematical operation of matrix
division has not been addressed since it does not exist in the conventional sense.
The matrix operation analogous to algebraic division is called matrix inversion.
A.4 Matri x Inversion
Matrix inversion is shown to be analogous to algebraic division by considering
the set of algebraic equations below.
X + 3 Y - z = 2
2x - Y +z = - 3
4X- 2Y +4Z=l
This set of equations can be expressed in matrix form as
The symbolic representation for this set of equations can be written as
[AIEI = {bJ
In order to solve this equation for the unknown values of {X}, the [A] matrix must
be inverted to yield
{XI = [Al-'{bl
where [A]-' is the inverted [A] matrix. Matrix inversion can be defined so that
[A]-'[A] = [A][A]-' = I
Several operations are required in order to define [A]-' in mathematical terms. The
first operation of importance is defining the determinant of [A]. The determinant
of a matrix is commonly written as
where element aij is located in the ith row and jth column of [A].
TheJ irst minor of any determinant IAl (corresponding to an arbitrary element qj )
is the determinant that remains when the row and column containing element aij
are eliminated from [A]. For the 3 x 3 matrix in equation (A.l), the first minors
corresponding to all, a12, and a13 are given, respectively, as
Fundamentals of Matrices 287
adj(A) =
Each element, together with the first minors, defines the cofactor of the determinant.
Each element will have a first minor and a cofactor. The cofactor of ai, is generally
denoted as Ai, and is written as
A. '1 - - (-I)'+' x first minor of ai j
For the first minors just formed, the corresponding cofactors are
I
'A11 A12 ..- At"
A21 A22 . . A2n
. ... . .
. ... .
. ... .
-An1 An2 ... A nn
= (-1)(8 - 4) = -4
In a similar manner, all other cofactors can be computed.
The numerical value of the determinant can be obtained by
associated with any row or any column of the matrix. The
determinant when any row of the matrix is used is
n
using all cofactors
expression for the
j = 1
where i indicates the row being used. If a column is selected, the rule is
expressed as
n
IAl = Ca i j Aj j (A.3)
i =l
where j represents the column selected for establishing the cofactors. Based upon
the cofactors just given and equation (A.2), the determinant is
IAl = (1)(-2) + (3)(-4) + (1)(0) = -14
In order to determine the inverted matrix [AI-', the adjoint of matrix [A] must be
defined. The adjoint is written as adj (A). Assuming Ai, is the cofactor of element
ai j in matrix [A], the adjoint matrix is defined as
The inverted matrix [A]-' can now be defined as
(A.4)
288 Laminar Composites
For the matrix defined by (A.l), the remaining cofactors are
A21 = -10
A22=8 A32= -3
A23 = 14 A33 = -7
A31 = 2
This results in
-2 -4 -2 -10
[A]-'=-' [ -10
8 l!]'= -$ [ -; 1;
l 4 2 -3 -7
Using this inverted matrix the solution to (A. l) is easily determined from
-2 -10
0 14 -7
The scope of presentations in this text do not require expanding the coverage of
matrix mathematics beyond this point.