Project report

on
emergency light
Submitted to:
Submitted by:
Description and Working:
Automatic lamp control is our minor project. We can use this system as our stydy lamp
table.we are using a relay derive circuit at the ouput side. We can also take an example of
L!. "n this project we are tried make L! lamp using leds and !# power supply. We
made $v !# regulated supply for this purpose. An L! lamp %L! light bulb& is a solid'
state lamp that uses light'emitting diodes %L!s& as the source of light. (he L!s
involved may be conventional semiconductor light'emitting diodes) to organic L!s
%*L!&) or polymer light'emitting diodes %+L!& devices) although +L! technologies
are not currently commercially available.
Since the light output of individual light'emitting diodes is small compared to
incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps) multiple diodes are often used together. "n
recent years) as diode technology has improved) high power light'emitting diodes with
higher lumen output are making it possible to replace other lamps with L! lamps. *ne
high power L! chip used in some commercial L! lights can emit ,)$-, lumens while
using only .// watts. L! lamps can be made interchangeable with other types of lamps.
!iodes use direct current %!#& electrical power) so L! lamps must also include internal
circuits to operate from standard A# voltage. L!s are damaged by being run at higher
temperatures) so L! lamps typically include heat management elements such as heat
sinks and cooling fins. L! lamps offer long service life and high energy efficiency) but
initial costs are higher than those of fluorescent lamps.
(his circuit is a small 0/$ volts power supply) which is useful when experimenting with
digital electronics. Small inexpensive wall transformers with variable output voltage are
available from any electronics shop. (hose transformers are easily available) but usually
their voltage regulation is very poor) which makes them not very usable for digital circuit
experimenter unless a better regulation can be achieved in some way. (he following
circuit is the answer to the problem.
(his circuit can give 0/$1 output at about .A current. (he circuit has overload and
terminal protection.
Summary of circuit features
2rief description of operation: 3ives out well regulated 0$1 output) output
current capability of ,// mA.
#ircuit protection: 2uilt'in overheating protection shuts down output when
regulator "# gets too hot.
#ircuit complexity: Simple and easy to build.
#ircuit performance: Stable 041 output voltage) reliable operation.
Availability of components: asy to get) uses only common basic components.
!esign testing: 2ased on datasheet example circuit) " have used this circuit
successfully as part of other electronics projects.
Applications: +art of electronics devices) small laboratory power supply.
+ower supply voltage: 5nregulated !# $'.61 power supply.
+ower supply current: 7eeded output current .A.
#omponents cost: 8ew rupees for the electronic components plus the cost of input
transformer.
Circuit diagram of power supply
T i t l e
S i z e D o c u m e n t N u m b e r R e v
D a t e : S h e e t o f
< D o c > < R e v C o d e >
< T i t l e >
C u s t o m
1 1 S a t u r d a y , e b r u a r y ! " , ! # 1 !
T 1
T R $ N S % R & ' R
1 "
(
) *
C 1
1 # # # u f
+ 1 , & - * # "
. / N
1
0
N
D
1
. % + T
!
C !
) - # u f
D 1 / N ) # # -
D !
/ N ) # # -
R 1
) - # '
D 1
, ' D
220V
A.C
1 2
1 2
0
R 1 (
R ' S / S T % R
2 1 -
R !
) - # '
D )
, ' D
R 1
) - # '
D "
, ' D
R )
) - # '
D (
, ' D
Component list
.. "79//, !iodes
-. ,6/$ regulator "#.
:. ./// uf electrolytic capacitor) at least -$1 voltage rating.
9. 9,/ uf electrolytic capacitor) at least -$1 voltage rating.
$. 9,/ *hms ;esistance
<. L!
We are using center taped full wave rectifier and +i' filter for filtering.
Component Description
1) Voltage egulator !"#$%&:
(he above circuit utili=es the voltage regulator "# ,6/$ for the constant power supply.
(he capacitors must have enough high voltage rating to safely handle the input voltage
feed to circuit. (he circuit is very easy to build for example into a piece of 1ero board.




. - :
+in diagram of ,6/$regulator "#
+"7 . : 5nregulated voltage input
+"7 - : 3round
+"7 : : ;egulated voltage output
') ()out ectifiers
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current %A#& to direct current
%!#&) a process known as rectification. ;ectifiers have many uses including as
components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. ;ectifiers may be made
of solid state diodes) vacuum tube diodes) mercury arc valves) and other components.
A device which performs the opposite function %converting !# to A#& is known as an
inverter.
When only one diode is used to rectify A# %by blocking the negative or positive portion
of the waveform&) the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely
one of usage) i.e.) the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert A# to
!#. Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more
efficiently converting A# to !# than is possible with only one diode. 2efore the
development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers) vacuum tube diodes and copper%"& oxide
or selenium rectifier stacks were used.
arly radio receivers) called crystal radios) used a >cat?s whisker> of fine wire pressing on
a crystal of galena %lead sulfide& to serve as a point'contact rectifier or >crystal detector>.
;ectification may occasionally serve in roles other than to generate !.#. current per se.
8or example) in gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of
flame. (wo metal electrodes in the outer layer of the flame provide a current path) and
rectification of an applied alternating voltage will happen in the plasma) but only while
the flame is present to generate it.
*alf+wa,e rectification
"n half wave rectification) either the positive or negative half of the A# wave is passed)
while the other half is blocked. 2ecause only one half of the input waveform reaches the
output) it is very inefficient if used for power transfer. @alf'wave rectification can be
achieved with a single diode in a one'phase supply) or with three diodes in a three'phase
supply. (he output !# voltage of a half wave rectifier can be calculated with the
following two ideal eAuations.
-ull+wa,e rectification
A full'wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity
%positive or negative& at its output. 8ull'wave rectification converts both polarities of the
input waveform to !# %direct current&) and is more efficient. @owever) in a circuit with a
non'center tapped transformer) four diodes are reAuired instead of the one needed for
half'wave rectification. %See semiconductors) diode&. 8our diodes arranged this way are
called a diode bridge or bridge rectifier:
.raet/ )ridge rectifier: a full+wa,e rectifier using 0 diodes1
8or single'phase A#) if the transformer is center'tapped) then two diodes back'to'back
%i.e. anodes'to'anode or cathode'to'cathode& can form a full'wave rectifier. (wice as
many windings are reAuired on the transformer secondary to obtain the same output
voltage compared to the bridge rectifier above.
-ull+wa,e rectifier using a transformer and ' diodes1
-ull+wa,e rectifier2 with ,acuum tu)e ha,ing two anodes.
A very common vacuum tube rectifier configuration contained one cathode and twin
anodes inside a single envelopeB in this way) the two diodes reAuired only one vacuum
tube. (he $59 and $C: were popular examples of this configuration.
( three+phase )ridge rectifier.
:'phase A# input) half D full wave rectified !# output waveforms
8or three'phase A#) six diodes are used. (ypically there are three pairs of diodes) each
pair) though) is not the same kind of double diode that would be used for a full wave
single'phase rectifier. "nstead the pairs are in series %anode to cathode&. (ypically)
commercially available double diodes have four terminals so the user can configure them
as single'phase split supply use) for half a bridge) or for three'phase use.
!isassembled automobile alternator) showing the six diodes that comprise a full'wave
three'phase bridge rectifier.
Eost devices that generate alternating current %such devices are called alternators&
generate three'phase A#. 8or example) an automobile alternator has six diodes inside it to
function as a full'wave rectifier for battery charging applications.
3) ()out filters
lectronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions)
specifically intended to remove unwanted signal components andFor enhance wanted
ones. lectronic filters can be:
passive or active
analog or digital
discrete'time %sampled& or continuous'time
linear or non'linear
infinite impulse response %""; type& or finite impulse response %8"; type&
(he most common types of electronic filters are linear filters) regardless of other aspects
of their design. See the article on linear filters for details on their design and analysis.
*istory
(he oldest forms of electronic filters are passive analog linear filters) constructed using
only resistors and capacitors or resistors and inductors. (hese are known as ;# and ;L
single pole filters respectively. Eore complex multipole L# filters have also existed for
many years and the operation of such filters is well understood with many books having
been written about them.
@ybrid filters have also been made) typically involving combinations of analog amplifiers
with mechanical resonators or delay lines. *ther devices such as ##! delay lines have
also been used as discrete'time filters. With the availability of digital signal processing)
active digital filters have become common.
Classification )y technology
Passi,e filters
+assive implementations of linear filters are based on combinations of resistors %;&)
inductors %L& and capacitors %#&. (hese types are collectively known as passive filters)
because they do not depend upon an external power supply.
"nductors block high'freAuency signals and conduct low'freAuency signals) while
capacitors do the reverse. A filter in which the signal passes through an inductor) or in
which a capacitor provides a path to earth) presents less attenuation to low'freAuency
signals than high'freAuency signals and is a low'pass filter. "f the signal passes through a
capacitor) or has a path to ground through an inductor) then the filter presents less
attenuation to high'freAuency signals than low'freAuency signals and is a high'pass filter.
;esistors on their own have no freAuency'selective properties) but are added to inductors
and capacitors to determine the time'constants of the circuit) and therefore the
freAuencies to which it responds.
At very high freAuencies %above about .// Eegahert=&) sometimes the inductors consist
of single loops or strips of sheet metal) and the capacitors consist of adjacent strips of
metal. (hese inductive or capacitive pieces of metal are called stubs.
(he inductors and capacitors are the reactive elements of the filter. (he number of
elements determines the order of the filter. "n this context) an L# tuned circuit being used
in a band'pass or band'stop filter is considered a single element even though it consists of
two components.
Single element types
(he simplest passive filters consist of a single reactive element. (hese are constructed of
;#) ;L) L# or ;L# elements.
(he Auality or >G> factor is a measure that is sometimes used to describe simple band'
pass or band'stop filters. A filter is said to have a high G if it selects or rejects a range of
freAuencies that is narrow in comparison to the centre freAuency. G may be defined as the
ratio of centre freAuency divided by :d2 bandwidth. "t is not commonly employed with
higher order filters where other parameters are of more concern.
0) Diode
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with
far greater ease than in the other. (he most common kind of diode in modern circuit
design is the semiconductor diode) although other diode technologies exist.
Semiconductor diodes are symboli=ed in schematic diagrams such as 8igure below. (he
term HdiodeI is customarily reserved for small signal devices) " J . A. (he term rectifier
is used for power devices) " K . A.
Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate the direction of electron current
flow.
When placed in a simple battery'lamp circuit) the diode will either allow or prevent
current through the lamp) depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. %8igure
below&
!iode operation: %a& #urrent flow is permittedB the diode is forward biased. %b& #urrent
flow is prohibitedB the diode is reversed biased.
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the
diode) the diode is said to be forward'biased. #onversely) when the battery is HbackwardI
and the diode blocks current) the diode is said to be reverse'biased. A diode may be
thought of as like a switch: HclosedI when forward'biased and HopenI when reverse'
biased. *ddly enough) the direction of the diode symbol?s HarrowheadI points against the
direction of electron flow. (his is because the diode symbol was invented by engineers)
who predominantly use conventional flow notation in their schematics) showing current
as a flow of charge from the positive %0& side of the voltage source to the negative %'&.
(his convention holds true for all semiconductor symbols possessing Harrowheads:I the
arrow points in the permitted direction of conventional flow) and against the permitted
direction of electron flow.
!iode behavior is analogous to the behavior of a hydraulic device called a check valve. A
check valve allows fluid flow through it in only one direction as in 8igure below.
@ydraulic check valve analogy: %a& lectron current flow permitted. %b& #urrent flow
prohibited.
#heck valves are essentially pressure'operated devices: they open and allow flow if the
pressure across them is of the correct HpolarityI to open the gate %in the analogy shown)
greater fluid pressure on the right than on the left&. "f the pressure is of the opposite
Hpolarity)I the pressure difference across the check valve will close and hold the gate so
that no flow occurs. Like check valves) diodes are essentially Hpressure'I operated
%voltage'operated& devices. (he essential difference between forward'bias and reverse'
bias is the polarity of the voltage dropped across the diode. Let?s take a closer look at the
simple battery'diode'lamp circuit shown earlier) this time investigating voltage drops
across the various components in 8igure below.
!iode circuit voltage measurements: %a& 8orward biased. %b& ;everse biased.
A forward'biased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage across it) leaving most
of the battery voltage dropped across the lamp. "f the battery?s polarity is reversed) the
diode becomes reverse'biased) and drops all of the battery?s voltage leaving none for the
lamp. "f we consider the diode to be a self'actuating switch %closed in the forward'bias
mode and open in the reverse'bias mode&) this behavior makes sense. (he most
substantial difference is that the diode drops a lot more voltage when conducting than the
average mechanical switch %/., volts versus tens of millivolts&.
(his forward'bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is due to the action of the depletion
region formed by the +'7 junction under the influence of an applied voltage. "f no
voltage applied is across a semiconductor diode) a thin depletion region exists around the
region of the +'7 junction) preventing current flow. %8igure below %a&& (he depletion
region is almost devoid of available charge carriers) and acts as an insulator:
!iode representations: +7'junction model) schematic symbol) physical part.
(he schematic symbol of the diode is shown in 8igure above %b& such that the anode
%pointing end& corresponds to the +'type semiconductor at %a&. (he cathode bar) non'
pointing end) at %b& corresponds to the 7'type material at %a&. Also note that the cathode
stripe on the physical part %c& corresponds to the cathode on the symbol.
"f a reverse'biasing voltage is applied across the +'7 junction) this depletion region
expands) further resisting any current through it. %8igure below&
!epletion region expands with reverse bias.
#onversely) if a forward'biasing voltage is applied across the +'7 junction) the depletion
region collapses becoming thinner. (he diode becomes less resistive to current through it.
"n order for a sustained current to go through the diodeB though) the depletion region must
be fully collapsed by the applied voltage. (his takes a certain minimum voltage to
accomplish) called the forward voltage as illustrated in 8igure below.
"nceasing forward bias from %a& to %b& decreases depletion region thickness.
8or silicon diodes) the typical forward voltage is /., volts) nominal. 8or germanium
diodes) the forward voltage is only /.: volts. (he chemical constituency of the +'7
junction comprising the diode accounts for its nominal forward voltage figure) which is
why silicon and germanium diodes have such different forward voltages. 8orward voltage
drop remains approximately constant for a wide range of diode currents) meaning that
diode voltage drop is not like that of a resistor or even a normal %closed& switch. 8or most
simplified circuit analysis) the voltage drop across a conducting diode may be considered
constant at the nominal figure and not related to the amount of current.
&) esistor
A resistor is a two'terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage 1 is applied across the terminals of a
resistor) a current " will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. (he
reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is known as the resistance ;) since) with a
given voltage 1) a larger value of ; further >resists> the flow of current " as given by
*hm?s law:
;esistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiAuitous in most electronic eAuipment. +ractical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films) as well as resistance wire %wire made of a high'resistivity alloy)
such as nickel'chrome&. ;esistors are also implemented within integrated circuits)
particularly analog devices) and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
(he electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 4 orders of magnitude.
When specifying that resistance in an electronic design) the reAuired precision of the
resistance may reAuire attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor)
according to its specific application. (he temperature coefficient of the resistance may
also be of concern in some precision applications. +ractical resistors are also specified as
having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of
that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics
applications. ;esistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may reAuire
heat sinking. "n a high voltage circuit) attention must sometimes be paid to the rated
maximum working voltage of the resistor.
(he series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms lawB
this specification can be important in some high'freAuency applications for smaller
values of resistance. "n a low'noise amplifier or pre'amp the noise characteristics of a
resistor may be an issue. (he unwanted inductance) excess noise) and temperature
coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor.
(hey are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors
manufactured using a particular technology.
L.M
A family of discrete resistors is also
characteri=ed according to its form factor) that is) the si=e of the device and position of its
leads %or terminals& which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using
them.
4) Capacitor
A capacitor %formerly known as condenser& is a passive electronic component consisting
of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric %insulator&. When there is a potential
difference %voltage& across the conductors) a static electric field develops in the dielectric
that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal
capacitor is characteri=ed by a single constant value) capacitance) measured in farads.
(his is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference
between them.
#apacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass) in filter networks) for smoothing the output of power
supplies) in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular freAuencies and for many
other purposes.
(he effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor)
hence capacitor conductors are often called >plates>) referring to an early means of
construction. "n practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit) resulting in a breakdown
voltage) while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
#) !5D
A light'emitting diode %L!& %pronounced F l i di F ) L''!
L.M
& is a semiconductor light
source. L!s are used as indicator lamps in many devices) and are increasingly used for
lighting. "ntroduced as a practical electronic component in .4<-)
L-M
early L!s emitted
low'intensity red light) but modern versions are available across the visible) ultraviolet
and infrared wavelengths) with very high brightness. When a light'emitting diode is
forward biased %switched on&) electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within
the device) releasing energy in the form of photons. (his effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light %corresponding to the energy of the photon&
is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An L! is often small in area %less
than . mm
-
&) and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation
pattern.
L:M
L!s present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption) longer lifetime) improved robustness) smaller si=e) faster switching)
and greater durability and reliability. L!s powerful enough for room lighting are
relatively expensive and reAuire more precise current and heat management than compact
fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light'emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation
lighting) automotive lighting %particularly brake lamps) turn signals and indicators& as
well as in traffic signals.
(;A7S"S(*; %2#$$6&
A transistor is semi conductor device consisting of three regions
separated by two +'7 junctions. (he three regions are 2ase) mitter D
#ollector.

(he base may be of 7' type or +' type. (he emitter and collector have
same impurities but different from that of base. (hus if base is of 7' type
then emitter and collector are of +' type then transistor is called +'7'+
transistor and vice versa transistor is called 7'+'7 transistor.
(he base is made thin and number density of majority carriers is
always less than emitter and collector. (he base provides junction for proper
interaction between emitter and collector.

lectrons are majority charge carriers in 7' region and in +'region)
holes are the majority charge carriers. (hus two types of charge carriers are
involved in current flow through 7'+'7 or +'7'+ transistor.
S6"78!S -8 9(:S;S98S :
"n schematic symbols) the emitter is always represented by an arrow
indicating the direction of conventional current in the device.
"n case of 7'+'7 transistor arrow points away from base and in case
of +'7'+ transistor it points towards base.
When transistor is used in circuit) emitter ' base junction is always
forward biased while base ' collector junction is always reverse biased.
8ig. Structure and symbol of +'7'+ transistor
7;(S;:. 8- 9(:S;S98 :
(he two junctions can be biased in four different ways:
2oth junctions may be forward biased. "t causes large current to flow
across junctions. (ransistor is to be operated in HSA(5;A("*7
;3"*7I.
2oth junctions may be reversed biased. "t causes very small current to
flow across junctions. (ransistor is to be operated in H#5( *88
;3"*7I.
'2 junction is forward biased and #'2 junction is reverse biased.
(he transistor is said to be operated in HA#("1 ;3"*7I. Eost of
the transistors work in this region.
'2 junction is reversed biased and #'2 junction is forward biased.
(he transistor is said to be operated in H"71;(! E*!I.
8ig. %a& +'7'+ transistor biasing %b& 7'+'7 transistor biasing
#";#5"( #*78"35;A("*7S :
(here are three possible ways in which a transistor can be connected
in the circuit which are following :
#ommon 2ase #onfiguration : 2ase is made common in this
configuration.
Common 5mitter Configuration : mitter is made common in this
configuration.
Common Collector Configuration : #ollector is made common in this
configuration.
8ig. +7+ #ommon 2ase #onfiguration
-ig1 P:P Common 5mitter -ig1 :P: Common Collector
Configuration Configuration
7C&&$
()solute "a<imum ating : (
a
N -$O# unless otherwise noted
Parameter Sym)ol Value
#ollector P mitter 1oltage 1
#*
':/
#ollector P 2ase 1oltage 1
#2*
':/
mitter P 2ase 1oltage 1
2*
'$
#ollector #urrent %!#& "
#
'.//
#ollector !issipation +
#
$//
Qunction (emperature (
Q
.$/
Storage (emperature (
S(3
'<$ to .$/
5lectrical Characteristics : (
a
N -$O# unless otherwise noted
Parameter Sym)ol 9est Condition "in1 9ype
#ollector #ut'off #urrent "#2* 1#2 N ':/1) "N/
!# #urrent 3ain hfe 1#2 N '$1) "#N-mA ../
#ollector mitter Saturation
1oltage
1#%sat& "#N './mA) "2N '/.$mA
"#N './/mA) "2N '$mA
'4/
'-$/
#ollector 2ase Saturation
1oltage
12%sat& "#N './mA) "2N '/.$mA
"#N './/mA) "2N '$mA
',//
'4//
2ase mitter *n 1oltage 12%*n& 1#N '$1) "#N '-mA
1#N '$1) "#N './mA
'<// '<</
#urrent 3ain 2andwidth
+roduct
f( 1#N '$1) "#N './mA)
fN./E@=
.$/
*utput #apacitance #ob 1#2N
'./1)"N/)fN.E@=
7oise 8igure 78 1#N '$1) "#N '-//mA -
D;8D5
"t is a +'type region and 7'type region formed in the same crystal
structure) and hence a +'7 junction is produced. Some of the conduction
electrons near the junction diffuse in to +'type semiconductor from the 7'type
semiconductor across the junction combing with the holes. (he loss of
electrons makes the 7'type semiconductor positively charged and hence the
neutrali=ation of the holes on the other hand makes +'type semiconductor
negatively charged. (his region where positive and negative charges develop is
called depletion region.
-ig1 Diode
"f a +'region is made positive with respect to the 7'region by an external
circuit then junction is forward biased and junction has a very low resistance to
the flow of current. @oles in the positive +'type material are attracted across the
junction to the negative side and the free electrons in the 7'type material are
like wise attracted to the opposite side. "f a positive voltage is applied to 7'
=one with respect to the +'=one terminal) the +'7 junction is reverse biased.
-ig1 Volt+(mpere Characteristics of a P+: Diode
9emperature Dependence of V+; Characteristics
(he cut'in voltage decreases at the rate of -.$ m1FO#. Also above -$O#)
the reverse saturation current "
/
doubles for every <O# %./O#& for Si %3e&
diodes. @owever) the shape of overall characteristic does not alter with
temperature.
Diode esistance
Static esistance : (he static resistance of a diode denoted by ; is the ratio
of diode voltage 1 to diode current ". (he static resistance ; varies
widely as the operating point shifts and it does not constitute a useful
parameter.
Dynamic or ;ncremental esistance : (he dynamic resistance of a diode is
defined as the reciprocal of the slope of the current voltage
characteristic. (hus dynamic resistance is given by '
r d1Fd" RRRR%.&
(he dynamic resistance forms an important parameter for small
signal operation of the diode. (he dynamic resistance) however) is not a
constant but varies with the operating point.
8or a semiconductor diode) the dynamic resistance r as per 1'"
characteristic is given by)
r d1Fd" N 1
(
F"
/

1F1
(
N 1
(
F%"0"
/
& RRR.%-&
"f the reverse bias is greater than a few tenth of a volt) then
|1F1

| KK. and r is extremely large.

8or forward bias exceeding a few tenths of volt) "KK"
/
) so that
r N 1
(
F" RR..%:&
(hus dynamic forward resistance varies inversely as the current ".
At room temperature) i.e.
( N ://OS) for N ..
; N -<F" RR..%9&
where r is in ohms and " is in milli'amperes.
Depletion !ayer Capacitance =9ransition Capacitance) C
9

(he width W of the depletion layer at the junction increases with the
increase of reverse bias magnitude. (his depletion region along with the
concentration of uncovered immobile charges constitutes a capacitor whose
incremental capacitance #
(
is given by)
#
(
N |dGFd1|
where dG is the increase in charge resulting from a change d1 in
voltage. @ence a voltage change d1 in time interval dt will result in a current i
given by)
i N dGFdt RR..%$&
#
(
N d1Fdt RR..%<&
!;.*9 5";99;:. D;8D5
L! falls within the family of +'7 junction devices. (he light emitting
diode %L!& is a diode that will give off visible light when it is energi=ed. "n
any forward biased +'7 junction there is) within the structure and primarily
close to the junction) a recombination of holes and electrons. (his
recombination reAuires that the energy possessed by the unbound free electron
be transferred to another state.
(he process of giving off light by applying an electrical source of energy
is called electroluminescence. As shown in fig.) with its graphic symbol) the
conducting surface connected to the +'material is much smaller) to permit the
emergence of the maximum number of photons of light energy. 7ote in the
figure that the recombination of the injected carriers due to the forward'biased
junction results in emitted light at the site of recombination. (here may) of
course) be some absorption of the packages of photon energy in the structure
itself) but a very large percentage are able to leave) as shown in the fig.
8ig. +rocess of electroluminescence in the L!
()solute "a<imum atings at (
A
N -$O#
Parameter *igh 5ff1 ed 014% >nits
+ower dissipation .-/ mW
Average forward current -/
L.M
mA
+eak forward current </ mA
*perating and storage temperature range '$$O# to .//O#
Lead soldering temperature
L..<mm %/./<: in.& from bodyM
-:/O# for : seconds
L.M !erate from $/O# at /.- mAFO#
5lectrical?8ptical Characteristics at (
A
N -$O#
Parameter Sym)ol *igh 5ff1 ed 014% >nits 9est
Conditions
"in1 9ype "a<
Axial luminous intensity "v ../ :./ mcd "8 N ./mA
"ncluded angle between
half luminous intensity
points
-.F- 6/ deg. '
+eak wave length peak
<:$ nm Eeasuremen
t at +eak
!ominant wave length d
<-6 nm '
Speed of response s
4/ ns
#apacitance # .. p8 18N/B
fN. E@=
(hermal resistance Q#
.-/ O#FW Qunction to
cathode lead
at /.,4 mm
%/./:. in&
from body
8orward voltage 18 -.- :./ 1 "8 N ./mA
;everse breakdown
voltage
21; $./ 1 "; N .//A
Luminous efficacy v
.9, LmF1 '
5S;S9(:C5
;esistance is the electronic component used to control the current
passing through the circuit. (hey are calibrated in ohms. "n the other words
resistance are circuit elements having the function introducing electrical
resistance into the circuit. (here are three basic types :
.. 8ixed ;esistance
-. ;heostat
:. +otentiometer
A fixed ;esistance is a two terminal resistance whose electrical
resistance is constant. A rheostat is a resistance that can be changed in
resistance value without opening the circuit to make adjustment.
potentiometer is an adjustable resistance with three terminals one each end
of the resistance element and third movable along its length.

C(P(C;98
A capacitor is a device capable of storing an electric charge %static
electricity&. "t consists of two metal plates separated by dielectric material.
#apacitors are available in values ranging from less than one picofarad to
thousands of microfarad. While using a capacitor itTs ratings must be carefully
observed to make certain that the potential to be applied across the capacitor is
not greater than the rated value.
96P5S 8- C(P(C;98S :
!epends upon the basis of dielectric used:
Air insulated D vaccum capacitors
+aper insulated capacitors
Eica capacitors
+lastic film capacitors
#eramic capacitors
lectrolytic D tantalum capacitors
C5(";C C(P(C;98 :
"n this project) /./. microfarad capacitor is a ceramic capacitor.
(he basis of the ceramic material is mainly barium titanate or a similar
material) but other ceramic substance including hydrous silicate of magnesia or
talc are also used. (he electrodes are applied in the form of silver which is
either spread or plated on to the opposite faces of a thin tube) wafer or disc
made from the ceramic material. #onnecting wires are then soldered to this
deposit and the whole capacitor dipped in for a suitable coating.
-ig1 9a)ular and disc type ceramic capacitors
L#(;*LC("# #A+A#"(*; :
"n this project) ./f capacitor is an electrolytic capacitor. "n this type of
capacitors) the dielectric consists of an extremely thin film of aluminum oxide
formed on one of its aluminum foil plates. "ntimate contact with the other plate
is achieved by impregnating the paper between the foils with an electrolyte in
the form of viscous substance) such as ammonium borate. (he sandwich is then
rolled into a cylindrical element and housed in either metallic cardboard) plastic
or ceramic protective tube.
-ig1 5lectrolytic and 9antalum capacitor
5!(6S
5rror: eference source not found
A relay is an electrically operated switch. (he relay contacts can be made to
operate in the pre'arranged fashion. 8or instance) normally open contacts
close and normally closed contacts open. "n electromagnetic relays) the
contacts however complex they might be) they have only two position i.e.
*+7 and #L*S!) whereas in case of electromagnetic switches) the
contacts can have multiple positions.
S(;"+
*5( 7F#
*5( 7F*
S+;"73
EA37(
-:/1 P
:55D -8 9*5 >S5 8- 5!(6
(he reason behind using relay for switching loads is to provide complete
electrical isolation. (he means that there is no electrical connection between
the driving circuits and the driven circuits. (he driving circuit may be low
voltage operated low power circuits that control several kilowatts of power.
"n our circuit where a high fan could be switched on or off depending upon
the output from the telephone.
Since the relay circuit operated on a low voltage) the controlling circuit is
Auite safe. "n an electromagnetic relay the armature is pulled by a magnetic
force only. (here is no electrical connection between the coil of a relay and
the switching contacts of the relay. "f there are more than one contact they all
are electrically isolated from each other by mounting them on insulating
plates and washers. @ence they can be wired to control different circuits
independently.
Some of the popular contacts forms are described below:
.. lectromagnetic relay
-. +ower ;elay.
:. (ime !elay ;elay.
9. Latching ;elay.
$. #rystal #an ;elay.
<. #o'axial ;elay.
11 5lectromagnetic relay:
An electromagnetic relay in its simplest form consists of a coil) a !# current
passing through which produces a magnetic field. (his magnetic field
attracts an armature) which in turn operates the contacts. 7ormally open
contacts close and normally closed contacts open. lectromagnetic relays are
made in a large variety of contacts forms.
'1 Power relays:
+ower relays are multi'pole heavy duty lapper type relays that are capable of
switching resistive loads of upto -$amp.. (hese relays are widely used for a
variety of industrial application like control of fractional horse power
motors) solenoids) heating elements and so on. (hese relays usually have
button like silver alloy contacts and the contact welding due to heavy in rush
current is avoided by wiping action of the contacts to Auench the arc during
high voltage !# switching thus avoiding the contact welding.
31 9ime Delay elay:
A time delay relay is the one in which there is a desired amount of time
delay between the application of the actuating signal and operation of the
load switching devices.
01 !atching elay:
"n a Latching ;elay) the relay contacts remain in the last energi=ed position
even after removal of signal in the relay control circuit. (he contacts are
held in the last relay'energi=ed position after removal of energisation either
electrically or magnetically. (he contacts can be released to the normal
position electrically or mechanically.
&1 Crystal Can elay:
(hey are so called) as they resemble Auart= crystal in external shapes. (hese
are high performance hermetically sealed miniature or sub'miniature relay
widely used in aerospace and military application. (hese relays usually have
gold plated contacts and thus have extremely low contact resistance. !ue to
low moment of inertia of the armature and also due to statically and
dynamically balanced nature of armature) these relays switch Auite reliably
even under extreme condition of shock and vibration.
41 Co+a<ial elay:
A #o'axial ;elay has two basic parts) an actuator which is nothing but some
kind of a coil and a cavity) housing the relay contacts. (he co'axial relay are
extensively used for radio freAuency switching operations of eAuipment
9*5 @>:C9;8: 9(:S;S98
Collector Collector
U U U U U
U U U U U
0 0 0 0 0
U U U U U
U U U U U
U U U U U
U U U
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
7ase 7ase
5mitter 5mitter

C C

7 7

5 5

:P: P:P
*ow to control sensors
What is a ,oltage di,iderA
Cou are going to find out but don?t be in too much of a hurry. Work through
the #hapter and allow the explanation to develop.
0 0 0 0 0 '' '' '' ''
(he diagram below shows a light dependent resistor) or !D) together
with its circuit symbol:
(he light'sensitive part of the L!; is a wavy track of cadmium sulphide.
Light energy triggers the release of extra charge carriers in this material) so
that its resistance falls as the level of illumination increases.
A light sensor uses an L!; as part of a voltage divider.
(he essential circuit of a voltage divider) also called a potential di,ider) is:
What happens if one of the resistors in the voltage divider is replaced by an
L!;V "n the circuit below) ;
top
is a ./ resistor) and an L!; is used as
;
bottom
:
Suppose the L!; has a resistance of $// ) /.$ ) in bright light) and -//
in the shade %these values are reasonable&.
When the L!; is in the light) 1
out
will be:
"n the shade) 1
out
will be:
"n other words) this circuit gives a L*W voltage when the L!; is in the
light) and a @"3@ voltage when the L!; is in the shade. (he voltage divider
circuit gives an output voltage which changes with illumination.
A sensor subsystem which functions like this could be thought of as a ? dark
sensor? and could be used to control lighting circuits which are switched on
automatically in the evening.
+erhaps this does not seem terribly exciting) but almost every sensor circuit
you can think of uses a voltage divider. (here?s just no other way to make
sensor subsystems work.
@ere is the voltage divider built with the L!; in place of ;
top
:
9emperature sensors
A temperature'sensitive resistor is called a thermistor. (here are several
different types:
(he resistance of most common types of thermistor decreases as the
temperature rises. (hey are called negati,e temperature coefficient) or ntc)
thermistors. 7ote the 'tO next to the circuit symbol. A typical ntc thermistor
is made using semiconductor metal oxide materials. %Semiconductors have
resistance properties midway between those of conductors and insulators.&
As the temperature rises) more charge carriers become available and the
resistance falls.
Although less often used) it is possible to manufacture positi,e temperature
coefficient) or ptc) thermistors. (hese are made of different materials and
show an increase in resistance with temperature.
@ow could you make a sensor circuit for use in a fire alarmV Cou want a
circuit which will deliver a @"3@ voltage when hot conditions are detected.
Cou need a voltage divider with the ntc thermistor in the ;
top
position:
@ow could you make a sensor circuit to detect temperatures less than 9O# to
warn motorists that there may be ice on the roadV Cou want a circuit which
will give a @"3@ voltage in cold conditions. Cou need a voltage divider with
the thermistor in place of ;
bottom
:
(his last application raises an important Auestion: @ow do you know what
value of 1
out
you are going to get at 9O#V
Sey point: (he biggest change in 1out from a voltage divider is obtained
when ;top and ;bottom are eAual in value
Sound sensors
Another name for a sound sensor is a microphone. (he diagram shows a
cermet microphone:
#ermet? stands for ?ceramic? and ?metal?. A mixture of these materials is used
in making the sound'sensitive part of the microphone. (o make them work
properly) cermet microphones need a voltage) usually around ..$ 1 across
them. A suitable circuit for use with a 4 1 supply is:
(he 9., and the . resistors make a voltage divider which provides
..< 1 across the microphone. Sound waves generate small changes in
voltage) usually in the range ./'-/ m1. (o isolate these small signals from
the steady ..< 1) a capacitor is used.
Signals from switches
When a switch is used to provide an input to a circuit) pressing the switch
usually generates a voltage signal. "t is the voltage signal which triggers the
circuit into action. What do you need to get the switch to generate a voltage
signalV . . . Cou need a voltage divider. (he circuit can be built in either of
two ways:
(he pull down resistor in the first circuit forces 1
out
to become L*W except
when the push button switch is operated. (his circuit delivers a @"3@
voltage when the switch is pressed. A resistor value of ./ is often used.
"n the second circuit) the pull up resistor forces 1
out
to become @"3@
except when the switch is operated. +ressing the switch connects 1
out
directly to / 1. "n other words) this circuit delivers a L*W voltage when the
switch is pressed.
"n circuits which process logic signals) a L*W voltage is called ?logic /? or
just ?/?) while a @"3@ voltage is called ?logic.? or ?.?. (hese voltage divider
circuits are perfect for providing input signals for logic systems.
What kinds of switches could you use. *ne variety of push button switch is
called a miniature tactile switch. (hese are small switches which work well
with prototype board:
S8!D5;:.
Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductors the joint
where two metal conductors are to be joined or fused is heated with a device
called soldering iron and then as allow of tin and lead called solder is applied
which melts and converse the joint. (he solder cools and solidifies Auickly to
ensure is good and durable connection between the jointed metal converting the
joint solder also present oxidation.
S8!D5;:. B D5S8!D5;:. 95C*:;C>5S :
(here are basically two soldering techniAues:
". Eanual soldering with iron.
"". Eass soldering.
(he iron consist of an insulated handle connected via a metal shank to
the bit the function of bit is to
.. Stare host D convey it to the component
-. (o store and deliver molten solder , flux.
:. (o remove surplus solder from joints.
Soldering bit are made of copper because it has good heat capacity D
thermal conductivity. "t may erode after long term use to avoid it coating of
nickel or tin is used.
S8!D5;:. W;9* ;8: :
(he surface to be soldered must be cleaned D fluxed. (he soldering iron
switched on D bellowed to attain soldering temperature. (he solder in form of
wire is allied hear the component to be soldered Db heated with iron. (he
surface to be soldered is filled) iron is removed D the joint is cold without
disturbing.
Solder joint are supposed to
.. +rovide permanent low resistance path
-. Eake a robust mechanical link between +#2 D leads of components.
:. Allow heat flow between component) joining elements D +#2.
9. ;etain adeAuate strength with temperature variation.
(he following precaution should be taken while soldering.
.. 5se always an iron plated copper core tip for soldering iron.
-. Slightly fore the tip with a cut file when it is cold.
:. 5se a wet sponge to wipe out dirt from the tip before soldering instead of
asking the iron.
9. (ighten the tip screw if necessary before iron is connected to power
supply.
$. #lean component lead D copper pad before soldering.
<. 5se proper tool for component handling instead of direct handling.
,. Apply solder between component leads) +#2 pattern D tip of soldering
iron.
6. "ron should be kept in contact with the joint s for -': second s only
instead of keeping for very long or very small time.
4. 5se optimum Auantity of solder.
./. 5se multistoried wire instead of single strands solvent like isopropyl
alcohol.
... very time soldering is over) put a little clean solder on the tip.
Advantages :
.. Low power consumption' leds consume very less power as compare to #8L. 2ulb
of .$ leds consume .$/mAW..$v only. ach led is of ..$ v and ./mA
-. ;eliablity is more' if one led will get damage even then over torch will work.
:. Low cost. L! lamp is less costly as compare to #8L.
!isadvantages'
.. Light intensity is less