Prac Manual

School of Physics
PHYC10006
Physics 2: Life Sciences and
Environment

Laboratory Manual

Name:
Lab Class:

2013

PHYC10006 Physics Laboratory Manual i
Contents

Introduction to Laboratory Work
Laboratories in Physics I-1
Preparation I-1
Laboratory Work I-3
Help! I-5
Laboratory Safety a brief summary I-6
Assessment of Practical Physics I-7
General Safety I-10

Semester 1 Laboratory Exercises
Laboratory Exercise 1 Thermal Effects
Laboratory Exercise 2 Buoyancy
Laboratory Exercise 3 Flowing Fluids
Laboratory Exercise 4 Fun with Charges
Laboratory Exercise 5 Electrical Circuits
Laboratory Exercise 6 Capacitors
Laboratory Exercise 7 Magnetic Interactions
Laboratory Exercise 8 Properties of Radiation

Appendices
Appendix A Uncertainties & Error Analysis
Appendix B Graphs and How to Use Them
Appendix C SI Units
Appendix D Resistor Colour Codes

Your Lab Schedule back cover

PHYC10006 Physics Laboratory Manual I-1
Introduction to Laboratory Work
Laboratories in Physics
You will attend eight weeks of practical exercises as part of your learning and assessment in
PHYC10006 Physics 2: Life Sciences and Environment. These laboratory exercises (also known as
Labs, Practical Classes, or Pracs) will run alongside the lectures and tutorials, providing a
practical exploration of ideas related to the course. Your physics demonstrator will supervise these
exercises, and check that you achieve the check points set. The aim is for you to broaden your
understanding of the physics involved, and also to develop the skills needed to be a successful
experimental physicist.
Each weekly prac has two components: a Pre-Lab Exercise and the Lab itself (normally a
combination of experiments and exercises, with a few questions to help guide the experimentation and
interpretation of results). Completing all check points successfully within the lab will contribute 80%
to your final mark for the laboratory exercise. Completing the Pre-Lab exercise will provide the
remaining 20%.
The Pre-Lab Exercise must be completed before you arrive. This routinely involves reading through
the whole lab, answering any exercises labelled as pre-labs, and then completing the on-line questions
that check your completion of this. The focus of the pre-labs will vary from week to week
sometimes they will relate more to the physics of the topic, and sometimes they will relate more to the
experimental methods that will be used. In all cases your mark for the pre-labs will be given based on
the answers on-line. You will be given a mark out of 10 for the pre-labs 5 marks are allocated for the
timely completion of the work and 5 marks are allocated for the correct answers. If the questions are
not completed (and online answers submitted) before the lab (which means more than 10 minutes
before lab is scheduled to begin), you will only be able to get up to half the marks allocated for the
pre-labs.
The Lab itself is normally a series of experiments and exercises designed to introduce you to
important techniques of experimental physics and give some hands-on investigating of the physics
taught in the lectures and tutorials. You will keep a record of your experimental notes and results in
your Logbook. The Logbook remains in the physics laboratories at all times.
Although the laboratory exercises investigate physics topics that are also covered in lectures, each lab
is designed to be self-contained. Dont be worried if your upcoming lab involves material that you
have or havent seen before: the lab exercises are designed to be completed at any time during the
course. Lectures will improve your understanding of labs, and labs will improve your understanding
of lectures. No matter in what order you complete the exercises, any student who completes them all
will be similarly advantaged.
Preparation
It is essential to be properly prepared for each lab exercise. The timetable at the back of this book will
tell you exactly which laboratory your group is tackling each week (you will need to check which
group you are in first (see below).
You must read through the Lab Manual description of the Experiment for the week before you arrive,
and complete any Pre-Lab Exercises that are required (including the online questions to ensure you get
appropriate credit for your work at http://fyl.ph.unimelb.edu.au/prelabs). These need to be submitted
at least 10 minutes before your lab class begins, otherwise the maximum mark possible for the pre-
labs would be 5 out of 10 (assuming they are all correct).
Before your first class, you must also read the Safety Notes (below). Laboratory exercises may
involve radioactivity, toxic materials and/or hazardous equipment, and it is essential that you are fully
aware of the safety issues involved.

I-2 PHYC10006 Physics Laboratory Manual
You should also read the rest of this Introduction to Laboratory Work, especially the sections below
on Safety, on Assessment, and on logbook writing. You must read Appendix A to learn about
uncertainty analysis. Appendix B discusses the creation and use of graphs.
When do we start?
Classes start in the second or third week of semester one. You will need to find out which lab group
you are in, and also which section of the laboratory you have been assigned to for your first session.
This information is available from the pre-labs web page (which is a link from the LMS page for the
subject).
http://fyl.ph.unimelb.edu.au/prelabs
Where do I go?
The first-year Physics laboratories are located on levels 3 & 4 of the Swanston Street extension to the
Physics building, which is called the Physics Podium. The Physics 2: Life Sciences lab is on level 4.
When arriving for your practical classes, you should enter the laboratories via the big ramp. Follow the
ramp straight up into the Physics Podium, and once inside go forward (towards the Swanston St exit),
left and then left again (near the noticeboard where the lab groups are posted). You are now on level 2.
The entrance to the laboratories is via a stairwell, which looks like an emergency exit. Dont be
worried up the concrete stairs (from level 2 up to level 4) is the way to go. When you arrive for your
first class there will be signs posted to show you the way.

PHYSICS
labs:
levels 3&4
western ramp
Swanston Street
bridge

Students are assigned to lab groups, which are labelled with a code like UPC2. The letters and
numbers describe your group:
U is the day. M =Monday, U =Tuesday, W =Wednesday, and H =Thursday.
P is the time of day. P =PM (afternoon), A =AM (morning), and E =Evening.
C is the subject. C =PHYC10006 (this subject) (A, B, M are for the other subjects).
2 is the group number, which tells you which section of the lab you will be working in. There are up
to four groups doing labs in your subject at the same time: groups 1, 2, 3 and 4. However not all
groups will do the same experiment each week the schedule is on the back of this book.
What should I bring?
To the first practical class, you should bring:
your Physics 2 L.S.E Lab Manual (this book!)
your Physics 2 lab notebook (which will be your Logbook)
a calculator (if you have one) but you should use Excel as much as possible
pens (for written work), pencils (for graphs and diagrams) and a ruler
All laboratory benches have a computer running Excel (and other useful software), and each
laboratory has a printer. Any print-outs you create must be stuck into your logbook.
You should write your name and details on the cover of your logbook, and also write your name on
the two ends (so it can be read when the book is lying flat in a stack).

Laboratory Work
The laboratory exercises are designed to complement the lectures and tutorials. You will encounter
some physics ideas for the first time in labs, and investigate them further in later lectures and tutorials.
Other lab exercises will be exploring physics concepts you may have already seen in lectures.
The first-year laboratory schedule runs for 8 weeks of classes, divided into 2 segments (see below). In
each segment you will be supervised by a different demonstrator and will work with a different lab
partner.
Schedule
Each lab takes place during a 3 hour laboratory session. The work cannot be carried over between
weeks. If you miss a class, you can only make it up during the same week (see Attendance, below).
There are no lab classes in the first week of semester. The table on the outside back cover of this book
tells you the schedule for each specific lab group semester one:
Attendance
Attendance is compulsory at all laboratory sessions. Laboratory work is a hurdle requirement: you
must attend and complete your laboratory exercises satisfactorily in order to pass Physics 2 Life
Sciences and Environment (see Assessment, below).
If you are unavoidably absent from a laboratory session (or if you know that you are going to be), you
need to contact Colin Entwisle as soon as possible (see the Help! section, below). If you present a
medical certificate (or equivalent) you can be exempted from that prac. If you have a valid reason for
missing the lab (but no medical certificate, or you have already missed 2 labs see below) you will
need to arrange (with Colin) to attend a catch-up lab session in the same week. If you ignore the
absence, you will receive no marks for that week (and a lower final mark for the subject because of
this).
A maximum of 2 medical certificates in each semester will be accepted for absences. Any further
medical certificates will require you to make up your lab session/s at another time (but only in very
extraordinary circumstances can this be in a different week of semester). You must arrange for this as
soon as possible after your absence. Contact Colin if you are unsure of what you need to do
(colinde@unimelb.edu.au).
Lab Partners
In every laboratory session, you will work with one or more lab partners (from the same subject). You
will conduct the practical laboratory work together and produce a single set of experimental results.
However, each of you must keep your own logbook. It is important to discuss the physics with your
partner(s) as you work together, to ensure that you both understand what is going on. If you dont
agree with each other about your understanding of the physics involved, you need to resolve this with
your demonstrator.
At the start of the new lab segment, you will need to change partner(s). This policy is designed to
develop your skills in working with a variety of people through the year.
Demonstrators
Each laboratory has a team of demonstrators, one of whom will be directly supervising your lab group.
Most demonstrators are Physics Masters students students who are completing their 4
th
or 5
th
Year of
Physics studies. (Imagine yourself, three or four years from now.)
Your demonstrator will instruct you in the correct use of the lab equipment, and assist you in
understanding the physics concepts involved in the prac. Sometimes the demonstrator will talk to the
entire lab group at once, to discuss an important concept or to give you all an overview of what you
will be doing next. Most of the time, the demonstrator will be moving about the lab answering queries
and offering advice to students (and confirming that you have achieved the check points specified).
The demonstrators are not there to tell you all the answers. Their job is to encourage you to learn how
to discover the answers for yourself: that is what experimental physics is for. Demonstrators are there
to let you know if you are right or wrong, and to point you in the right direction. The purpose of
laboratory work is not (only) to get the right answer: it is to understand what your answers mean,
even when they seem to be wrong.

Demonstrators are also responsible for ensuring safety in the laboratory. You are required to obey
your demonstrators instructions regarding safe practices in the lab (such as the correct use of
equipment, evacuation in the event of an alarm, etc). Safety guidelines are extremely important: you
must read the Safety section, below.
Finally, demonstrators are responsible for checking your laboratory work and marking the checkpoint
progress (see Assessment, below). Your demonstrator has the final say on what is expected from you
each week, and will let you know if there are any changes to the lab exercise from what is shown in
the manual. Remember to listen to the guidance from the demonstrators on what you need to do (since
they determine the check point completion and therefore your mark).
Help!
During your laboratory session, questions should be directed to your demonstrator. Otherwise, the
first-year laboratories are co-ordinated by the Teaching and Laboratory Coordinator, Mr Colin
Entwisle. Any general problems or queries especially about absences, timetables, or any other
administrative issues should be directed to Colin. His office is in the first-year labs, Room 3.11
(which is at the back of the third floor labs). If you are unable to contact Colin, send an email:
colinde@unimelb.edu.au.
Equipment
The equipment in the laboratories is under the care of the Laboratory staff. If you are having trouble
with equipment, talk to your demonstrator and they will assess the need for further assistance.
Concerns about teaching
Any concerns you may have about the teaching in lab classes can be discussed with Colin or the
academic co-ordinator of the first-year teaching, who is Dr Roger Rassool (email:
dfys@physics.unimelb.edu.au).
Lost Property
See Colin Entwisle or other lab staff promptly.


LABORATORY SAFETY A BRIEF SUMMARY
Laboratory exercises may involve radioactivity, toxic materials and/or hazardous equipment, and it is
essential that you are fully aware of the safety issues involved.

You are obligated to read and understand the General Safety Notes (later in this manual).
You must understand and follow all safety instructions and warnings for each laboratory exercise.
You must follow all the safety directions given by your demonstrator and other laboratory staff.
At your first laboratory session, your demonstrator will provide you with a declaration form which
you must sign, asserting these responsibilities.

Much effort and thought goes into ensuring that the first-year laboratories are as safe as possible. If
you have any safety concerns, you must immediately report these to your demonstrator or to another
laboratory staff member.

These are the three most basic safety rules:
Adequate footwear and suitable clothing must be worn at all times.
This means no sandals or thongs. If your shoes are not closed-toe, you will not be allowed to stay in
the laboratory.
Eating, drinking and smoking are not allowed in the laboratory.
This is especially important in the Radiation laboratories. The radioactive materials you will encounter
in first-year Physics are extremely dangerous if accidentally ingested. If you are thirsty, there is a
drinking fountain at the eastern end of the laboratories.
Mobile phones are not to be used in the laboratory.
Hazardous equipment may be in use nearby, and mobile phones can be a dangerous distraction or
source of interference. If you need to receive or make an essential call, you must leave the laboratory
to do so. If there is an essential reason for your phone to be on in the laboratory, it must be set to
silent mode.

REMEMBER:
If you bring food or drink into the laboratory, or if you wear shoes which are not closed-toe, or if you
answer your phone in the lab, you will be ejected and you will lose marks.

Assessment of Practical Physics
Laboratory work is an important and essential part of first-year Physics. Because of this, laboratory
assessment makes up 25% of your final mark for the subject. This 25% comes from the sum of your
laboratory session marks (based on satisfactory completion of check points and lab performance
during the prac) and your pre-lab work which is submitted online before each lab (if you complete or
alter your pre-lab answers online after you have had your lab you will not receive the marks allocated
for timely completion). For each of the 8 weeks of laboratory sessions, you will get a mark out of 10
for the pre-labs (5 of which are for timely completion that is submission more than 10 minutes
before lab starts), a mark out of 8 for check point achievement and conclusion, and a mark out of 2 for
Lab Performance. The final mark for lab assessment is 20% from pre-labs, 60% from the checkpoint
and conclusion mark (which at its simplest means you have worked effectively during the lab session),
and 20% for Lab Performance.
The weekly checkpoint and lab performance mark out of 10 is based on the Four key aspects of
laboratory work:
1. your logbook entry (see Logbooks, below)
2. your practical work during the session
3. your overall conduct during the session
4. the state of your lab bench at the end of the session.
Each lab lists the check points at the beginning, and at each check point there is some indication of
what the demonstrator will be looking for. As a general rule, if you follow this manual, and listen to
your demonstrator, you should be able to get all the checkpoint marks!
As well as contributing 25% to your final mark, the laboratory component of the first-year Physics
course is a hurdle requirement. This means that if you fail to satisfactorily complete the laboratory
component, you cannot pass. This is true no matter how well you do on the other components of the
course.
What does satisfactorily complete mean? It means you must:
Attend and satisfactorily participate in at least 6 of the 8 laboratory sessions in the semester
Earn a final mark of at least 50% of the total possible marks.
If you are unable to attend a laboratory session for any reason, you should talk to Colin Entwisle (or
another laboratory staff member) as soon as possible. It is important to note that presenting a medical
certificate for your absence does not waive the minimum attendance requirement. You cannot miss
more than two of your lab sessions for any reason. If you do miss a lab session (or if you know that
you are going to), you must see Colin as soon as possible in order to arrange a catch-up session.
(Please read the Attendance section, above, for details.)
Lab Performance
An essential aim for laboratory work is that you demonstrate your understanding of what occurs.
Being able to follow directions to produce a result is important, but results are meaningless unless you
can explain how they relate to the physics involved.
During your practical work, it is important to:
Prepare for the laboratory including reading the entire lab for that week, and submitting your
answers to the online questions
Use laboratory equipment carefully, respectfully and safely
Set up equipment correctly (and dont let your partner(s) do all the work!)
Work with your lab partner(s) share the workload including using the computer

Talk to your partner(s) about the labs as you go along; if you are not sure that you understand
the physics involved, you should also talk to your demonstrator together
Ensure the accuracy and quality of your measurements. Think about how many measurements
you should make, how best to use the available time, etc.
Think about what you are doing dont follow directions blindly. Consider possible flaws in
the experimental procedure, whether the equipment you are using is appropriate, etc.
Pay attention to your results do they seem reasonable, or are they obviously in error? For
example, if your results say that the speed of light is only 2 metres per second, clearly you have
made a mistake somewhere.
Make sure your lab bench has the right equipment on it at the end of the lab session. If you
borrow equipment from another bench, be sure to return it to the bench from which it was
borrowed.
TAKE NOTE: You may not always complete the entire laboratory exercise. But as long as the
demonstrator is satisfied with your efforts, this is acceptable. It is better to keep a reasonable and well-
considered logbook that covers 85% of the exercise, than to rush through 100% of the work without
understanding anything and have a muddled, incomplete logbook record. It is always better to
understand what you have done, rather than to just do it (it will make your job a lot easier when you
are analysing, interpreting, or commenting on your results).
The Lab Manual (this book)
Pre-lab sections should be completed in this book (some space has been left) and then the on-line
questions answered. During the actual lab session you will record all your work straight into your
logbook.
Logbooks
During each weekly Experiment, you will be writing in your logbook as you go along. Please note,
your logbook stays in the laboratories at all times: you dont get to take your logbook home to
work on it later, so each weeks logbook entry must be finished by the end of each session.
Keeping an effective logbook is very important in experimental science. An experimental log is not
like an assignment, not like an essay, and not like the lab reports you may have written in secondary
school. So, what is it? It is more like a diary of your actions and thinking throughout the lab session.
The idea of your experimental log is to keep a sequential record of your actions, thoughts and results
during the experiment. Any other first-year Physics student should be able to read your log and
recreate exactly your experiment(s). (Imagine that if you lost all your memory of the experiment, you
could read your log again and be able to know and understand everything about it.)
These are the KEY CRITERIA:
The log needs to be self-contained. It must be complete in itself: it cannot say refer to the lab
manual. It must read as if the manual does not exist.
The log needs to be complete. It must include mention of all equipment used and procedures
followed. All data & results should be recorded as they are taken sometimes data will be
entered directly into the computer, in which case you can stick print outs of tables and graphs
into your logbook.
The log needs to make sense. It needs to be clear, sensible, logical and readable. Remember
that you and your peers should be able to read it!
Results are not enough. Dont just record your measurements in your logbook; you need to say
something about what you are doing, why you are doing it, and what it all means. As you go
along you must record all your analysis and discussion of the experiment, not only your
answers'. You should also analyse all numerical uncertainties and discuss any possible errors
(see Appendix A for a thorough explanation of what this means).

The log needs to follow some conventions. This includes putting the date, the title of the lab
exercise, and the names of your partner(s) at the beginning of each new laboratory. You should
always finish the lab with a summary of the days work (which can be brief).
How to write your log
Always use a pen to write your log, but use pencil (or Excel printouts) for graphs and diagrams. Your
log does not need to be perfectly neat, only clear and readable. Never use white-out or correction fluid:
simply put a line through what is incorrect and move on apart from saving you time, this also shows
your progress more correctly making the logbook more useful to a reader.
You should write fairly informally you are not writing a paper for submission it is an experimental
diary for your own reference.
At the start of each entry your log must clearly record the date, the title of the Experiment, and the
names of your partner(s).
Sometimes you may be able to write an aim which in later years laboratories will be mandatory,
so it is a good skill to develop and practise but do not worry about it if you arent sure. If you do
write one, it should be short (a paragraph or two at most) and state the aims of the Experiment: what
you are hoping to do, and why. (For this to make sense you might also need to discuss some theory,
but try to make it brief; in-depth discussion of theory should be left to the Experiment section.)
With or without an aim, the rest of the logbook is a chronological record of everything that you do and
think, written as you go along. (Keep in mind the KEY CRITERIA listed above.) Think of it like a
diary entry, or a story; it should describe everything that you do and explain why you did it and what
you think about it. Dont leave writing this until the end it is very important (and time-saving!) to
record your work as you go along. This skill (to write a sensible, brief, and effective record of your
work as you do it) is one of the main aims in the first year laboratory program.
Be accurate, and be honest! If you make a mistake in your setup and have to start again, your log
should record this. If you misinterpret results and have to go back and re-analyse them, discuss your
mistake in your log and explain where you went wrong.
Keep your description of the experimental procedure simple and clear. Do not copy the manual word-
for-word. You need to include all relevant details; you should be able to recreate the experiment
entirely from your log, without the manual.
When the manual has a question, you need to answer it in your log in a way that makes sense (i.e.
combine the question and answer into a self-contained sentence).
Use diagrams to show configurations of equipment. Dont be photographic rather than draw an
electronic detector the way it actually looks, just draw a square box and label it detector.
Remember that all numerical results should be presented with their plus-or-minus uncertainty values
this is essential! There are some checkpoints and some labs that draw particular attention to this
the skill to include an uncertainty or error for any experimental quantity is another key aim of
undergraduate labs. It can seem painful, hard and unnecessary at first, but we hope to make it a routine
part of your experimental work. You must read Appendix A: Uncertainties & Error Analysis. If you
are still unsure about what this means, talk to your demonstrator.
Finish with a Summary.
Every lab should have a brief summary at the end. This is a brief paragraph discussing how the
Experiments actual outcomes (as recorded in the Experiment section) related to the original aims (as
described in the Aim). As with all logbook keeping this does not need to be formal just a wrap-
up of what you did in your own words!

General Safety Notes
To ensure a safe and environmentally friendly workplace for all staff, students, and visitors, the
University of Melbourne has adopted the internationally recognised systems Safety MAP
(ISO12001) and Environmental Management System (ISO14001). As a student of the University you
are responsible for adopting safe work and study practices, and you are required to comply with all
relevant University and Departmental rules and procedures.
Detailed information on University policy and procedures is provided in the Environment, Health and
Safety Manual at http://www.unimelb.edu.au/ehsm
The Laboratory Rules and Safe Work Procedures set out below must be adhered to at all times. You
must follow the safety directions of all demonstrators and other staff.
Any injuries or other incidents must be immediately reported to a laboratory staff member.
If you have any concerns about the safety or environmental impact of any aspect of the laboratory
classes, please raise them with your demonstrator.
Emergency Procedures
If the emergency alarm bell sounds continually, the building must be evacuated. Switch off all
equipment, clear walkways and leave by the suggested emergency exit route. This route is:
Go through the door at the East (Swanston St.) end of the laboratory, and then down the stairs to the
grassy knoll area next to the Potter cafe.
You must not re-enter the laboratories until your demonstrator or evacuation controller directs that it
is safe to do so.
If this exit is not accessible, leave instead by the usual Western stairway.
If a fire occurs in the laboratory, alert people near you and also others on your level. Turn off all
equipment and leave the area immediately. Do not get in the way: your demonstrator will take control.
Using the wrong type of fire extinguisher can be very dangerous. The two most common types of
extinguishers are:
Water (or Soda Acid), which is most effective on ordinary combustibles (paper, wood, etc.).
These extinguishers should NOT be used on electrical, oil or grease fires.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2), which can be used on combustible, electrical and flammable liquid
fires.
The first-year laboratories use dry powder type fire extinguishers, which are safe to use in the
laboratories.
In case of fire, remember that it is very easy to be overcome by smoke and fumes. These fumes may be
extremely toxic, especially if electrical equipment is involved.
Accidents
If you are first on the scene of an accident and the casualty is in danger of further injury, observe the
area for hazards and, only if it is safe, pull the casualty clear. Do not move the casualty unnecessarily.
Once the casualty is out of immediate danger, summon aid immediately by reporting the accident to
your demonstrator and to any lab staff (offices in the eastern end of the labs), or to the Physics
building front office (ground floor). There are a number of people available who are qualified in First
Aid: attempt to find one of them by asking your demonstrator.
Electrical Hazards
The mains electrical supply is alternating current at 240 volts. This supply is hazardous and can be
lethal. Care must be taken at all times.
When working with electrical equipment, always remember the following:
Be aware of live parts and take appropriate precautions
Make sure all connections are clean, dry and secure

Always connect the supply voltage to your circuit last, and (at first) only connect it for an
instant
Do not attempt to service any electrical equipment yourself (this includes changing fuses).
If an accident occurs, act quickly. Ensure that you will not be in danger of electric shock by attempting
to help the casualty. If it is safe to do so, switch off the electrical supply at the wall and pull out the
plug. Otherwise, free the person by using something non-conductive (e.g. dry wood, rubber, etc.). Do
not touch the casualty (you may receive a shock if you do).
If there are any injuries or other incidents, alert your demonstrator immediately.
Radiation Hazards
All types of ionising radiation produce changes in living cells, but actively dividing cells (e.g. blood-
forming and reproductive cells) are particularly susceptible to damage. All doses of radiation,
therefore, must be kept as low as possible.
All radioactive sources are sealed and shielded, to prevent the active material from dispersing into the
surroundings (where it could be inhaled, ingested or absorbed). Take care not to break these seals and
shields. If any sources appear to be damaged, alert your demonstrator immediately.
A dose of radiation received is directly proportional to the exposure time and inversely proportional to
the distance squared. Therefore, the main safety procedures are:
Minimise your exposure time
Maximise the distance between yourself and the source
Where appropriate, use shielding to reduce the intensity of radiation (e.g. lead blocks)
Wash hands thoroughly after handling sources (or touching any lead shielding), and again after
leaving the laboratory
When the sources are not in use, return them to the demonstrator and sign off. Radioactive sources
must never leave the laboratory.
Medical status voluntary notification
If you have any allergies or medical conditions that you think might be affected by any of the
chemicals, materials or procedures in these laboratories, you must fill in a Medical Status
Voluntary Notification for Laboratory Classes form and give it to your demonstrator. This is so that
any risks can be assessed and the laboratory procedures modified.
This form is available from your demonstrator, or online at http://fyl.ph.unimelb.edu.au/medform.pdf
Safety Rules
In all of the laboratories, the following rules should be remembered.
Maintain a neat and clean bench and work area. Keep aisles and doors clear. Switch off and tidy
up the equipment after use. Your work area will be checked by your demonstrator at the end of
each session, before you leave. If you do not follow these instructions you will be penalised.
Never run or throw objects in the laboratory. Dont adopt a casual attitude: be aware of the
potential hazards and act accordingly.
Never work alone in a laboratory. A colleague should always be within call.
Adequate footwear (closed-toe) and suitable clothing must be worn at all times.
Eating, drinking and smoking are forbidden. After leaving the laboratory, always wash your
hands thoroughly (especially if working in the Radiation labs).
All accidents, injuries, mishaps and near misses must be reported to your demonstrator
immediately. This also includes breakages, faulty equipment, etc. If you are involved in a
mishap or accident, dont cover it up: tell your demonstrator immediately. Remember, by
speaking up you may save someone else from being injured.
REMEMBER: If you bring food or drink into the laboratory, or if you wear shoes which are not
closed-toe, you will be ejected and you will lose marks.
PHYC10006 Physics Laboratory Manual Exercise 1 1
Laboratory Exercise 1
Thermal Effects
SAFETY
Make sure that you have read the General Safety Notes, in the Introductory section of this manual,
before you begin.
Do not, under any circumstances attempt to repair any of the equipment. If you suspect equipment to
be faulty, turn it off at the power point and talk to your demonstrator.

In this exercise, the surface of the lamps and globes will become EXTREMELY HOT: do not touch
them, or you will burn yourself. You should handle the globe by using the attached wooden block.

Marks Breakdown:
- Check point #1 - 2 marks
- Conclusion - 2 marks
- Lab Performance - 2 marks

Outline of Laboratory Exercise
In Section A you will investigate the concept of black-body radiation, observing how the radiation
spectrum of an incandescent light globe filament varies with temperature. You will also observe some
discrete elemental spectra.
In Section B you will observe and analyse how the energy transference of thermal energy (via
conduction, convection and radiation) depends on the temperature difference between an object and its
surroundings.

Pre-Lab Exercise: Read the entire laboratory exercise. Read the appropriate section of your
textbook (detailing thermal energy and its transference) before coming to class. Then complete the
exercises after the discussion of blackbody radiation below, before answering the questions for the
pre-lab task online (http://fyl.ph.unimelb.edu.au/prelabs) for this experiment. [Your marks for the pre-
lab will be based on the answers to the online questions, which are taken from the pre-lab work in the
manual.]

Temperature Units Important!
Remember that when dealing with temperature in the thermal equations discussed below, you must
always use units of Kelvin (K). Negative temperatures dont work when we relate temperature to
energy (and no negatives means no Celsius). Although each Kelvin unit is the same size as a
Celsius degree, Kelvin is never negative the coldest temperature possible in Kelvin is absolute zero
(i.e. 273.15 Celsius). Remember: always use Kelvin!
Exercise 1 2 PHYC10006 Physics Laboratory Manual
Introduction
Our bodies interact with our surroundings in many ways. One of the most important ways is through
thermal energy. For our bodies to function, it is vital that we maintain our internal blood temperature
at around 37 C if our core temperature is more than a few degrees away from this, the chemical
processes that keep us alive will stop working properly.
Although our internal temperature is near 37, our surface temperature is usually less around 33 C.
33 C 37 C

Energy is produced in our bodies from exothermic chemical reactions. This energy output can be
transferred to our surroundings via conduction, convection and radiation, as well as evaporation. We
also receive energy from our surroundings in particular from the sun, via its electromagnetic
radiation. In the pre-lab below you will focus on thermal energy transference via radiation.
Blackbody Radiation
In thermal physics, we often talk about the concept of a black body this is a theoretical object that
fully absorbs 100% of the radiation that hits it, and then emits pure thermal radiation according to its
surface temperature. Our sun produces a radiation spectrum that is approximately the same as an ideal
blackbody radiator at a temperature of 6000 K.
0
2
4
6
8
10
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
wavelength (micron)
intensity
6000 K
3000 K
max,6000K

max,3000K

(Note that the intensity scale on the inserted graph is a logarithmic scale.)
The graphs above illustrate the two main effects of temperature on the radiated spectrum:
1. The wavelength emitted with the most intensity is inversely proportional to the temperature:
1.0E-07
1.0E-06
1.0E-05
1.0E-04
1.0E-03
1.0E-02
1.0E-01
1.0E+00
1.0E+01
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
wavelength (micron)
intensity
6000 K
3000 K
1500 K
750 K
375 K
188 K

max
=
2.90 10
3
Km
T

This is called Wiens Law: the most intense wavelength
max
(in metres) is 2.90 x 10
-3
(in
Kelvin metres) divided by the temperature T (in Kelvin).
2. The total power emitted (i.e. the rate of emission of energy) is proportional to the temperature
to the power of four:

Q
rad
t
= Power =coAT
4

This is the Stefan-Boltzmann equation. Here c is the emissivity of the objects surface, o is the
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (which = 5.670 x 10
-8
Wm
-2
K
-4
), A is the objects surface area, and
T is the surface temperature of the object (in Kelvin).
The emissivity c is a value between 0 and 1, where 1 represents a perfect emitter. For a
tungsten filament wire (as in an incandescent light globe), c is generally less than half.

Calculate the wavelength of the most intense radiation emitted by:
A body with a surface temperature of 33C

Inside an oven at 200C

An incandescent light globe filament at 2300C

To convert between Kelvin (K) and degrees Celsius (C), use K = 273 + C.
Wavelength and Colour
Recall that colour indicates wavelength. An approximate relationship between the colour and
wavelength of visible light is given below:
400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm
IR
violet blue green yellow orange red UV


Section A Thermal energy transference
Radiator Spectra
SAFETY WARNING
Never look directly at the sun direct sunlight will cause long-term damage to your eyes.
Also, electric light sources will become very hot. This is normal. However, do not leave a light on and
unattended for too long, or overheating may occur. Be careful!

Look through a spectroscope at sunlight reflected off a sheet of white paper (see diagram below).
sunlight
white paper
spectroscope
eye

Hold the spectroscope so that the colours range from violet on the left to red on the right. Adjust the
tube of the spectroscope until the upper and lower edges of the spectrum are sharp at this point it
should be roughly in focus.
In your logbook, sketch an approximate bar graph of intensity versus colour for the continuous
spectrum you see, estimating the relative intensities across four regions of colour (see example below):
violet -
blue
green yellow-
orange
red

Now use the spectroscope to examine the light from an incandescent light globe filament. Sketch an
approximate intensity-vs-colour bar graph for the light from the globe.
The electric current through the incandescent filament can be changed using the variable transformer.
Reducing the current should reduce the filaments temperature.
Examining the filament light with a spectroscope as before, steadily reduce the current. What do you
observe?
Sketch intensity-vs-colour graphs for three lower levels of current in the filament. Be sure that your
graphs all have the same scale (i.e. each segment of colour in the same position on each graph).
Considering the spectra of the sun and of the incandescent light, what can you say about the
relationship between temperature and the kind of light emitted? Do your observations agree with the
solar spectrum graphs shown in the Introduction section (under the Blackbody Radiation heading),
above? If not, how and why are they different?
Using your own solar spectrum results, estimate the brightest wavelength in the solar spectrum. Use
this value to estimate the suns surface temperature.
If the temperature of the incandescent filament were raised even higher (do not attempt to do this), its
light would appear to be a blue-white colour. Why?

Elemental Spectra
Some glowing bodies do not behave like black-bodies. Instead of producing light that is a continuous
spread of colours, they only emit light of certain particular wavelengths. When an atom of a particular
element is heated until it glows, it will emit a unique spectrum of certain particular wavelengths of
light. This spectrum is unique to each element: just as every element has some particular boiling point,
melting point, density etc, so it also has a particular emission spectrum. Unlike a continuous black
body spectrum, these spectra are discrete. By analysing the emission spectra from light sources (such
as distant stars), we can figure out which elements are glowing to produce the light.
Many gases can be made to glow by passing electric current through them in discharge lamps. (This is
basically how neon lights and fluorescent tubes work.) Use a spectroscope to examine the light emitted
by a standard fluorescent light, a mercury discharge lamp (i.e. uncoated fluorescent), and a compact
fluorescent. Sketch the spectra of these lights.
In what ways are these spectra different to the spectra from hot solid bodies (as examined in the
Radiator Spectra section)?
Comparing the standard fluorescent light to the uncoated fluorescent light, how does the coating
change the spectrum?

Check Point #1: Show your demonstrator your sketched graphs and your answers to the
questions above (from the Radiator Spectra and Elemental Spectra sections). [Make sure
youve labelled all your graphs properly, so that your demonstrator can distinguish between
them.]

Thermal energy Transfer
When there is a difference in temperature between an object and its environment, thermal energy will
flow from one to the other. Thermal energy (labelled Q) is the thermal energy transferred between a
body and its environment. Because thermal energy is a form of energy, it is measured in the SI unit for
energy joules (J) (See Appendix SI Units). However, another common unit is the calorie (cal).
Unit Conversion: 1 cal = 4.186 J
There are three ways of transmitting thermal energy: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation.
Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy via direct touch when you touch something hot with
your hand, the thermal energy is conducted to your hand. Consider an object (e.g. a rectangular slab)
which has a length L, and two flat faces (each of surface area A) at each end of its length. One face is
maintained at temperature T
H
and the other at temperature T
C
(where T
H
> T
C
) so that thermal energy
is conducted from the T
H
face to the T
C
face along the length of the object L.

dQ
cond
dt
~
Q
cond
t
= k
A
L
T
H
T
C
( )

Here Q
cond
is the amount of thermal energy conducted, t is the time taken, and k is the thermal
conductivity of the material. The rate of thermal energy transfer is proportional to the difference in
temperature, the dimensions of the object (A and L), and the thermal conductivity constant (which
depends on the material involved).
Convection
Convection is a special form of conduction it is the transfer of thermal energy due to motion within a
fluid (such as air). When parts of a fluid are at different temperatures, the hot parts will tend to rise,
transferring energy to the cooler parts as they do until they become cooler than the parts below, and
so they start to fall while the new hot parts rise instead. This creates a cycle of rising and falling that
transfers thermal energy around and around the fluid. The complexity of our weather is largely driven
by convection processes in the atmosphere.
Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy via electromagnetic radiation (light). We have already seen
that the rate at which an object emits energy via thermal radiation is:

dQ
rad
dt
~
Q
rad
t
=coAT
4

This is the very same Stefan-Boltzmann equation discussed earlier for black-body radiation.
In general, this equation describes the ideal transformation between thermal radiation and an objects
temperature (i.e. in either direction). If T is made to be the temperature of the environment (instead of
the temperature of the object), then the equation also demonstrates the rate at which an object will
absorb energy via thermal radiation from its environment.

Section B Energy Absorption and Cooling
You should have the following apparatus setup on your desk:

Lamp
Thermometer
Copper disc

The lamp acts as a source of radiant thermal energy. This radiation from the lamp illuminates a painted
copper disc, which supports a thermometer. The disc will warm up as it absorbs the energy radiated by
the lamp. Its temperature will increase according to the balance between the energy it absorbs and the
energy that it emits.
There are two copper discs: one with a black surface and one with a white surface. You will measure
the energy absorption rate of the two discs by recording the change in temperature of each disc over
three minutes.

Directions:
- Place the white-surface disc (with thermometer) on the peg on the board, about 10 cm away
from the face of the lamp.
- Turn on the lamp. (It should be connected to a 12 V power supply.)
- Using the thermometer and a stopwatch, record the temperature of the disc every 15 seconds
over a period of five minutes. Record your data in Excel.
- Replace the white-surface disc with the black-surface disc. Do not burn yourself by touching
anything too hot!
- Repeat the recording of temperature as before, this time with the black-surface disc.
- Turn off the lamp. As the black-surface disc cools, continue recording its temperature every 15
seconds for a further 5 minutes.
Analysis Answer all the following questions in your logbook.
Now graph your data using Excel (both black-surface and white-surface heating data on the same
graph). Use Excel to fit curves to your data points.
Each disc absorbs radiant energy from the lamp while at the same time losing thermal energy to its
surroundings. What are the processes by which the disc is losing energy?
Look at the shape of the heating curves on your graph (temperature-vs-time). Think about how the
process of absorption of energy will change as the temperature increases, and think about how the loss
of energy will change as the temperature increases. With this in mind, try to explain the shape of the
heating curves.
At a certain temperature, the heating curve becomes horizontal. (Your results may not have reached
this point.) Why does the curve become horizontal? What is happening at this point?
Compare and explain the different results for the black-surface and white-surface discs. Consider the
different gradients (slopes) of the different heating curves.

Check Point #2: Show your demonstrator your heating graphs and discuss the questions
above. [Make sure you justify your choice of curve to fit to your data.]

Newtons Law of Cooling
Newtons Law of Cooling states that an objects rate of thermal energy loss is proportional to the
difference in temperature between an object and its environment:

dQ
dt
= hA(T
obj
T
env
) = hA AT
( )

Here Q is the thermal energy transferred over time t, h is the thermal energy transfer coefficient, A is
the surface area of the object losing thermal energy, T
obj
is the surface temperature of the object and
T
env
is the temperature of the environment surrounding the object. T is just another way of writing
the difference in temperature between an object and its environment.
Although this equation is accurate and useful, it can be difficult in practice to calculate the thermal
energy transfer coefficient h. But if the temperature difference between object and environment is not
too great, we can simplify the equation as follows:

dT
dt
= r AT
( )

The cooling rate (change in the temperature over time) is proportional to the difference in
temperature. This is an important principle. The proportionality factor r is called the cooling constant.
Cooling Analysis
Look at your temperature-vs-time data from the black-surface disc as it cooled. This is a cooling
curve. The gradient of the cooling curve will be the instantaneous cooling rate dT/dt (see the equation
above). Which points on the curve do you think will produce a good estimate of the cooling constant
r?
Select three widely-spaced points on the curve. For each of these points, make a tangent line (or use
Excel) to calculate the gradient at that point:
T
disc
time
200 100 0
30
40
50
60
T
1
t
1
T
2
t
2
T
3
t
3

From the cooling rate equation above, the gradient at any point on the graph (i.e. dT/dt) should always
be equal to the cooling constant r multiplied by the temperature difference T at that point. Using the
gradients for the temperature points you have chosen; calculate the cooling constant r from the cooling
curve.
Do you get the same value of r from each data point? Do your results confirm that the rate of cooling
of the disc is proportional to the temperature difference between the disc and its surroundings? If not,
why? Does Newtons Law of Cooling make sense? Discuss and explain.
If you were walking through the desert on a sunny day, what colour clothes would you like to wear?
Explain why.

Check Point #3: Show your demonstrator your cooling graph, analysis and answers to the
questions above. [Make sure you discuss Newtons Law of Cooling and whether your results
support it.]

Conclusion: Write a brief conclusion summarising what you did in todays lab and your
results. Remember to discuss whether your results were what you expected and include any
sources of error.
Buoyancy
SAFETY
before you begin.

WATER AND ELECTRICITY DO NOT MIX
In this experiment you must be aware of the danger of using electrical equipment near water. If any
container breaks, please turn off the electrical equipment at the power point and immediately consult
your demonstrator.
Ensure that you use the drip trays provided, to minimise the possibility of any spillage reaching the
electrical apparatus.

Marks Breakdown:

In Section A you will observe the principle of buoyancy (Archimedes Principle) in action. Using your
theoretical knowledge of buoyancy you will predict and test the apparent weight of a partially
submerged object.
In Section B you will determine the density of an unknown solution by observing the flotation of an
object of known density.

textbook (detailing buoyancy and Archimedes Principle) before coming to class. Then complete the
exercises below, before answering the questions for the pre-lab task online
(http://fyl.ph.unimelb.edu.au/prelabs) for this experiment. [Your marks for the pre-lab will be based
on the answers to the online questions, which are taken from the pre-lab work in the manual.]

1. If a ball floats in water, partially submerged, is the density of the water more or less than the density
of the ball?

2. A small wooden block floats on water. Will a wooden block with a hole in it also float? Explain.

Section A
Introduction
When part (or all) of an object is submerged in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force on the object
(against the pull of gravity). The discovery of this buoyancy force is credited to Archimedes (287
212 BC), from whom we have Archimedes Principle:
The buoyant force on an object immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the volume of
fluid displaced by that object.
This can be shown by considering the case of an object immersed in the fluid is actually made of the
fluid itself (e.g. a particular volume of water immersed within a larger body of water). Obviously, any
volume of water must experience a pull of gravity due to its own weight. However, we know that
water floats on water it does not sink through itself! Since our volume of water is not accelerating
downwards, a buoyancy force must somehow exist to exactly cancel the gravitational force of its
weight. This buoyancy force is due to the pressure of the rest of the water surrounding and below our
volume.
It should now be clear that if our volume of water (or any other fluid) is replaced by another object
that takes up the same volume, the buoyancy force due to the fluid does not go away. Therefore, any
object in a fluid must experience the same buoyancy force that the fluid itself experiences a force to
cancel out the weight of the fluid of that volume.
For example, consider the following situation. A ball is held under water:

A ball of mass M
ball
and volume V
ball
will experience a gravitational force equal to M
ball
g (directed
downwards). Submerged in water, the ball also experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of
displaced water (directed upwards). The weight of displaced water is the weight of water that would
be there if the ball was not i.e. the volume of the ball multiplied by the density of water.
The object therefore experiences a net force of gravity minus buoyancy:

F
net
= M
ball
g
water
V
ball
g
F
net
=
ball
V
ball
g
water
V
ball
g
F
net
=
ball

water
( )
V
ball
g

As a result of this, the ball appears to weigh less underwater than out of the water the force it feels
is as if the ball is less dense. This is why people feel lighter when they swim. If the density of the
ball is less than the density of the water, then the net force is negative and the ball will float upwards,
until it is only partially submerged. (As it goes from being completely submerged to only partially
submerged, the buoyancy decreases, because the volume of fluid displaced is less only the parts of
the object that are underwater are actually displacing fluid.)
According to legend, Archimedes discovered this principle when taking a bath, and was so excited at
his discovery that he ran naked through the streets, shouting Eureka! (Greek for I have found it!).
Archimedes was considering how to determine if a kings crown was pure gold or not. If the crown is
weighed first in air and then underwater, Archimedes Principle can be used to determine its relative
density i.e. whether or not the crown has the same density as pure gold. And of course, Archimedes
Principle is especially useful for determining whether ships will sink or float.
Complete the following activities. Record your observations and answers to any questions in your
logbook.
Melting Ice
Due to increasing temperatures in the Earths atmosphere, it seems that our polar ice caps are currently
melting. There are two kinds of ice in the world: ice that rests on the ground (e.g. glaciers), and ice
that floats in the ocean (e.g. icebergs and ice shelves).
In your laboratory are two beakers, each filled to the brim with water. One beaker has an ice cube
outside of the water (simulating a glacier) and the other beaker has an ice cube in the water (simulating
an iceberg).
Predict which beaker/s will overflow when the ice cubes melt, and explain your reasoning. Will
melting icebergs cause global sea levels to rise? What about melting glaciers? Explain.

Check Point #1: Show your demonstrator your predictions. [Make sure you explain your
reasoning.]

Weight of an object immersed in water
You are given an aluminium cylinder, a container of water, and some measuring scales. The cylinder
has an external scale on its side, as shown:

external
scale
5
4
3
2
1
0

Using vernier callipers, measure the diameter of the cylinder as accurately as you can. Use this
diameter and the cylinders external scale markings to fill in the first two empty columns of a table in
excel with the following headings:
External
scale
marking
Distance
(to mark)
Volume
(to mark)
Mass of
displaced
water
Weight force
of displaced
water
Expected
apparent
weight
Measured
apparent
weight
Given that water has a density of 1.0 g cm
-3
, calculate the weight of water that will be displaced by the
cylinder when it is submerged in water (up to each of its external markings). Enter this data in your
table.
Weigh the cylinder (in air). Using this value with Archimedes Principle, calculate the expected
apparent weight of the cylinder submerged in water (up to each of its external markings). Enter this in
the table as well.

Immersion
Fill the container with water up to approximately 10 cm from the top. Attach the cylinder to the scales
and hang the scales from the jaws of a clamp, fixed to a stand above the container of water as shown:

Adjust the position of the clamp on the stand, and the scales on the clamp, so that the cylinder is
immersed in the water up to its first scale marking. The scale reading is a measurement of the
cylinders apparent weight. Enter this value in the table above.
Immerse the cylinder in the water up to each successive scale marking, recording each apparent weight
measurement in the table as above.
How do the measured weight values compare to your predicted values? Do the differences between
measured and predicted values (if any) seem reasonable, given the accuracy of the measurements?
If you used a cylindrical (hollow) cup of aluminium instead of a solid cylinder of aluminium, how
would the results differ? What about an aluminium object of a different shape?
How is it that enormous ships made of heavy steel and concrete e.g. aircraft carriers, cruise liners
do not sink?

Check Point #2: Show your demonstrator your completed table and your answers to the
questions above. [Make sure you stick your table into your logbook.]

Section B Density of an unknown solution
In this section you will determine the density of an unknown solution (i.e. water with something
unknown dissolved in it) by comparing its buoyancy force to the buoyancy of pure water. As in
Section A, this is an application of Archimedes Principle.
Recall that a balanced floating object is at rest: its gravitational weight is exactly balanced by the
buoyancy force. Consider a hydrometer tube, partially submerged in water as shown:

Mg
0
2
4
6
8
10
l
sub

d
F
B
= V
sub

sol
g

Here V
sub
is the volume of the submerged part of the hydrometer, l
sub
is the length submerged and
sol

is the density of the unknown solution. The volume of the cylinder must be:

V
sub
= l
sub
t
d
2
|
\

|
.
|
2
= l
sub
td
2
4

Using Archimedes Principle, write an expression for the ratio
sol
/
water
.
Your task is to take measurements that will enable you to calculate
sol
.
Directions:
- Carefully place the hydrometer in the container of distilled water, making sure that it does not
sink.
- Let the hydrometer tube come to equilibrium (this should only take about 20 seconds).
- Record the water level (according to the hydrometers scale on its side), and measure the
distance from this level to the bottom of the hydrometer. This value is l
sub
.
- Using the scales provided, measure the mass of the hydrometer (with the ball bearings still
inside).
- Now place the hydrometer in the container of unknown solution. Measure the water level l
sub

of the floating hydrometer as before.
Analysis
Using your results, calculate the density of the unknown solution. (Assume that the density of pure
water is 1.00 g cm
-3
.) Ask your demonstrator for the actual density of the unknown solution and
compare with your measured value.
How well do the measured and actual values agree? If they do not agree, what could be the cause of
this? Explain and consider.

Check Point #3: Show your demonstrator your results. Do they agree with the actual
value? [Make sure you include a discussion of possible sources of error.]

sources of error.
Flowing Fluids
SAFETY
before you begin.

WATER AND ELECTRICITY DO NOT MIX
In this experiment you must be aware of the danger of using electrical equipment near water. If any
container breaks, please turn off the electrical equipment at the power point and immediately consult
your demonstrator.
Ensure that you use the drip trays provided, to minimise the possibility of any spillage reaching the
electrical apparatus.

Marks Breakdown:
Check point #1 - 2 marks
Conclusion - 2 marks
Lab Performance - 2 marks

In the Section A you will begin to explore the phenomenon of surface tension the skin-like
behaviour of the surfaces of fluids.
In Section B you will investigate Bernoullis equation.
In Section C you will use capillary tubes to measure surface tension. You will investigate differences
between the surface tension of water and the surface tension of a soap solution.

textbook (detailing fluids and flow) before coming to class. Then complete the exercise below, before
answering the questions for the pre-lab task online (http://fyl.ph.unimelb.edu.au/prelabs) for this
experiment. [Your marks for the pre-lab will be based on the answers to the online questions, which
are taken from the pre-lab work in the manual.]

Pre-lab Exercise
Venturi Meter
A manometer is a U-shaped tube containing fluid. A Venturi meter is a tube with a constriction in one
part, connected to a manometer (see diagram below):

Manometer
Air blown
in here
y
x
P
2
P
1
P1 , v1, A1 P2 , v2, A2

The height of the fluid in the manometer arms can be used to determine the pressure difference
between the constricted and non-constricted parts of the Venturi meter.
According to the Continuity Equation A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2
(see above) therefore air should travel more
quickly through the narrow part of the Venturi meter than through the wider parts.
Go to the following website. Experiment and play with the Venturi Flowmeter Calculator located
there: http://www.efunda.com/formulae/fluids/venturi_flowmeter.cfm
Does it matter in which direction the air is blowing? Will there be any change to the pressure
difference measured by the Venturi meter? Why?

Section A Surfaces and Tension
Background
Molecules that form the surface of a liquid exert forces on each other. As a result, the surface of a
liquid can be imagined to behave like a slightly elastic skin. The forces between molecules of the
liquid near the surface allow the surface to resist significant changes in shape:

This elastic resistance to change is called surface tension. It has the symbol and it is defined as the
force per unit length along a line across the surface, where the force is parallel to the surface but
perpendicular to the line:

F
F

force
length

This is also equivalent to the energy required to stretch the area of the surface by a certain amount:

work done
increase in area

The following example illustrates how these two definitions are equivalent. Consider a soap film being
stretched in the x direction by a uniform force F:
F
x
d

force
length

F
2d

work done
increase in area

Fx
2dx

F
2d

Note that in the first definition the length is 2d rather than d because the soap film has two sides.
Soap Bubbles and Detergent Solutions
Soap bubbles provide an example of how a liquid surface can behave like an elastic membrane. Pure
water does not easily form bubbles, but adding detergent to the water will alter its properties
significantly. Adding soap or detergent (i.e. a surfactant chemical) to water actually lowers the surface
tension. How does a decrease in surface tension encourage bubbles?
Consider that wherever a bubble has a weak point, the surface concentration of detergent will be
decreasing; therefore, the surface tension will be increasing at that point. In this way, the weak points
of a bubble are constantly being re-strengthened. This is why detergent bubbles, with their lower
surface tension, are more stable than bubbles of pure water. (Detergent in water also reduces
evaporation.)
Tasks
Complete the following activities. Record your observations and answers for one of these activities in
your logbook.
1. Floating Needle
Carefully wash and dry a dish. Be very careful that you dont touch the inside of the dish with your
fingers. Half-fill the dish with distilled water and gently place a needle flat on the waters surface. If
you have trouble, try placing the needle using a strip of filter paper or a crane made from a paperclip.
Carefully examine the floating needle from the side.
If you dropped the needle straight into the water, it would sink. Why is it now floating instead?
Explain how the water supports the needle.
Now gently place a few drops of detergent into the water.
What happens to the needle when detergent is added? Why?
2. Surface Tension Submarine (Demonstration)
The object shown in the following diagram is your submarine:

rectangle of
wire mesh
blob of
plasticene
table
tennis ball

Carefully clean a beaker and fill it nearly to the top with water. Put the submarine into the beaker it
should float upright, but part of it should be floating above the surface.
Using clean fingers push the submarine gently but firmly under the surface. It should stay under.
Examine the water surface close to the wire mesh. Describe what you see.
From your observations, explain how the water keeps the submarine submerged after it has been
pushed under.
3. Soap Bubbles
Tie a thread across a wire loop in various different ways. Here are two possible examples:

Dip the whole wire loop (with thread) into a liquid detergent solution. Slowly remove the loop. There
should be a film of detergent across the loop.
Pierce part of the detergent film with a needle. Explain what happens, how and why.
There is a variety of other equipment in the lab that you can use to construct soap bubbles. Remember
that the physics principles that apply for other bubbles are the same as for the original bubbles.

Check Point #1: Show your demonstrator your observations and answers to the questions
for your chosen activity. Discuss the other two activities. [Make sure you understand the
other two activities, although you dont have to write about them in your logbook.]

An Aside: Molecular Detergent
The detergent soap films you have been investigating today work because of the behaviour of the
different ends of the detergents molecules. One end of each molecule is hydrophilic (water-loving)
and the other end is hydrophobic (water-hating). The hydrophilic end is attracted to water
molecules, which is how the detergent can dissolve in water. But the hydrophobic end is repulsed by
water molecules, which makes it point away from water molecules, forming the surface of the
detergent-water film (the bubble):
hydrophilic
hydrophobic

Oils and grease are more attracted to hydrophobic molecules than they are to water, which is how
detergent helps to clean dishes the grease is more attracted to the detergent molecules than to the
dishes.
The overall attraction between the parts of the molecules holds the detergent film (the skin of the
bubble) together. Ultimately, it can stretch until there is only a bi-layer of the detergent molecules (as
in the diagram above).

Section B Bernoullis Equation
Background
Consider an incompressible, non-viscous fluid (e.g. an ideal normal liquid) that is flowing steadily
through a tube. Bernoullis Equation describes this streamline flow behaviour at any point:

P
1
2
v
2
gh constant
Here P is the pressure of the fluid, is the density of the fluid, v is the velocity of the fluid, and h is
the height of the fluid; the value of the constant will depend on the particular fluid and tube. Because
the fluid is incompressible, the density is constant, but P, v and h will be different at different points in
the tube. But because Bernoullis Equation gives a constant value for all points in the tube, we can use
the equation for the fluid at different points. For example:
P
1
P
2
v
2
v
1
h
1
h
2

From the diagram above, we can use Bernoullis Equation to write that:

P
1
1
2
v
1
2
gh
1
P
2

1
2
v
2
2
gh
2

The constant in Bernoullis Equation, whatever it is, must be the same for both points. The height is
usually not an important factor, which means that the crucial relation is between pressure and velocity.
Bernoullis Equation shows that when fluids slow down, their pressure will increase; when fluids are
moving faster, their pressure will be lower.
Note that Bernoullis Equation is derived from the principle of conservation of energy. If we multiply
the entire equation by volume V of the fluid, all the terms become energy terms:

PV
1
2
Vv
2
Vgh constant
PV
1
2
mv
2
mgh constant

The second and third terms are clearly the fluids kinetic energy and gravitational energy. Also, note
that PV describes the work done by the force of the fluids pressure it is also an energy term.
Therefore, Bernoullis Equation simply says that when an ideal fluid flows freely, the total energy of
the fluid is conserved.
Unfortunately, today you will be dealing with air, which is not exactly an ideal fluid. Air can be
compressed, and its flow is often turbulent instead of laminar (i.e. smooth and steady). However, the
general Bernoulli principle (i.e. that high speed means low pressure, and vice versa) should still apply.
Bernoullis Equation Special Cases
When a fluid is not flowing (i.e. v = 0), Bernoullis Equation becomes:

P gh constant
This describes how pressure varies with depth (when a fluid is not flowing) it is directly proportional
to the depth of the fluid (i.e. proportional to the weight of the fluid pushing down from above).
Today you will be concerned mainly with flowing fluids. When the height of the fluid is not changing
very much, h = 0 is a good approximation, and so Bernoullis Equation becomes:

P
1
2
v
2
constant
The Continuity Equation
Aside from Bernoullis Equation, there is one other useful equation for considering flowing fluids. If a
fluid is incompressible, then the density of the fluid cannot change at any point. The flow must be
continuous the amount of fluid flowing through the tube at any point (per unit time) must be the
same at every point. This means that we can write:

Av constant
Here A is a cross-sectional area of the tube at a particular point, and v is the velocity of the fluid
moving through that cross-sectional area. For any two points in the tube, we can know that:

A
1
v
1
A
2
v
2

Activities
You may choose to do one of the two activities below (Either Table Tennis Ball and Funnel or
Balancing a Table Tennis Ball). Record your observations and answers for the activity you choose in
your logbook.

1. Table Tennis Ball and Funnel
Hold a table tennis ball in an inverted filter funnel, as shown below:

Now, blow into the funnel. While still blowing, take your hand away from holding the ball in place
and observe the results.
A streamline in a fluid is the path that would be traced by an imaginary massless particle moving with
the flow of the fluid it traces the path of the flow. Streamlines are tangent to the velocity of the flow,
and they cannot cross.
Draw the streamlines within the funnel for the case where air is blown through, but there is no
ball in the funnel.
Draw the streamlines within the funnel for the case where air is blown through, but the ball is in
place.
How does the shape of the funnel affect the streamlines? How does the presence of the ball
affect the streamlines?
Where is the air moving most quickly?
If you listen carefully you should hear a rattling noise, made by the ball repeatedly knocking
against the funnel. Explain the cause of this effect.
2. Balancing a Table Tennis Ball
Use the air supply to blow air upwards with the tube. While the air is blowing through, place a table
tennis ball in the air at the top of the tube.

Why isnt the ball blown out of the air stream?
Try pushing the ball sideways out of the stream with a pencil. What can you feel?
Tilt the tube slightly to the side, so that the stream of air is not completely vertical. What
happens?
Is it possible to hold the ball stationary with a horizontal stream of air? Explain.
Draw a diagram of the streamlines when the ball is in a vertical stream of air.
Draw a diagram of the streamlines when the ball is in an air stream that is tilted slightly to the
side.
In these two diagrams, show all the forces acting on the ball.
Use these force diagrams to explain the effects you have observed. (Note: although turbulence is
a factor in real-life situations, it is reasonable to ignore turbulence in your explanations.)

in your chosen activity. [Make sure you understand streamlines.]

Capillary Rise
When most liquids come into contact with a tube that is very narrow, the liquid will rise up into the
tube against the pull of gravity. This is caused by forces due to surface tension: the liquid molecules
are attracted to the surface of the tube.
0 contact angle

The force due to surface tension will be the surface tension multiplied by length. If we assume that
the liquid surface makes an angle of 0 with the tube wall so that the force pulls straight up on the
liquid then the length will be the tubes inner circumference 2r.

F 2r
The gravitational weight of the column of liquid will be mg, where the mass of the liquid is density
multiplied by volume:

W mg Vg r
2
hg
At equilibrium i.e. when the liquid is not moving the force pulling the liquid up the tube is
balanced by the gravitational weight of the liquid in the tube:

F W
2r r
2
hg

rhg
2

Therefore we can calculate the surface tension from the radius and height of the capillary tube and
the density of the fluid.

Section C Measuring Surface Tension
This experiment involves the following apparatus setup:

Directions:
Using a travelling microscope, measure the diameter of your capillary tube. Your demonstrator
will show you how to use the travelling microscope.
Carefully clean a 100 mL measuring cylinder. Fill it almost completely with distilled water.
To rinse out the capillary tube, dip it into the water in the measuring cylinder. Lower the tube
until it is almost completely immersed and then take it out again. Repeat this several times.
Clamp the tube in place above the measuring cylinder. Attach a steel r0uler to the tube with an
elastic band.
Lower the tube into the water (rubber tubing first) until the top of the rubber tubing is in line
with the surface of the water.
Measure the height of the water column (in the tube) above the water surface.
Repeat this measurement five or six times, to calculate an average value and a half-range
estimate of the uncertainty. (If you do not understand half-range uncertainty, see Appendix A
Errors and Uncertainties Analysis.)
Analysis
From your data, calculate a value for the surface tension at the water-glass interface. (Assume that the
density of distilled water is 1.00 g/cm
3
.) Refer to the Capillary Rise section. Remember to include
uncertainty analysis for your calculations.
How would your calculated result be different if the contact angle between water and tube was not 0
for example, actually 30? Discuss.

Check Point #3: Show your demonstrator your results. [Make sure youve answered all
the questions in the analysis section above.]

sources of error.

Fun with Charges
SAFETY
before you begin.

Marks Breakdown:

In Section A you will investigate electric charges and the forces between them.
In Section B you will investigate static electricity using an electroscope.

textbook (detailing electric charges) before coming to class. Then complete the exercise below as well
as the questions in the Introduction section, before answering the questions for the pre-lab task online

Access the SimPhysics applet, which you should find at:
http://fyl.ph.unimelb.edu.au/webraft/efield/efield.html
To launch the applet click the Start SimPhysics button.
This should produce a graph showing a positive and a negative charge. You can click at any position
on the graph to show the direction of the field at that position, marked with an x and an arrow. The
direction of the field is also the direction of the force that would be experienced by a positive test
charge at that position.
You can move the x and the charges around on the graph, and you can also create new charges. Using
the Particles menu, you can also change the sign of the charges. Play with these features and observe
the changes in the electric field at different points. (If you are having trouble getting the java applet to
work, try using a different web browser.)
Use the Particles menu to make both original charges positive. Then answer the following questions:
1. For two different locations of the test charge (the x), sketch a diagram of the SimPhysics window
showing the positions of all charges and the direction of the field vector.

2. In the SimPhysics window, go to the Vectors menu and select Vector Graph. Sketch the arrows
that appear on this graph.

You can turn the Vector Graph off again from the same menu. Using the Particles menu, now change
the sign of the two charges to make both charges negative. Then answer the following questions:
3. For two different locations of the test charge (the x), sketch a diagram of the SimPhysics window
showing the positions of all charges and the direction of the field vector.

4. In the SimPhysics window, go to the Vectors menu and select Vector Graph. Sketch the arrows
that appear on this graph.

Introduction
Most of what we know about electricity has been discovered only over the past two hundred years. But
there is one aspect of electricity that people have known for much longer: static electricity. For
centuries, people have been annoyed by the zap of static electricity. You may have felt a shock when
touching metal after walking across a carpet; you may have noticed your clothes stuck together after
they were tumbled in a clothes dryer. These are both common examples of static electricity.
Like any other kind of electricity, static electricity arises from the interaction of electric charges. There
are two different kinds (signs) of electric charge, positive and negative. Charges with the same sign
repel each other, while charges with opposing signs are attracted to each other. Whether repulsive or
attractive, the magnitude of the force that each charge experiences is given by:

F k
q
1
q
2
r
2

Here q
1
and q
2
are the two charges, r is the distance between the two charges, and the constant k =9.0
x 10
9
N m
2
C
-2
. The direction of the force is along a straight line, r, between the two charges.
As well as this electric force, we also talk about the electric field produced by a charge. The electric
field E at a point in space is the force exerted on a positive charge at that point, divided by that charge.
This is a way of describing all the possible forces that could be exerted by a single charge the field is
the force per charge:

E
F
q
k
q
1
q
2
r
2
q
2
k
q
1
r
2

Here q
1
is the charge producing the field E, while q
2
is the charge that experiences (feels) that field.
This q
2
always cancels out (as in the equation above), because any particular field will only depend on
the charge that is creating it, not on anything else.
Where two charges are close together, their two fields will overlap. The total field at a particular point
in space will be the two individual fields at that point, added together. (Similarly, a charge placed at
this particular point will feel a total force, which is the two electric forces from the two charges added
together.)

To visualise the field of a charge, we can draw a series of lines and arrows indicating the direction and
magnitude of the field at various points. By convention:
The arrows on these field lines trace the direction that a positive charge would travel in the
field: away from positive charges and towards negative charges. Because F =qE, the direction
of the field is the same as the direction of the force (on a positive charge, that is its
the opposite direction for negative charges).
Because of this, every single field line begins on a positive charge and ends on a negative
charge.
Field lines are drawn so that in areas where the electric field is stronger (i.e. closer to a charge),
the field lines are closer together.
Field lines are a kind of metaphor the lines themselves do not actually exist, but they are a good
way for us to imagine the behaviour of the field (which does exist). You may have seen field lines
demonstrated in your lectures using caraway seeds in electrically-charged oil:

Charges and Friction
You may have noticed that when certain objects are rubbed together, they can become charged with
static electricity. This can be understood according to the following principles:
All objects have electrons on their surface.
A neutral (i.e. not charged) object has exactly the same number of protons (positive charges)
and electrons (negative charges). The positive and negative charges cancel each other out.
Cloth, plastic, or any other usual object will naturally be neutral (unless something is done to
charge it).
Different materials have different affinities for electrons. This refers to how likely they are to
want to attract extra electrons (high affinity) or to lose the electrons that they already have (low
affinity).
When a high-affinity material is rubbed against a low-affinity material, electrons will move
from the low-affinity surface to the high-affinity surface. The balance between protons and
electrons will be altered, and so the objects will become charged.

Electron affinities are recorded in a Triboelectric Series table:

POSITIVE
Low Affinity for Electrons
(from most +ve to least)
NEUTRAL
NEGATIVE
High Affinity for Electrons
(from least ve to most)
Human Skin Paper Lucite
Leather Cotton Amber
Rabbit Fur Steel Sealing Wax
Glass Wood Acrylic
Quartz Polystyrene
Mica Rubber Balloon
Human Hair Acetate, Rayon
Nylon Synthetic Rubber
Wool Polyester
Lead Plastic Wrap
Cat Fur Polyethylene (e.g. sticky tape)
Silk
Polypropylene (e.g. the lid of a
box of Tic-Tacs)
Aluminium Vinyl (PVC)
If you rubbed polystyrene against leather, which object would end up positively charged?

You have some cat fur, some polyester and some vinyl. You want to charge a piece of polyethylene to
one kind of charge (i.e. positive or negative) and also a piece of acetate to the opposite kind of charge
(i.e. negative or positive). What objects do you rub together, and why?

In this lab exercise you will have a clear plastic strip (acetate) and a white plastic strip (polyethylene).
You will rub both strips with polyester in what ways (positive or negative) will the two plastic strips
become charged?

Section A
Electric Field Lines
In this part of the lab you will explore software simulations of electric charges and fields. There are
two different simulations to explore: the SimPhysics applet (you should already be familiar with this
see the Pre-Lab Exercise) and the Elf program. You should spend a few minutes playing with both of
these programs. Explore the menu items and familiarise yourself with everything that the programs
can do.
SimPhysics
This applet can be accessed at http://fyl.ph.unimelb.edu.au/webraft/efield/efield.html. As described in
the Pre-Lab Exercise, this program uses an arrow to indicate the electric force at a point due to the
charges on screen. Charges can be moved around, have their sign changed, and be added or deleted.
The Vector Graph menu option displays a grid of force arrows across the entire window.
Elf
This program can be accessed via the shortcut on your computers desktop. Like SimPhysics, it
displays electric force, but it shows the individual components as well as the total force. Unlike
SimPhysics, it can also display field lines and equipotentials. (Equipotentials are the lines along
which the electric potential i.e. the potential energy per charge, or voltage is equal.)

After you have thoroughly clicked around both of these programs, use the software to sketch your own
diagrams, in your logbook, of the following four arrangements of charge. Each diagram should include
all charges involved, electric field lines, equipotential lines, and several appropriate force arrows
(showing both direction and magnitude). Where more than one charge is involved, show how the
individual electric forces add to create the total force.
1. One positive charge
2. One negative charge
3. Two positive charges
4. A dipole (i.e. one positive charge and one negative charge together, of equal magnitude)
For this dipole, where is the field strongest? How does this relate to the field lines? (Answer all
questions in your logbook.)
Sketch in closer detail a region of the dipole field that contains two different equipotential lines.
Sketch the field lines and equipotential lines in this region, and label the equipotentials with the value
of their potential. Finally, sketch a path from a point on one equipotential line to a point on the other.
What would happen as a positively charged particle moved along the path you have sketched (from
one equipotential line to another)? Could the electric field cause this motion, or would an external
force (a push) be required? Explain.
What kind of energy transformation would occur for a positive charge moving from one equipotential
line to another Kinetic Energy into Electric Potential Energy, or vice versa? What about for a
negative charge? For a charge of +1 C, what would be the magnitude of this energy change?
In terms of energy and energy transformations, what does it mean that all the points on an
equipotential line have the same potential? (Think about the definition of potential.)

above. [Make sure you understand the difference between field lines and equipotentials.]

Section B
In this experiment you will have two strips of plastic: clear (acetate) and opaque (polythene). To
charge these plastic strips, the best technique is to begin by holding a strip at the end marked with a
dot. Then, holding a piece of cloth between the thumb and forefinger of your other hand, start near the
dot end (where you are holding the strip with your first hand) and firmly press the cloth onto the strip
as you pull it down the length of the strip. Repeat this several times, effectively rubbing the cloth
down the plastic strip, and the end without the dot should become charged.
Electrostatics
On your desk is a stand, with a holder suspended from the stand by a piece of cotton.
Directions:
Charge the piece of acetate (clear plastic) as described above.
Place the acetate in the holder so that it can rotate freely.
Charge a second piece of acetate (clear plastic, again).
Bring the charged ends of the two pieces of charged acetate close together. Do not let them
touch!
When the two pieces of acetate are close together, what do you observe?
Now charge a piece of polythene (opaque plastic). Bring the charged end close to the charged
end of the acetate in the holder.
What do you observe now?
Replace the acetate in the holder with a piece of charged polythene.
Bring a piece of charged acetate close to the charged polythene in the holder. Then bring a
second piece of charged polythene close to the polythene in the holder. What do you observe?
In your logbook report, you should summarise your observations in a table similar to the one below.
For each case indicate whether you observed attraction, repulsion or no effect.
In Holder:
Test material:
Clear Acetate
Test Material:
Opaque Polythene
Clear Acetate

Opaque Polythene

Now take the holder off the stand and replace it with an aluminium ball (red charge) suspended by a
string.
Directions: (Be sure to answer all the questions below)
Hold the aluminium ball between your thumb and forefinger. This is to ensure that the string is
uncharged.
Charge a piece of clear acetate and bring its charged end close to the aluminium ball. (Dont let
them touch!) What do you observe?
Now let the aluminium ball touch the piece of charged acetate. What do you observe now? How
does this differ from before?
Repeat the entire procedure just described, but this time using a piece of opaque polythene
instead of clear acetate. What happens now?
Check Point #2: Show your demonstrator your observations and discuss your findings.
[Make sure you understand whats happening with charges in this experiment.]

The Electroscope
The electroscope is made of an insulating case with a metal cap outside and a copper plate inside. A
gold leaf is attached to the copper plate inside, but positioned so that it can move away from the plate.
When a charged object is brought close to the electroscope, the gold leaf will move in response to the
electric force this is how the detector basically works.
To determine the sign of some charged object, the electroscope itself must be charged first. But if the
electroscopes metal cap is simply rubbed with some charged object, this will not charge up the
electroscope very well rubbing will have only a small effect on the caps charge.
Question: Why does rubbing the metal cap with a charged plastic strip transfer only a small amount of
charge?
To charge the electroscope, it is better to charge by induction. This is shown in the following
diagrams:

In other words: bring a charged rod close to the electroscope cap, touch the cap with your hand (this
provides the Earth connection through your body), remove your hand, and then remove the rod.
Note that the charge induced on the electroscope in this way will always be opposite to the charge on
the object used for the induction (i.e. the rod).
The following diagram shows in more detail the motion of charged particles during induction, and the
effect that this has on the motion of the gold leaf:

Of course, you should remember that there will actually always be both positive and negative charges
on the rod and on the electroscope. However, most of these charges will effectively cancel each other
out we can ignore them. What is shown in the diagrams above are the excess charges. These are not
cancelled out, because they have no nearby opposite-charge counterparts.
Procedure
Charge the electroscope twice by induction, as described above. Use a piece of charged clear acetate
as your induction rod for Electroscope 1, and use a piece of charged opaque polythene as your
induction rod for Electroscope 2.

Record your predictions for what you think will happen when you do the following:
Bring a charged clear acetate strip close to Electroscope 1
Bring a charged opaque polythene strip close to Electroscope 1
Bring your bare hand close to Electroscope 1
Bring a charged clear acetate strip close to Electroscope 2
Bring a charged opaque polythene strip close to Electroscope 2
Bring your bare hand close to Electroscope 2
Explain your reasoning. Are your predictions consistent with your model of what is happening?
Now actually do these tests as described in the six points above, and record your observations. Do
your observations of the six points match your predictions? If not, why not? Discuss.

WARNING: At all times be careful that the object being tested is not brought too close to the
electroscope, or the following glitch may occur with the gold leaf inside the electroscope:
lower
+ve
charges
Neg charged
electroscope
+ve charged object
well above cap
more
+ve
charges
still more
+ve
charges
still
lower
- - - - - - - - - - - -
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
- - - - - - - -
-
-
-
- - -
+ +
lower
+ve
charges
Neg charged
electroscope
+ve charged object
well above cap
more
+ve
charges
still more
+ve
charges
still
lower
- - - - - - - - - - - -
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
- - - - - - - -
-
-
-
- - -
+ +

In other words, the electroscope charge may be accidentally reversed! If in doubt, discharge your
electroscope and start again.

Check Point #3: Show your demonstrator your predictions and observations. [Make sure
youve answered all the questions above.]

sources of error.


Electrical Circuits
SAFETY
before you begin.

BATTERIES: LOOK CLOSER
If any of the batteries in the laboratory appear to be damaged or leaking, do not touch them they
contain strongly corrosive chemicals and will burn you. Notify your demonstrator immediately.

Marks Breakdown:
- Check point #1 - 1 mark
- Check point #2 - 1 mark

This laboratory exercise is designed to be a basic introduction to building and understanding electrical
circuits.
In the Section A you will explore basic electrical concepts, investigating a set of simple circuits
involving light globes. You will predict and measure voltage in these circuits.
In the Section B you will predict and measure current in circuits involving light bulbs

textbook (detailing Ohms Law and electric circuits) before coming to class. Be sure that you
understand the concepts of voltage, current, resistance and electrical power. Then complete the
question below and the exercises in the Introduction section, before answering the questions for the
pre-lab task online (http://fyl.ph.unimelb.edu.au/prelabs) for this experiment. [Your marks for the pre-
lab will be based on the answers to the online questions, which are taken from the pre-lab work in the
manual.]

Introduction
Although electricity is an essential part of the modern world, it is not well understood by the general
public. Many people believe that the words electricity, voltage, electric power and electric
current all mean the same thing you may not even be sure about this yourself.
Electricity also plays a crucial role in cell biology. For example, the way that charge leaks across the
membrane of a cell can be modelled as a capacitor applying voltage across a resistor:

+

+ +
+
+
+
+
+

+

plasma
membrane
cytoplasm
R Cm

A basic understanding of electricity is also essential to understanding how to protect yourself from
electric shock.
This laboratory exercise examines these basic electrical concepts, emphasising current as the rate of
flow of charge and voltage as the energy difference that causes the charge to flow. The potential
difference (or voltage drop) between two points in a circuit is the difference in electrical potential
energy, per charge, between the two points. It is this voltage difference the difference in potential
energy per charge which makes the charge flow. This is how voltage produces current.
NOTE: The terms voltage, potential and potential difference are all different words for the same
thing. Voltage is sometimes called potential because it is short for potential energy per charge. But
be careful potential energy per charge is not exactly the same thing as potential energy!
Make sure you understand what is going on. Remember: voltage =potential energy per charge.
Voltage makes the current flow. If you think of electrical current like water flowing down a hill, the
voltage represents the steepness of the hill.

Circuit Diagrams
Electrical circuits are generally represented using circuit diagram symbols. Each type of electrical
component has its own standard symbol, for example:

switch light globe
resistor
A
ammeter
V
voltmeter
battery
+
-

Below is a picture of a circuit, and its corresponding circuit diagram:

A
B
6.0 V
C
D

It is important to realise that the circuit diagram does not necessarily show the physical location of
each component. Instead it shows the connection pathways: the ways in which the components are
connected to each other.
For example: of the following three diagrams, the first two are identical but the third is different. Make
sure that you understand how and why this is so.
B D
A
C
A B
C
D
A B
C
D

Which of the following circuit diagrams are equivalent (i.e. which pairs of diagrams represent the
same circuit)?
A B
C D

A B
C D

A B
C D

A B
C D

Voltage
Light globes are simple but very useful devices for exploring simple electrical circuits. The filament in
an incandescent light globe glows as electrical current passes through it, transforming the electrical
energy carried by charge into light and heat. The brightness of a light globe is an indication of the rate
of this transformation of energy i.e. the power being used by the globe.
charges have
lower potential
energy
charges have
higher potential
energy
globe emits energy as
electromagnetic radiation
drift of charge

Consider that the power dissipated (used) by the globe must be equal to the charge per second passing
through the globe, multiplied by the energy dissipated per unit charge. By definition:
Current =charge per second passing through the globe
Voltage =change in electrical potential energy per unit charge
I (current)
+
V (voltage)
light globe
battery -

Therefore:
Electrical Power =Voltage x Current

P =VI
You might like to think of this as similar to flowing water used to turn a water wheel. In this process,
the gravitational potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy of the water wheel.

water has
higher potential
energy
water has
lower potential
energy
water wheel
gains kinetic
energy
water flow
A battery would
be similar to a
pump to push
the water back
to the top

Similarly, a light globe converts the electrical potential energy of the electrical current into light and
heat. Voltage is the measure of the difference in electrical potential energy per charge between two
different points in the circuit. The unit of voltage is the Volt (V), which is equal to one J oule per
Coulomb (J C
-1
=energy per charge).

Why doesnt it make sense to say that the voltage at point X is 3 volts?

Remember: in most situations, a battery supplies a circuit with constant voltage. The amount of
current in the circuit will vary according to the resistance of the circuit components.

Wiring Circuits
To make it easier to correctly set up complicated circuits, you may find it easiest to wire them up loop-
by-loop as shown below. Start at a convenient point (like the positive terminal of the battery) and
work your way around the circuit diagram component-by-component until you have completed a loop
back to your starting point:

+
-
V

+
-
V

If the circuit has more than one loop, complete the next loop next.

+
-
V

+
-
V

You might also find it helpful to try to arrange your circuit components on your bench so that the
layout looks as close as possible to the actual circuit diagram.
Constructing circuits is a skill that will be useful to you later in the semester. Make sure that every
person in your group gets practice at wiring up circuits.

Section A
TAKE NOTE
Batteries go flat. Do not leave batteries connected to a circuit for more time than is necessary only
connect batteries briefly, to examine the brightness of the light globes, and then disconnect them (or
leave the switches open) when not actually doing this.
Resistance
Construct the following three circuits. Observe the brightness of each globe when the switch is closed.

The difference between the second and third circuits is very important. The globes in circuit two are
connected in series (in a row), while the globes in circuit three are in parallel (next to each other).
Every circuit component has its own resistance, R. This is a measure of how much energy it takes to
make current to flow through the component. The voltage drop over a component is proportional both
to the resistance and to the amount of current.
When components (like light globes) are added in series, the total resistance is the sum of the
individual resistances:

R
T
= R
1
+ R
2
+...+ R
N

(Here N is the total number of components in series.) However, when components are added in
parallel, the resistances are added inversely. The total resistance is the inverse of the sum of the
inverse resistances:

1
R
T
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
+...+
1
R
N
R
T
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
+...+
1
R
N
|
\

|
.
|
1

Note: this means that when components are added in parallel, the total resistance actually reduces!
The more components there are in parallel, the more pathways there are for the current to flow. This
means less total resistance overall.
Of the three circuits shown above, which will drain the energy of a battery most quickly? Explain (in
your logbook).
Voltmeters
Construct the following circuit:

With the switch closed, measure the voltage across the battery (hold the red lead of the voltmeter
against the positive terminal of the battery, and the black lead against the negative terminal). Note that
the voltmeter has more than one voltage range. When measuring an unknown voltage, always try with
the largest range first and work down. (The needle deflection on the dial should increase as you switch
to the lower ranges if it doesnt, something is going wrong.)
With the voltmeter joined to the circuit like this, the circuit diagram should actually be:

V

With switches closed, measure voltages for the following circuit configurations.

V

V

V

How are these voltage measurements related to each other? (Answer in your logbook.)
Now construct the two circuits shown below. Measure the voltages at each marked voltmeter position
and record your measurements on the circuit diagrams in your logbook.

V
V
V
V
V

V
V

Compare your voltage measurements of these circuits. Do your results make sense, considering the
energy transformations taking place in the circuit? Explain.
What can you say about the voltages across different components connected in series (like the three
light globes in a row, above)?
Construct the following circuit. Use a voltmeter to measure and record the voltages V
AB
, V
CD
, V
AC
etc
(where e.g. V
AB
is the potential difference between point A and point B).

V
AC
=
V
BD
=
V
AB
=
V
CD
=
V
DF
=
V
CE
=
V
EF
=
F
E
D
C
A
B

Looking at the circuit, what energy transformations are taking place across the different points? Try to
explain the voltages you have measured in terms of these energy transformations. In general, what
effect will a battery, a light globe or a section of wire have on electrical potential energy?
Compare your measurement for V
AB
(the voltage across the battery in the circuit above), with your
original measurement for voltage across a battery (at the beginning of this Voltmeters section, above).
What effect does a particular circuit have on the voltage supplied by a battery?
Consider circuits with components in series compared to circuits with components in parallel (you
have already measured voltages for both of these). In terms of the energy transformations involved,
explain the difference between voltage over series components and voltage over parallel components.

Check Point #1: Show your demonstrator your measurements, diagrams and answers to
the questions above. [Make sure your diagrams are neat and legible!]

Section B Current
Apart from a voltmeter, another useful device for studying circuits is an ammeter. Ammeters measure
current which is the amount of charge passing through a point per second. The unit for this is the
Ampere (A), often abbreviated to amp, which is equal to Coulomb per second (C s
-1
).
Construct the three circuits below and record the ammeter readings for each. You should be able to
trace the red terminal of the ammeter back around the circuit to the positive terminal of the battery. (If
your ammeter is connected the wrong way around, the needle will move backwards.)

A

A

A

Note that just like voltmeters; ammeters have more than one measurement range be sure that you use
the most appropriate range for your final measurement.
Discuss and explain your measurements. Considering the definition of current, do your measurements
make sense?
Now construct the circuits below. Measure the currents with ammeters in place as shown.

A

Circuit A

A

Circuit B

A

Circuit C
Analysis Answer all the following questions in your logbook.
Consider the three circuits you have just examined. Is the total current from the battery (i.e. the total
charge per second emerging from the battery) affected by the components of the circuit?
How does the total current change when globes are added in series (i.e. comparing circuit B to circuit
A)? How does the total current change when globes are added in parallel (i.e. comparing circuit B to
circuit C)?
How does the effect of components in series versus components in parallel differ for the circuit
voltage compared to the circuit current? Compare your ammeter results to your voltmeter results from
the Section A.
Recall the discussion of resistance in Section A. Resistance is the factor that determines how much
current flows for a given source of voltage.
How is the total resistance of the circuit affected by adding globes in series (i.e. comparing circuit B to
circuit A)? How is the total resistance of the circuit affected by adding globes in parallel (i.e.
comparing circuit B to circuit C)?
Try to explain how this works. If you are having difficulty understanding resistances in parallel, talk to
your demonstrator.
Check Point #2: Show your demonstrator your answers to the questions above. [Dont
forget to draw all the circuits you construct in your logbook.]
Currents in Parallel
Now measure the current in each separate parallel arm of Circuit C (above). Are your results
consistent with your understanding of how current works? Explain.
The following circuit will be set up with four ammeters in place at once, so that all four current
measurements may be made simultaneously.

A
A
A
A

From these measurements, try to explain the relationship between currents in different parts of the
circuit. Were any of the measured currents similar to measurements made in previous circuits? How
would you explain this similarity?

Check Point #3: Discuss your findings with your demonstrator. [Make sure you can
explain the relationship between current in different parts of a circuit.]

Understanding Circuits
Consider the following circuit:

D
G
E B
C F A
H I

Using your understanding of electrical circuits, predict the various voltages and currents for this circuit
as listed in the table below. (You should include a table like this in your logbook.) You should also
predict how bright each light globe will be (compared to the brightness you observed in the standard
circuits A, B, C above).
After you have made your predictions, measure the actual voltages and currents of the real circuit to
check your predictions.

Predicted Value Measured Value Predicted Value Measured Value
V
AB
I
A

V
CD
I
C

V
DE
I
F

V
CE
I
H

V
FG
I
I

Were any of your predictions wrong? If so, make sure that you understand why and explain your
mistake in your report.
What electrical conditions are required for two light globes to produce the same brightness?
Check Point #4: Show your demonstrator your table. Discuss your predictions if they were
wrong. [Make sure youve also answered the questions above.]

sources of error.
Capacitors
SAFETY
before you begin.

CAPACITORS: ONE WAY ONLY!
The capacitors you will use in this exercise are electrolytic capacitors, so it is essential that they are
wired in circuits the correct way around. If connected incorrectly, they may become irreparably
damaged or even explode.
Connect the black end to the earth side of the circuit, as shown in the circuit diagrams below.
Double-check all connections before turning on the power. If in doubt, talk to your demonstrator.

BATTERIES: LOOK CLOSER
If any of the batteries in the laboratory appear to be damaged or leaking, do not touch them they
contain strongly corrosive chemicals and will burn you. Notify your demonstrator immediately.

Marks Breakdown:
Check point #2 - 1 mark

In Section A you will familiarise yourself with the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) apparatus,
examining basic capacitor behaviour and investigating the energy stored in a charged capacitor.
In Section B you will examine the charging-discharging behaviour of a capacitor and how this relates
to the capacitors time constant.
textbook (detailing capacitors and capacitance) before coming to class. Then complete the question
below before answering the questions for the pre-lab task online (http://fyl.ph.unimelb.edu.au/prelabs)
for this experiment. [Your marks for the pre-lab will be based on the answers to the online questions,
which are taken from the pre-lab work in the manual.]

Reading a CRO
Read the entire laboratory exercise carefully before answering the following questions. Pay close
attention to the section below on Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes (CROs).
From the following diagrams of CRO outputs and settings, determine the necessary input voltages.
Note that on the diagrams below, 1 scale division = 1 cm.
For the signal shown on the rightmost diagram below, also determine the time taken for input voltage
to increase from 0 to 10 V.

SETTINGS:
Timebase: Off 0.1 ms / cm 0.01 ms / cm
Y-gain: 2.0 V /cm 1.0 V /cm 5.0 V / cm
Input Voltage:

Introduction
In the Electrical Circuits laboratory exercise, you dealt entirely with direct current (DC) circuits
circuits where the electrical supply is at a constant direct voltage (e.g. from a battery). DC circuits
are continuous conducting paths of constant voltages, currents and resistances.
Most real-life electrical circuits are not DC. Instead, they run on alternating current (AC) electrical
supply with a voltage that continuously varies from positive to negative, alternating like a sine wave.
Mains electrical supply (i.e. power points) in Australia is AC power at approximately 240 V (RMS),
alternating at a frequency of 50 Hz.
(Note: RMS stands for root mean square. Mains voltage is constantly cycling from positive to
negative, but the RMS value calculates a meaningful average peak value over this cycle.)
When a circuit contains voltages that alternate or otherwise vary with time e.g. circuits that contain
components such as capacitors or inductors then Ohms Law alone is not enough. We need to be
able to analyse voltages and currents as they are changing. In this exercise you will learn how to use a
cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) to investigate time-varying electrical signals.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
An electrical circuit is connected to the CRO, which displays a voltage-vs-time graph of its input
signal. The glowing dot on the CRO display moves vertically according to the voltage of the input
the scale, positioning and timebase (time scale) can all be modified. For example: if the central line is
set to measure 0 volts, and the Y-gain (vertical scale) is set to 2 V/cm, then the dot will move up or
down on the display a distance of 1 cm for every input voltage difference of 2 volts. If a 6 V battery is
attached, the dot will move 3 cm up; if the battery is connected to the input terminals in reverse, then
the dot will move 3 cm down.

SETTINGS:
Timebase: Off
Y-gain: 2 V / cm
Input Voltage: (nothing)

Timebase: Off
Y-gain: 2 V / cm
Input Voltage: 6 V (DC)

Timebase: Off
Y-gain: 2 V / cm
Input Voltage: 6 V (DC)
Reversed

The advantage of a CRO compared to a voltmeter is that the CRO can move the dot from left to right
at a steady speed, making it easier to visualise a voltage that is changing over time. If the dot is
moving quickly enough from left to right, it will appear on screen as a solid line.
For example: suppose the dot is set to move horizontally at 1 cm/s and the Y-gain set to 1 V/cm. If the
input voltage started at 0 V, rose steadily to 3 V over 2 seconds and then fell back to 0 V another 2
seconds later, we would see the dot trace a diagonal line up from left to right (3 cm up, 2 cm across)
and then another diagonal line down from that point (3 cm down, a further 2 cm across).
Similarly, a voltage that varies sinusoidally will appear on the CRO as a continuous sine wave. In the
examples below, the input voltage is labelled according to its amplitude and frequency.

SETTINGS:
Timebase: 0.1 ms / cm
Y-gain: 2 V / cm
Input Voltage: 6 V, 1 kHz

Y-gain: 2 V / cm

Y-gain: 2 V / cm

We can measure the frequency of the signal directly from the CRO display. If the distance taken to
move through one full cycle on the screen is 10 cm, then we can work backwards from the timebase
setting to determine the period of one full cycle. The frequency is the inverse of the period.
A diagram of the CRO control panel is shown below. Dont panic you will only need to know a few
of the controls to understand what is going on.

Triggering
MODE
Channel 2 OR X
X Gain
POS.
Coupling
X input
Channel 1 OR Y
Coupling
Y Gain
Y input
POS.
Power
Intensity
Focus
Timebase
Horizontal
Position

The Y-gain and Timebase controls are discussed above. The input electrical signal is connected to the
CRO through a coaxial cable connected to the Y input.

Section A
Capacitors
If a constant voltage is applied across a light globe or a basic resistor, then a constant current will flow
through the circuit. However, capacitors are not so simple.
A capacitor is commonly formed by two parallel surfaces with no conducting path between them
therefore, current cannot flow through a capacitor.

Capacitor
Parallel plates

C
Circuitry Symbol
for Capacitor
Capacitors are useful because when voltage is applied, charge accumulates and is stored on the
capacitor plates. This ability to store charge is proportional to the voltage applied, according to the
capacitors capacitance:

Q CV
Here Q is the charge stored on the plates, C is the capacitance of the capacitor, and V is the voltage on
the plates. For a parallel-plate capacitor, the capacitance will be proportional to the surface area of the
plates the more surface area; the more charge can fit on the plates. And because electric fields
weaken over distance, capacitance is also inversely proportional to the distance between the two
plates.
Note that charge does not accumulate on the plates instantly. As voltage is applied, current flows to
the plates and begins to charge them up. The rate of this charging becomes slower and slower as the
charge on the plates builds up. (Imagine a car park filling up the more cars have already gone in, the
more time it will take each new car to find a free space.)

Capacitance and Dielectrics
Capacitance is the amount of electric charge that can be stored on the capacitor plates per volt of
potential difference between the capacitor plates. A variable capacitor is a useful device for
investigating capacitance: it can vary the size of the capacitor plates, distance between the plates, and
the material between the plates.
Dielectrics are insulating materials that do not conduct charge. However, the materials contain dipoles
that are free to rotate, and which will align themselves with the electric field. When the dipoles line up
together, they will create their own electric field, and this will alter the behaviour of the capacitor as a
whole. Dielectrics are placed in capacitors for multiple reasons. They can allow higher voltages to be
applied between the plates, increasing the capacitance and decreasing the necessary size of the
capacitor. Because they are insulators, dielectrics can coat the conducting plates of the capacitor so
that the plates are in close contact without creating a short circuit this also allows the size of the
capacitor to be decreased. At a high enough voltage (3 x 10
6
V m
-1
), an electric field will ionise the air
itself (this is how lightning is made); insulating the capacitor with a dielectric instead of air prevents
this.
All these reasons are useful, but the most important reason for a dielectric is to increase the
capacitance. When the dipoles align in the electric field between the plates, they create their own
electric field in the opposite direction to the existing field. Because electric fields add together, the
total electric field between the plates is therefore reduced. The relationship between electric field
strength E, voltage V and distance d is as follows:

V Ed
Therefore as the field E is reduced while d is constant, the voltage between the plates is also reduced.
And since Q = CV (see above), if Q remains constant while V is reduced then the effective
capacitance C is increased.

Energy stored in a capacitor
As a side-effect of storing charge, capacitors can also be used as a way to store a fixed amount of
energy. This is their practical application in many modern electronic devices. In this lab you will
attempt to confirm that the energy stored in a charged capacitor is:

U
1
2
CV
2

Here U is the energy stored, C is the capacitance and V is the charging voltage.

The circuit shown below will be wired up as demonstrations. You may operate the circuits yourself,
however ask your demonstrator before you investigate the circuit.

+
-

+

First of all, be sure the power supply is set to 5 V. Charge the capacitor by closing the first switch for
approximately 10 seconds. Then open the switch and allow the capacitor to discharge through the light
globe by holding down the second switch in the circuit. Measure the length of time that the globe
glowed, and note how bright the globe appears at the start of the discharge (i.e. the peak brightness).
The brightness and duration of the light globes glow should be an indication of how much energy was
stored in the capacitor. When considering the brightness of globes in other situations, refer to this
original brightness (and the length of time that it glowed for) as a reference point.
For what length of time did this reference globe glow? (Record this in your logbook.)
This measurement was for a single globe at 5 V. According to the theoretical formula above, we
expect that the energy stored by the capacitor should be dependent on the charging voltage as well as
the capacitance.
Ask your demonstrator to connect another capacitor in parallel to the first capacitor. Draw this new
circuit in your logbook. Using the same procedure as before, charge the capacitors before letting them
discharge through the light globe. How does the brightness and duration of glow compare to the
original circuit? What does this imply about the energy stored by the capacitors in this circuit,
compared to the energy stored in the original circuit?
Assuming that the energy stored in the circuit is related to voltage and total capacitance according to U
= CV
2
, how do you think that adding the capacitor in parallel has altered the total capacitance?
What do think happens to the total capacitance when multiple capacitors are added in parallel?
Explain.
Now ask your demonstrator to remove the capacitor placed in parallel, and instead connect it in series
with the original capacitor (i.e. the circuit now contains two capacitors, in series). Draw a circuit
diagram. Charge and discharge the capacitors again, as before. How does the brightness and duration
of this series glow compare to the original circuit and to the parallel circuit? What does this imply
about the energy stored by the capacitors in this series circuit, compared to the energy stored in the
other circuits?
Assuming that the energy stored in the circuit is related to voltage and total capacitance according to U
= CV
2
, how do you think that adding the capacitor in series has altered the total capacitance? What
do think happens to the total capacitance when multiple capacitors are added in series? Explain.
The circuit below is also set up as a demonstration. This time the power supply is set to 10 V.

+
-
+
+

Charge and discharge the capacitors as before. How do the glows of these four globes compare to the
glows of the previous circuits (in both brightness and duration)?
This last circuit uses the capacitors to power four globes instead of only one. If the brightness is the
same as before, but the glow lasts for a longer time, then it seems that more energy was stored in the
capacitor. If the brightness and duration of glow are both the same as a previous globe, but there are 4
globes instead of 1, then the energy in the capacitor is 4 times as much as previous. Since we doubled
the voltage and received apparently four times as much energy, it seems that the energy stored in a
capacitor may in fact be proportional to V
2
(because two squared = four).

Check Point #1: Discuss your findings with your demonstrator, including your answers to
the questions above. [Make sure all members of your group fully understand capacitance.]

Section B
Charging and Discharging a Capacitor
If a capacitor is connected to a DC voltage, the plates will charge up until they reach their capacity
(according to Q = CV), and then the current will stop flowing. But if we connect a capacitor to an
alternating voltage, the voltage will be switching its direction back and forth. If the time the capacitor
takes to charge is similar to the time it takes for the voltage to switch back and forth, then the plates
will repeatedly charge and discharge the charge (current) flowing backwards and forwards in time
with the alternating voltage source.
Construct a circuit consisting of a resistor and a capacitor to the CRO as shown below, and use an
alternating voltage (square wave) signal generator for the power supply. This type of circuit is often
called an RC circuit (R for resistor, C for capacitor).
Construct the following circuit. Use the resistor colour code chart (see the Appendix) to identify the
correct resistor.
Signal
Generator

CRO
1 k
0.27 F

When setting up this circuit, remember to connect the black end of the capacitor to the correct
(earth) terminal of the signal generator, as shown. It is also important that there is no circuit element
between the earth connections of the signal generator and the CRO.
Set the signal generator to supply a 6 V peak-to-peak square wave at a frequency of 200 Hz. You
should confirm this signal by temporarily leaving the resistor and capacitor out of the circuit, so that
the CRO will display the original signal supplied to the circuit. Check with your demonstrator that
your CRO is set up correctly.
NOTE: Your CRO is not broken! It is very easy to wrongly configure the CRO settings, so that you
cannot see the correct signal. It is extremely rare for a CRO to be actually broken or defective
double-check that all settings and connections are correct before you give up.
Once the original square wave signal is confirmed by the CRO, reconnect the resistor and capacitor
to the circuit. The CRO should be connected to either side of the capacitor, so that it will display the
voltage difference between the two capacitor plates. You should be able to see the curves of
changing voltage as the plates repeatedly charge and discharge you may need to fine-tune the
frequency of the signal generator for it to match the capacitors charging-discharging rate. Adjust the
Y-gain of the CRO to display the charging-discharging curves as large as possible on the CRO screen.
Sketch the charging-discharging voltage curves displayed on the CRO, making careful note of the
voltage and time scales and other CRO settings. Your demonstrator will show you how to set the CRO
coupling switch temporarily to Ground, to check the zero volts position on the display.
Question: What happens if you vary the frequency and magnitude of the signal generator (the power
supply)? Explain how this affects the amplitude and period of the capacitors charging-
discharging curve on the CRO.

Check Point #2: Show your demonstrator your sketched curves and your answers to the
above questions. [Make sure you now know how to operate a CRO.]

The Time Constant of a Capacitor
It can be shown that while a capacitor is discharging, the voltage across the capacitor plates changes
according to this equation of exponential decay:

V V
max
e
t
RC

Here V = voltage, V
max
is the maximum voltage, t = time, R = the resistance in the circuit and C = the
capacitance in the circuit. Note that the negative sign indicates that the voltage is decreasing.
The product of R and C is called the time constant, :

RC
This is a useful constant value of the circuit. Whenever the time elapsed reaches this time constant
value (i.e. t = ), we know that the voltage will have decreased to a natural logarithmic proportion of
1/e (i.e. approximately one-third) of the maximum:

V V
max
e
RC
V
max
e
RC
RC
V
max
e
1
1
3
V
max

By looking at a voltage-vs-time graph of the discharge curve, we can therefore estimate the value of
RC by looking at the time taken for voltage to drop by two-thirds.

V
max
~V
max
/3
0 t = RC t
V

Using this method of graphical approximation, measure the time constant for your circuit according to
the curve displayed on your CRO.
Analysis
From your measured value of the time constant and the known resistance of your circuit, use the time
constant formula to calculate the expected capacitance of your circuits capacitor. Note that the total
circuit resistance includes the circuit resistor itself (1 k) and the internal resistance of the signal
generator (which is approximately 600 ).
Remember to calculate uncertainty values for your results. Assume that the uncertainty in the total
circuit resistance is 10%. (If unsure about uncertainty analysis, see Appendix A.)
Does the calculated value for capacitance match the manufacturers value (written on the capacitor),
within uncertainties? If not, why not?

Check Point #3: Show your demonstrator your value for the time constant. [Make sure
you include uncertainties and answer the other questions above.]

Changing Resistance
Repeat the measurement of the time constant as above, but this time replace the 1 k resistor in the
circuit with a 10 k resistor. To clearly display the new discharge curve, you will need to alter the
CRO settings.
Sketch the new charging-discharging curves in your report. Remember to note the Y-gain and
timebase scales.
How are these curves different from the curves for the 1 k circuit? Why are they different in these
ways? (Talk to your demonstrator if unsure.)

Changing Capacitance
If the capacitance C were increased by a factor of 10, how would you expect the discharging
characteristics to change? What if C were decreased by a factor of 10? Explain your answers.

Check Point #4: Show your demonstrator your answers to the questions above. [Make
sure youve also sketched the appropriate graphs and labelled them correctly.]

sources of error.


Magnetic Interactions
SAFETY
before you begin.

WARNING HOT
The wire and coil used in the experiment will both become very hot. Be sure that you do not touch the
wire or the coil.

Marks Breakdown:

In Section A you will investigate the behaviour of magnetic fields, the magnetic force on moving
electrons, electromagnets, and examples of magnetic induction.
In Section B you will investigate Faradays Law of Induction and Lenzs Law, and see how the
principle of electromagnetic induction may be used to steal electricity.

textbook (detailing electromagnetism) before coming to class. Then complete the exercises in the
Introduction section and Section A, before answering the questions for the pre-lab task online


Introduction
In magnetism, North and South are the names given to the two opposite magnetic qualities. North and
South magnetic poles are attracted to each other by magnetic forces, while two North poles (or two
South poles) will repel each other. This is essentially the same as the way that positive and negative
electric charges attract and repel each other due to electric fields and forces. (As you will learn, this is
because electricity and magnetism are fundamentally related.) However, although positive and
negative charges are independent objects, magnetic poles are always found together as a linked pair of
North and South, called a magnet.
The planet Earth is a giant magnet. Because of this, magnetic objects like compasses will tend to align
themselves with the Earths magnetic field:

Note that because of this, the Earths South magnetic pole is actually close to the geographic North
Pole (in the Arctic, where Santa Claus lives), and similarly the North magnetic pole is near the
geographic South Pole (in Antarctica).
Compass Needles in Magnetic Fields
The diagrams below each illustrate a magnet in a magnetic field at the instant that the magnetic field is
turned on (i.e. before the magnet has had any time to feel the forces due to the field). The left side
of the magnet is North and the right side is South.

Uniform Field Non-Uniform Field
Suppose the magnets are compass needles, free to rotate around their centre but otherwise fixed and
unable to move translationally.

1. Predict the motion of the magnet in the uniform field as a result of the forces shown.

2. Predict the motion of the magnet in the non-uniform field as a result of the forces shown.

3. Now suppose the magnets are not compass needles, but instead iron filings i.e. very small magnets
that are free to move (assume no friction). Describe the motion of the magnets in each of the two
fields.

Magnets are affected by external magnetic forces, as well as producing their own magnetic field.
Electric charges will also experience magnetic forces, but only when a charge is moving. Static
electric charges are not affected by magnetic force. The force on a moving charge can be described
according to the vector product:

F q

v

B
Here F is the force experienced by the charge, q is the charge, v is the velocity of the moving charge
and B is the strength of the magnetic field.
Because electric current is simply moving charge, electric current feels magnetic force. As a result, a
wire carrying electric current will seem to be affected by magnetic force, due to the force felt by the
moving charges that it carries. This force can be described according to the vector product:

F i

L

B
Here F is the force on the wire, i is the current through the wire, L is the length of wire and B is the
strength of the magnetic field. (This force equation is equivalent to the F =qvB equation above.)
When the magnetic field is perpendicular to the length of wire, this vector product becomes a simple
multiplication.
IMPORTANT: the key fact to remember from this is the difference between fields and forces. While
electric field lines are in the same direction as electric force easy to remember the magnetic field
lines are not the same direction as magnetic force! The direction of magnetic force is perpendicular to
the field, according to the vector product equations above.
This can be confusing. To remember the direction of forces due to vector products, you may find the
Right Hand Rules helpful:

The Right Hand Rule (for Forces)
(Also known as the Right Hand Slap Rule.) Because of the vector product, the force experienced by a
moving positive charge (or current) will be in a direction perpendicular to both the other two vectors
(i.e. the magnetic field and the velocity of the charge). You can form the shape of these vectors using
your right hand:

The direction of force is pointing up, out of your right palm. This rule also works if the velocity vector
(the thumb) is the direction of the current.
The Right Hand Grip Rule (for Fields)
The Right Hand Grip Rule describes the magnetic field that is produced by a moving charge (or by
current flowing along a wire). Remember: while electric field lines are straight lines going out from
electric charges, magnetic field lines are perpendicular to the motion of the charge. This means that the
magnetic field lines are circles which loop around the axis of moving charge.

If your right thumb is the direction of the current (or moving charge), the magnetic field lines
produced by that current will be loops. The loops curl around in the same direction as your fingers.

Section A
Magnetic Field Lines
You will be provided with two magnets and a small compass. The compass has a magnetic needle that
is free to rotate: placing the compass at some point near the other magnets, the direction of its needle
will indicate the direction of the total magnetic field at that point.
Before you begin, check that your compass is working properly. With all magnets kept away from the
compass, the needle should point North. However, small compasses sometimes get their poles
reversed it may instead point South. If there seems to be a problem, see your demonstrator.
When you have calibrated your compass needle, use it to determine which ends of your magnets are
North and which are South.
Next, you should have a grid similar to the one overleaf:

N
S
N
S

With the magnets arranged on the grid as shown, the magnetic field to the right of the magnets (where
the grid is) should be a symmetrical mirror image of the field to the left of the magnets. Use your
compass needle to determine the direction of the magnetic field at each grid point, and sketch that
direction on the grid. (This is not supposed to be a precise measurement, so dont spend too much time
on this.)
A compass needle cannot measure the magnitude of the magnetic field, but by finding its direction at
many points we can map the direction of the field. When you have mapped the field across the whole
grid, sketch the magnetic field lines. By convention, field lines go from North to South (i.e. the same
direction as the compass needle). When you are done, stick your grid into your logbook.
Magnetic Fields Produced by Electric Current
Magnets are not the only objects that create magnetic fields for instance, electrical current produces
a magnetic field. In a laboratory environment there may be many different sources of magnetic field.
The net magnetic field at any point will be the vector sum of all the magnetic fields present at that
point: i.e. the Earths global magnetic field in addition to any local fields (from electrical devices,
nearby magnetic materials, etc).
Using your compass, find the direction of the net magnetic field at your bench. Does your compass
point North (i.e. the real magnetic / geographic North of the Earth)? Explain.

Check Point #1: Show your demonstrator your grid with magnetic field lines youre your
answers to the other questions above. [Make sure you discuss the sources of magnetic field at
your bench.]

Demonstration 1: Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field
Use the right-hand slap rule to predict the direction of the force on the straight portion of the conductor
AB (shown in the diagram below), carrying a current I as shown.
I
B
N
S
A
I
I

Draw the diagram in your logbook to show your prediction. Switch on the current and check your
prediction. Reverse the direction of the current I and observe the deflection of length AB. Write down
your observation in your logbook.
Demonstration 2: Electrons Moving in a Magnetic Field
There is a single discharge tube apparatus (see below) in the laboratory. Your demonstrator will
organise a demonstration of this. Make sure that you have already read the questions below and that
you are prepared to get the necessary information from this demonstration. You should answer the first
question before the demonstration and the second question after the demonstration.
SAFETY WARNING
On the discharge tube, do not touch the ends of the wire from the voltage source! If you do, you will
receive a very painful (although probably not fatal) electric shock.

The discharge tube consists of two oppositely-charged electrodes at either end of an evacuated
discharge tube:

fluorescent screen evacuated discharge tube
e's
+
-

Electrons are accelerated by the potential difference (voltage) between the two electrodes, travelling to
the right in the diagram above. The paths of the electrons are made visible by the fluorescent screen.
Use the Right Hand Rule (see above) to predict the direction that the electrons will be deflected when
the N-pole of a magnet is brought towards the tube from the front (on the diagram above, towards the
page).
When the power to the induction coil is turned on and the discharge tube activates, you will be able to
check your prediction. You should also see what happens when the S-pole is brought towards the tube
instead of the N-pole. In both cases, how does the electron beam deflect? How do the results compare
to your predictions? If your predictions were wrong, explain how and why.

Check Point #2: Show your demonstrator your predictions above and discuss your
observations. [Make sure you understand what is happening in the demonstration.]

Section B Induced Voltages and Currents
Moving charges will produce a local magnetic field, but the reverse is also true a changing magnetic
field will similarly induce charges to move (i.e. produce current). Consider a magnet moving into a
coil of wire:

N S
A

A spiral coil of wire with many closely-spaced turns called a solenoid is connected to a micro-
ammeter as shown in the diagram above. As the magnet moves into the coil, any induced current will
be measured by the micro-ammeter.
Experiment 1
Observe the micro-ammeter as you push the magnet into the coil, North end first (as shown above).
What happens?
Try moving the magnet at different speeds into and out of the coil, and turning the magnet around
South-first instead of North-first. Describe what happens.

Check Point #3: Write your observations in your logbook and discuss them with your
demonstrator. [Make sure you understand what is happening.]

It may be helpful to imagine that the magnet is inducing a source of voltage, like a battery. This
battery (source of potential difference) induces a current to flow, which we measure through the
micro-ammeter:

A
+
-
through micro-ammeter
current flows from +to -

The sign (i.e. direction) of the voltage induced will depend on the direction of the induced current in
the coil. This direction (or polarity) will depend on the motion and orientation of the changing
magnetic field (i.e. your moving magnet).
Magnetic Flux
A common way to think about changing magnetic fields is to think about magnetic flux. Flux is a
measure of the number of field lines passing through a region of space: more field lines means that the
field is denser closer to a pole and therefore more powerful. Field lines are technically not real, so
flux is not exactly real either, but the concepts are useful because they are good metaphors for
something that is definitely real the strength of the magnetic field itself.
Because of this, we can define magnetic flux as the product of the magnetic field and the area through
which we are defining the flux:

B

A BAcos
Here is the magnetic flux, B is the magnetic field, and A is the vector describing the area of the flux.
The flux through an area A is the dot product of the area itself and the magnetic field passing through
the area.
When a magnets North pole is pushed into a region of space like the solenoid, you should be able to
imagine that the field lines in that region will increase (and therefore, so will the magnetic flux). The
rate of change in flux is proportional to the induced voltage and current.
Inductors
From your observations, you should be able to understand that coils of wire like the solenoid you
have been using today are able to induce current from changing magnetic fields (and vice versa, to
induce magnetic fields from moving charges). Because of this ability, coils of wire (or devices with
similar properties) are often called inductors. There are two equivalent ways to explain your
observations of induction in this Experiment.
Explaining Magnetic Induction Lenzs Law
The changing magnetic field (due to the moving magnet) creates an induced voltage, which produces a
current in the solenoid (because voltage makes current flow). This current produces its own magnetic
field. The induced current flows in a direction such that its own magnetic field opposes the change in
magnetic field that was due to the moving magnet. This is illustrated below for a single loop of the
solenoid coil:

A loop of the coil
before the magnet
approaches.

As the magnet
approaches, its field
lines pass through
the coil.

The magnet's
approach causes a
change in
magnetic flux
(increased field)
to the right.

The magnetic
field due to
induction must
oppose this
change of flux, so
it is opposite i.e.
to the left.

For the induced
current to have
created this flux
to the left, the
current must flow
in loop as shown
(recall Right
Hand Grip Rule).
This is Lenzs Law: that the flux created due to magnetic induction will always be opposite to the
changing flux that induced it in the first place.
Explaining Magnetic Induction Energy Conservation
When you induce a current by moving the magnet into the coil, you are supplying energy to the coil
the energy needed to make the current flow. The only way for you to supply energy to the coil is to do
work against a force i.e. a force that opposes you moving the magnet. This opposing force can only
come from a magnetic field in the wire, which can only be produced by current flowing through the
wire. If you know the direction of the force that you are working against, you can figure out the
direction of the field that must be producing that force. And when you know the direction of that field,
you can deduce the current flow that must have produced that field. This reasoning is illustrated
below, again for a single loop of the solenoid coil:

As you may be able to see, this is actually just another way to describe Lenzs Law the two
explanations are equivalent. If you dont understand either explanation, talk to your demonstrator.
Experiment 2
Do the explanations above correctly predict the current flow that you observed in your solenoid?
Explain.
Push the magnet back into the solenoid, N-pole first. Now remove the magnet again. Observe the
behaviour of the micro-ammeter what is happening?
Push the magnet into the solenoid, S-pole first. Observe the behaviour of the micro-ammeter what is
happening?
Now remove the (S-pole first) magnet and observe the behaviour of the micro-ammeter what is
happening?
Of the four basic possibilities N-pole first in, N-pole first out again, S-pole first in, S-pole first out
again which are equivalent, and why?
Faradays Law of Induction
Faradays Law of Induction says that the voltage induced in a closed loop of wire is directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop:

d
dt

Here is the induced voltage and is the magnetic flux (as defined above). The minus sign indicates
that the direction of induced voltage is opposite to the change in flux, as described by Lenzs Law.
From Faradays Law, we can draw the following conclusions:
A flux that doesnt change over time e.g. stationary magnet creates zero induced voltage.
A small change in flux over some time produces a small induced voltage.
A bigger change in flux over the same time produces a bigger induced voltage.
A small change in flux over less time will produce a bigger induced voltage.
Force to the left

As the magnet approaches, there must be a
force opposing the approach.
N

This repulsive force must be
caused by a similar magnetic
pole i.e. in the case, North.

I

According to the
right hand grip rule,
the current to
produce this must
flow as shown above.
With this in mind, Faradays Law should explain your observations of the strength of the induced
voltage in relation to the changing speed of the magnet through the coil. If not, talk to your
demonstrator.
Faradays Law Analysis
Move the magnet through the coil again first slowly, and then more quickly. How do the signals
change? Does Faradays Law explain this? Explain how.

Check Point #4: Discuss your observations with your demonstrator and show them your
answers to the above questions. [Make sure youve answered all the questions in Experiment
2.]

sources of error.

Properties of Radiation
SAFETY
before you begin.

It is a general rule that you must not eat or drink in the laboratories. This is extremely important
when dealing with radioactive materials. The substances you will be handling today are not especially
dangerous under normal conditions but if they enter your body they can be extremely harmful,
even fatal. If you are thirsty, use the water fountain at the eastern end of the laboratories.
To minimise your exposure to radiation, always be sure to:
Keep the radioactive source as far away from you as possible.
Minimise the time that you are exposed to the source.
Shield the radioactive source (using the lead blocks provided) whenever possible.
Wash your hands after handling the source and at the end of the lab session.
The lead shielding blocks are also toxic. Wash your hands after handling them to prevent lead
poisoning.

The radiation detectors used in the laboratory are powered by a high voltage power supply. If any
leads or components appear damaged, talk to your demonstrator immediately.

RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
In this exercise you will be dealing with samples of radioactive material. When you receive a source of
radioactivity from your demonstrator, you must sign for it on the radioactive sources record. When
you return the radioactive source to your demonstrator at the end, you must sign AGAIN on the
radioactive sources record.
You MUST return all radioactive materials and sign the record for this before you leave.

Marks Breakdown:

In Section A you will investigate two types of smoke detectors and how they work. You will also
examine the effects of increasing distance from a radioactive source.
In Section B you will examine the quantitative effects of radiation shielding. The insights you gain
will hopefully help you to understand the effectiveness of radiation protection strategies the ways in
which a combination of shielding and distance can reduce radiation exposure.

Pre-Lab Exercise: Read the entire laboratory exercise. You must pay particular attention to the
relevant Safety Notes for this exercise, as well as the discussion of Radioactivity in the Introduction
(below). Then complete the exercises below, in the Introduction section and Section A, before
answering the questions for the pre-lab task online (http://fyl.ph.unimelb.edu.au/prelabs) for this
experiment. [Your marks for the pre-lab will be based on the answers to the online questions, which
are taken from the pre-lab work in the manual.]

Pre-Lab Exercise
You will need to read the entire laboratory exercise before you can answer this question.
Consider the case of Sarah the molecular biologist. Sarah works with radioactive isotopes from behind
a Perspex screen, 2 metres away from the source of radiation. She has a mass of 50 kg and an effective
surface area of 0.7 m
2
facing the radiation, and she spends approximately 10 hours a week, 45 weeks a
year, working with radiation in this way. Calculate Sarahs annual radiation dose (in Sieverts) if the
source of radiation is a sample of Cobalt-60 producing gamma radiation with an energy of 1.2 MeV =
1.92 x 10
-13
J per photon, at a rate of 40 mega-Becquerels (MBq). Does Sarah exceed the maximum
safe dosage of 20 milli-Sieverts (mSv) per year?
Note: 1 Becquerel (Bq) = 1 photon of radiation produced per second; 1 Sievert (Sv) = an absorbed
dose of radiation energy of 1 J kg
-1
.

If Sarah worked in exactly the same way but was 50 cm from the source instead of 2 m, would she
exceed the maximum safe dosage?

Introduction Radioactivity
The term radioactivity refers to any process in which atoms of a particular element spontaneously
change into atoms of a different element. Sometimes this happens when an unstable nucleus ejects part
of itself as an alpha particle (which is actually two protons and two neutrons bonded together i.e. a
Helium nucleus). Alpha particles are the most damaging form of radiation, but they do not penetrate
shielding easily they will usually be stopped by any material as dense as piece of paper.
Alpha decay is relatively uncommon. More often, elemental change happens because the nucleons
(neutrons and protons) inside the nucleus change either a proton turns into a neutron, or vice versa.
This type of change is accompanied by the emission of a charged particle (called a beta particle)
and/or other radiation from the atoms nucleus. Beta particles and gamma rays are generally less
damaging but more penetrative than alpha particles they require more dense shielding materials.
(A beta particle is actually either an electron or an anti-electron. Anti-electrons are called positrons.)
When a nucleus decays, the daughter nucleus (i.e. the nucleus after it has changed) is often in an
excited state. This is analogous to atomic excitation, when electrons are raised into unstable higher-
energy states but when a nucleus is excited, it is not electrons but instead the nucleons which are in
higher-energy states. To release the excess energy, the protons and neutrons emit gamma rays: high-
energy photons of electromagnetic radiation. Gamma rays from nucleons are usually at much higher
energies (~MeV) than photons from electrons (e.g. X-rays) the energy difference between an excited
state and a ground state is much larger for nucleons than for electrons.
The radioactive source you will be using in todays exercise is a sample of Cobalt-60. This transforms
via beta decay (
-
) into an excited nucleus of Nickel-60, which then emits a gamma ray () with an
energy of 1.2 MeV as it de-excites. In nuclear physics terms, this reaction is represented as follows:
v |
+
+
+ +

Ni

* Ni Co
60
60 60

Your source is covered by a thin metal shield, which will absorb everything but the gamma rays. This
means that your source should appear to be producing 1.2 MeV gamma rays only.
Geiger Counters
In the following laboratory exercise you will be using a Geiger counter to detect radiation. A Geiger
counter consists of a cylindrical case containing a mixture of gases, with a wire running along its axis.
The wire is insulated from the case and held at a positive electrical potential (voltage) relative to the
case, using a DC power supply.
Gas Mixture
+ ion flow
- ion flow
Interaction Site
Gas is ionised, enabling
current flow Anode
(+)
Cathode
(-)
Insulator
Incident
Radiation
Filament wire

When radiation enters the counter, it ionises some of the gas molecules in its path. The negative ions
or free electrons created by this ionisation are attracted to the counters anode (via the wire), while
positive ions are attracted to the counters cathode (via the case). They are accelerated by the electric
field difference between cathode and anode (due to the voltage from the power supply). As the charges
accelerate they collide with other gas molecules, thereby causing more ionisation, and more free
charges, and even more ionisation. This process of charge multiplication occurs many times.
Ultimately, a substantial negative charge will be deposited on the anode. The current flow that results
between cathode and anode is employed to produce the Geiger counters clicking sound.
In general: radiation entering the Geiger counter is used to produce electrical current, which provides
the power to electronically detect that the radiation exists (and click to inform you of it).
Background Radiation
You should notice that the radiation counter will detect continual radiation even when the radioactive
source is not nearby. This is background radiation the constant small amount of radiation that
exists everywhere around us, all the time. Ordinary concrete and bricks contain traces of radioactive
material (e.g. Thorium, Potassium), and we are also bombarded by many cosmic rays from outer
space.
When measuring the radioactivity of a particular source, it is obviously necessary to first measure the
average background radiation, and then subtract this background from your measured data.

The Randomness of Radioactive Decay
Radioactive materials decay one nucleus at a time. Each nucleus decays at random, and independently
of the other atoms around it. Because of this randomness, if we count the number of decays over a
certain length of time and then repeat our measurement, we dont expect to get the exact same number
of decays each time. However, the probability that a nucleus will decay is not completely random it
is determined by the structure of the nucleus. Since all the nuclei have the same structure, every
nucleus has the same probability of decay.
The variation to expect in the number of decays over a given time interval can be predicted using the
statistics of probability. If we count the number of decays per minute over and over again, statistical
analysis leads us to expect that the different numbers measured will cluster around a central average
value N
0
(the mean):

frequency
with which a
given number
occurs
number of decays
per time
N
0

This mean value N
0
is the number that best represents the average rate of decay. But if we make only
one measurement, how close to N
0
do we expect our measurement to be? Statistical analysis shows
that for a normal distribution of randomness, 68.3% of measurements will be within one standard
deviation of the mean, 95.4% of measurements will be within two standard deviations, and 99.97%
will be within three standard deviations.
For the kind of randomness exhibited by radioactive decay (which is called a Poisson distribution), it
turns out that the standard deviation is equal to the square root of the mean:

N0 .
Because we know that radioactive decay follows this statistical pattern, we can use this standard
deviation value as our statistical uncertainty value (see also Appendix A). So if we make a single
measurement which gives us a number N, then we can be 68.3% sure that the actual mean value is
within the range:

N N
We cannot know the mean from a single measurement, but this statistical analysis lets us know how
close our measurement must be to the mean, within a definite range of uncertainty. This is useful.
To take account of the background radiation, we must find N as a result of the total number of counts
N
t
minus our number of background counts N
b
. Instead of taking the square root of N, we must then
take the square root of our total measurements. Considering background radiation, our result is:

N
t
N
b ( )
N
t
+ N
b

Note that although we are subtracting the two measurements (total and background) to get N, we cant
subtract our two uncertainties it doesnt make sense for our total uncertainty to get smaller!
Therefore, when calculating uncertainties we add them together instead. (See Appendix A Errors and
Uncertainties Analysis if youre confused by this.)
Statistical Uncertainty Example
Suppose you measure a total number of counts (i.e. from the radioactive source in addition to
background radiation) of N
t
= 1200. You also measure background counts for the same length of time
as N
b
= 400.
Therefore: N = N
t
N
b
= 1200 400 = 800
And the uncertainty is: (N
t
+ N
b
) = ( 1200 + 400) = 1600 = 40
So our final data result is written: N = 800 40
This means that we have a statistical 68.3% probability that the actual mean value is a number
between 760 and 840. Note that this uncertainty has nothing to do with uncertainties in our apparatus,
or any kind of other experimental error the uncertainty here is entirely due to the statistical
randomness of radioactive decay.

REMEMBER: you must calculate statistical uncertainty values for all your measurements.

Suppose you are measuring the radiation from a radioactive source. After a period of 30 seconds, your
detector has reached 1241 counts. What is the statistical uncertainty ( value) in this measurement (i.e.
the average number of counts per 30 seconds)?

Suppose that your detector is measuring radiation at a mean rate of 50 counts per minute. For how
many minutes would you let the detector run, in order for the final total number of counts to have an
uncertainty of 3% (i.e. an estimated standard deviation equal to 3% of the estimated mean)?

Section A
Smoke Detectors
Smoke detectors are the most important fire safety device in any building. Being far more sensitive to
smoke than human beings, they are an essential fire early-warning device and have saved countless
lives.
There are two main types of smoke detector commonly found in the home: Ionisation and
Photoelectric. Both of these types work by emitting and detecting radiation. Your demonstrator will
demonstrate the workings of an Ionisation-type detector.
Ionisation
Ionisation occurs when a molecule is stripped of its outer electrons. Radiation can cause ionisation. In
an ionisation-type smoke detector, a radioactive source is used to ionise molecules in the air.

Radiation
source is in
centre of
chamber
Air enters
here

The radiation travels radially outwards, interacting with the air in between the centre of the chamber
and the outer metal casing. Power from the smoke detectors internal battery is used to accelerate the
electrons (from the ionised air molecules) towards the positive plate, where they are registered as
current. Meanwhile the ionised air molecules (stripped of their outer electrons) are now positively
charged, so they are accelerated in the opposite direction (towards a negative plate), where the
electrical circuit is completed.

Negative
Plate
Positive
Plate
Radiation
Source
Ionised
air

When smoke enters the chamber, the smoke particles neutralise the ionised air molecules and stop
them from being attracted to the negative plate. This means that current will no longer flow through
the circuit. It is this interruption to the current that triggers the smoke detector alarm.
Smoke detectors are usually encased in plastic, but their internal radiation needs to be shielded from
the outside. What type of radiation (alpha, beta, or gamma) do you think ionisation-type smoke
detectors should use? Why? (Read the background in Part 2: Radioactivity and Distance if youre
unsure.)

For safety, the radioactivity of smoke detectors should be as little as possible. However, it is also
important that the amount of radioactive material in the detector does not reduce to zero over the
smoke detectors lifespan the half-life (time taken for radioactivity to reduce by half) cannot be too
short. From the following table, which radioactive source do you think would be most suitable for use
in a smoke detector? Why?
Source Radiation produced Half-life
Americium-239 Alpha 11.9 hours
Americium-241 Alpha 432.2 years
Uranium-255 Alpha 95 milliseconds
Uranium-235 Alpha, Gamma 703,800,000 years

Radioactivity and Distance
It is well known that strong radiation can be harmful to biological organisms for example, it can
cause cancer. People who work in places where they may be exposed to radiation regularly (e.g.
radiologists, dentists, biologists) need to be able to limit their exposure to radiation below a safe upper
limit. This safe upper limit is currently believed to be 20 milli-Sieverts (mSv) per year about 10
times greater than natural background radiation.
In this experiment your source of radioactivity will be a sample of Cobalt-60. As discussed in the
Introduction, this is primarily a source of 1.2 MeV gamma rays. These gamma rays will generally
interact with matter in one of two ways:
- Photoelectric Effect: The gamma-ray photon collides with a tightly-bound electron and its
energy is completely absorbed. The probability of this happening depends on the number of
electrons in the photons path; the probability also increases in proportion to the fourth power of
the atomic number (Z
4
) of the atoms involved.
- Compton Scattering: The gamma-ray photon collides with a free or loosely-bound electron
and its energy and momentum are partially transferred to the electron. The scattered photon
bounces off with less energy than it had before. The probability of this happening depends on
the number of electrons in the photons path.
You will be investigating how the intensity of radiation varies with distance from the source.
Inverse Square Law
The intensity of electromagnetic radiation (i.e. including gamma rays) is defined as the power (energy
per time) that strikes a unit area (i.e. one square metre). In general, a source of radiation will emit its
energy evenly in all directions. This means that if you imagine a sphere with the radiation source at its
centre, the amount of energy passing through the entire sphere must be the same at any given radius.
This is because the total energy is always conserved.

As you get further from the centre, the sphere of radiation around the source becomes larger. As a
sphere gets larger, its surface area increases, but the total energy must remain the same. The radiation
becomes more spread-out the intensity (i.e. power per area) must decrease as the surface area
increases. Since the surface area of a sphere is 4r
2
, the proportionality of power-to-surface-area also
tells us the relation between intensity and distance:

I
1
r
2

Here I is intensity and r is the distance from the source. As you get further from the source, the
intensity becomes less and less (according to the square of the distance). It is this inverse square
proportionality of the radiation intensity that you will be investigating.
Testing the Inverse Square Relationship
Your demonstrator will show you how to use your Geiger counter.
SAFETY NOTE
Do not change the high voltage setting on your radiation detector.
Be sure to use both hands when adjusting the position of the Geiger tube.
Record and calculate your data in Excel.
Directions:
- Measure the background radiation for 30 seconds. (Ensure that the radioactive source is fully
shielded and well away from the detector.) You may wish to do this several times in order to
find an average result.
- Place the source 2 cm in front of the detector and record the radiation counts for the same length
of time (30 seconds). How will you measure the distance from source to detector?
- Take measurements of the radiation counts (for 30 seconds) with the source placed at increasing
distances: 4 cm, 8 cm, 16 cm and 32 cm from the detector.
According to the inverse square law (see above), the relation between distance and intensity of
radiation should be:

1
Intensity (counts)
versus Distance.
It is this relation that must be investigated. Using Excel, graph your data according to this relation.
(Remember to subtract the background radiation first.) Do you expect to see an inverse square
relationship? Why?
In Excel, use another column to calculate the uncertainties in your data (as described in the
Randomness of Radioactive Decay section, above). Use these uncertainties as error bars for your
data points (see Appendix B or ask your demonstrator if you arent sure how to do this). Answer the
following questions in your logbook:
- How big are your error bars compared to your actual data (i.e. how big is N compared to N),
as percentages?
- How could you reduce the (percentage) uncertainty in your measurements? Is it better to
measure for a shorter or longer period of time?
- On your graph, can you draw a straight line through the data points (within the error bars)? If
you could, what would this imply?
- Use Excel to create a best fit trendline through your data points. Does the best fit trendline
pass through the origin? If not, what does the value of its axis intercept mean?
- How important is the background measurement to your data? How does the graph change if
the background data is not subtracted from the total counts?

Check Point #1: Show your demonstrator your plot and your answers to the questions
above. [Make sure your final printed plot includes error bars and a trendline.]

Section B Radiation Shielding
When radiation passes through matter, its intensity is reduced this is called attenuation, and it is the
basis of radiation shielding. Different materials absorb radiation differently. (For example, bones
absorb X-rays more thoroughly than flesh, which is why bones cast shadows in X-ray photographs.)
You will investigate the change in radiation intensity that occurs when increasing amounts of a
shielding material (lead) are placed between a radioactive source and the detector. As before, you will
be using the radiation detector and the Co-60 source.
We expect the number of photons absorbed by a small thickness dx of material, at a depth x inside the
total material, to be proportional to the number of photons that can penetrate to the depth x as well as
to the thickness of the layer dx:

number of
photons,
N
0
number of
photons,
N
x
absorber

thickness, x dx

If the number of photons at point x is N
x
, then the absorption of a number of photons dN should be
proportional to these quantities:

dN = N
x
dx
Here the proportionality constant is called the linear attenuation coefficient. This constant will
vary according to the nature of the radiation involved and according to the properties of the shielding
material. In general, the constant will be larger for more dense materials higher for lead than for
aluminium, and higher for bone than for muscle or fat.
From the above relation, we can see that:

dN
N
= dx
Integrating this equation, we can find the relation:

1
N
N
0
N
x
}
dN = dx
0
x
}
ln
N
x
N
0
|
\

|
.
|
= x
N
x
= N
0
e
x

This equation implies that the relation between x and the log of N will be linear, with a gradient of .
N
x
N
x
= N
0
e
- x

ln (N)
x
ln (N
x
) = ln (N
0
) - x
d
1/2
is half-thickness
d
1/2
d
1/2

Question: How would you use these graphs to find the value of ? (Answer this in your logbook.)

Data Measurement
You will need to record the background radiation, total radiation, and thickness of shielding. In your
analysis, remember to subtract the background radiation from the total measured counts. You must
also calculate the uncertainty in your measurements. Remember that the uncertainty in the number of
counts N is (N
total
+N
background
) see the discussion on Statistical Uncertainty, above. However, you
will not be graphing N, but instead the logarithm of N so you will also need to calculate the
uncertainty in the log of N. (See Analysis, below, for an explanation of logarithmic uncertainties.)
The easiest way to analyse your results is to set up an Excel spreadsheet with columns recording all
important data: the thickness of shielding, the total counts, the actual counts (i.e. total minus
background), the uncertainty in actual counts, the log of actual counts, and the uncertainty in the log
of actual counts.
You will be provided with lead shielding blocks of thickness 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 cm. Vary the
thickness from 0.0 to 4.0 cm, in 0.5 cm steps, measuring the radiation intensity (i.e. number of counts)
at each thickness. The recommended measurement time is 30 seconds.
Source
Geiger tube
Absorbers

It is also important to keep the radioactive source at the same distance from the detector for all
measurements ensure that you leave enough space at the start to be able to fit 4.0 cm of shielding
between source and detector.
Analysis
Graph your data as the log (N) versus x. It can be shown that the uncertainty in the log of N is related
to N (i.e. the uncertainty in N itself recall that the triangle (also known as Delta) means the
uncertainty in) as follows:

d ln N
( )
dN
=
1
N

A ln N
( )
=
AN
N

This is how you will calculate the size of the error bars on your graph. For a further explanation of
this, see Appendix A Errors and Uncertainties Analysis.
Questions: (be sure to answer these in your logbook)
- From your graph, what is the linear attenuation coefficient () of lead for 1.2 MeV gamma rays?
- The uncertainty attached to is a measure of your confidence in the accuracy of the gradient of
the best fit trendline for your graph. According to the error bars on your data points, what are
the maximum and minimum gradients for your graph?
- Assuming that the maximum and minimum gradients are reasonable uncertainties for your data,
express your result for the linear attenuation coefficient as = ___ __
- What is the physical significance of an absorber of thickness 1/? This length 1/ is called the
attenuation length.
- Your calculated attenuation length is based on gamma rays of 1.2 MeV in lead. Estimate the
attenuation length of 30 keV X-rays in lead (such as might be used by a dentist to examine your
teeth). Assume that attenuation length is proportional to the energy squared (i.e. 1/ ~ E
2
).
- Dentists wear lead aprons to shield themselves from X-rays. These aprons contain granules of
lead 0.5 mm thick. Calculate the attenuation of 30 keV X-rays through an apron like this. Is the
dentist safe?
- Calculate the attenuation for 1.2 MeV gamma rays through a 0.5 mm thick lead apron. Would
this apron be useful for Sarah the molecular biologist (from the problem in the Pre-Lab)?
- How can you safely shield yourself from the harmful effects of radiation? Discuss.
Check Point #2: Show your demonstrator your plot and your answers to the questions
above. [Make sure your final printed plot includes error bars and a trendline.]
sources of error.
PHYC10006 Physics Laboratory Manual A-1
Appendix A
Uncertainties & Error Analysis

Introduction What Is Uncertainty?
Error Analysis and the concept of uncertainties are often confusing at first. This because the words
error and uncertainty have a technical meaning in science which is quite different to their meaning
in everyday conversation. (The word theory suffers from this sort of problem, too.)
When we talk about errors or uncertainties or confidence limits in physics (the terms are used
fairly interchangeably), we are not talking about mistakes. Experimental results can be mistakes
because equipment is used incorrectly, or is faulty, or because the analysis is based on incorrect
assumptions; but even perfect equipment can never be perfectly accurate and precise, and this is where
the concept of uncertainty comes in.
Every time we produce a number in experimental physics whether by measuring something directly
with a measuring device, or by calculating a result from our measurements using a formula the
number produced has an uncertainty about it. In physics, all numerical results have an uncertainty like
this, which is recorded as a plus or minus error value. This plus-or-minus uncertainty states the upper
and lower limits of our result: e.g. 3.0 0.1 has an upper limit of 3.1 and lower limit of 2.9. This
uncertainty range shows where we confidently expect the actual answer to be, based on our
experimental results.
In a practical sense, all results have uncertainty because our measuring devices cannot be perfect; but
uncertainties are also unavoidable on a more fundamental level (due to Heisenbergs Uncertainty
Principle, for instance, which you may learn about in later physics study). Unless you are counting
something discrete and obvious (like number of people in my group), there is always an uncertainty
in the measuring process.
Because of this, every numerical result must always be stated together with its uncertainty. Its not
enough to say that the answer is 3; you always need to say it is 3 something. There is an obvious
difference between 3.00 0.01 compared to 3.0 2.7. If we dont record the plus-or-minus
uncertainty value, this difference in meaning vanishes. If we dont know our uncertainties, our results
cant be compared with other results; and if we cant compare our results to other results, then our
results are meaningless.
Error Analysis is our set of tools for dealing with experimental uncertainties. The aim is not to
eliminate uncertainties unfortunately, thats usually impossible. But by figuring out how best to
estimate our uncertainties, we will produce practical and useful real-world results.
A Golden Rule
Ultimately, your analysis of uncertainties is based on your own estimates and judgment. The methods
outlined below are guidelines, not absolute laws; every experimental situation will be unique. The key
is always to think carefully about what you are doing, to ensure that your analysis is as reasonable and
as sensible as possible.
A-2 PHYC10006 Physics Laboratory Manual
Uncertainties in Measurements
The most basic uncertainties are those due to measurements. Whenever you measure a physical
quantity for instance, measuring distance with a ruler, or counting radioactive particles with a
scintillator that measurement has an uncertainty. This is true even if we assume that the equipment is
perfectly accurate and correct.
There are different sources of uncertainty detailed below. Sometimes only one sort of uncertainty will
be relevant or significant; in other situations, there may be multiple sources of uncertainty to deal
with. (If you are unsure which uncertainty is more relevant, you should probably choose the largest
one.) Recognising which uncertainties are appropriate in which situations can be confusing at first.
When in doubt, talk to your demonstrator.
You also need to be familiar with the following symbology:
If a quantity is labelled x, then its uncertainty is labelled x.
So when we state a numerical result, we want to state x x.
Here, the delta symbol means the uncertainty in (a quantity): so x means the uncertainty in x.
This can be confusing, because in other contexts can mean the change in (a quantity), instead. You
must be careful to remember the difference! In the context of experimental results and uncertainties,
always means the uncertainty in.
x is called the absolute uncertainty of x.
Ax
x
, the uncertainty divided by the actual value, is the proportional uncertainty of x.
Also, the proportional uncertainty multiplied by 100 is the percentage uncertainty.
Taking a Measurement: The Reading Error
When we read a number from a measuring device whether by reading a mark on a ruler, or a needle
on a dial, or a display on a digital readout that number has an uncertainty due to the resolution of the
measuring device. By resolution, we mean the smallest values that the device can display.
For instance, a ruler which is marked in millimetres can only be used to measure distances to the
nearest millimetre. Remember that the uncertainty of a value is what defines its upper and lower
confidence limits: so if a value can be distinguished to the nearest millimetre, this literally means
that the difference between its upper and lower limits (its plus-or-minus values) is one millimetre.
This is called reading error, because it is an error due to how closely we can read the scale. We have
the same sort of uncertainty when we read a dial, or when we read a digital readout which only
displays a fixed number of decimal places.
This reading error uncertainty is generally estimated to be plus-or-minus half the smallest division of
measurement. For example, using our millimetre ruler we might measure a piece of string to be 153
mm long. We should state this result as 153 0.5 mm. The uncertainty is 0.5 mm due to the reading
error: if the result had been more than 153.5, then it would be read as 154, and if less than 152.5, then
it would be read as 152 mm. Therefore, the appropriate range is 153 0.5.
Taking Several Measurements: Error from Averages
Sometimes we are measuring something which we know is stable and easily controlled (like the length
of a piece of string). These sorts of measurements may only need to be made once, and so the reading
error is the only appropriate uncertainty to consider.
However, often we are trying to measure a quantity which is difficult to capture. You will sometimes
find that you can measure the same physical quantity over and over and get a slightly different answer
every time. This is normal! In many situations there will be constant small fluctuations in the
experimental conditions, or unavoidable variations in the measuring instruments, or natural
fluctuations in the physical quantity itself. This results in a set of measurements which are not all
precisely the same.
This variability is why we repeat measurements: we want to obtain multiple results, which we can then
average (or otherwise analyse) to determine the best, most accurate central conclusion. The more
data we have, the better our conclusions are likely to be. Our final result will usually come from the
average of our measurements.
What is the uncertainty of an average?
The simplest way to estimate the uncertainty is to consider the range of the measured values. The
uncertainty can be taken as half the range.
Here is an example (where the reading error of the initial measurements is 0.1 mm):
Measurements: 153.2 0.1; 153.6 0.1; 152.8 0.1; 153.0 0.1 mm
Average: (153.2 + 153.6 + 152.8 + 153.0) / 4 = 153.2 mm
Range: 153.6 152.8 = 0.8 mm
Uncertainty: half range = 0.8 / 2 = 0.4 mm
Final Result: 153.2 0.4 mm
Because the half-range error is significantly larger than the reading error, it is the more appropriate
uncertainty to use. The small reading error is insignificant, compared to the larger error due to
averaging several results together. But if the reading error was much larger than the half-range error, it
would be more appropriate to use the reading error instead. When in doubt, use the largest uncertainty.
The half-range error is the appropriate approach to experimental uncertainties where a few (less than
12 or so) measurements have been made.
What if there are a hundred measurements, or even more?
If there are lots of measurements, then the half-range error becomes less accurate. This is due to the
statistics involved: with more data, the average will become more accurate, but the range of results
will also increase. However, we can still use the spread of results around the mean to estimate
uncertainty.
The way to estimate uncertainties with large sets of data is to use statistical techniques: the standard
deviation of a set of data is usually a good estimate of its uncertainty. If it is appropriate to use these
techniques, they will be detailed in the relevant laboratory exercise notes.
Uncertainties in Calculations
Taking a measurement is usually not the end of the experiment. Often, we want to test a theoretical
formula, so we will put our measurements into the formula to calculate some new value. We know
what the uncertainties of our measurements are, but what are the uncertainties of our calculation?
Whenever you calculate with uncertainties, all of the uncertainties in the equation will combine
towards producing the uncertainty of the answer. The ways in which the uncertainties in measurement
combine to produce uncertainties in the final answer are determined by a few simple formulas, which
are based on what sort of calculation it is.
The equations below look like they involve a lot of algebra, so they can be intimidating at first. Dont
panic: its simpler than it looks, and you can always ask your demonstrator for assistance.
NOTE: these formulas are based on mathematical approximations which are not completely accurate,
but they are adequate and appropriate for analysis in first year Physics. If you are curious about the
correct analysis, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_propagation.
Addition and Subtraction
When we add two measurements together, their uncertainties add together as well. If we subtract one
measurement from another measurement, their uncertainties are not subtracted: their uncertainties are
added together instead.
When we combine data the uncertainty increases, even if the final answer gets smaller! This is
always true: it is an important principle to remember.
So if R = a + b + then R = a + b +
Also, if R = a b then R = a + b +
The uncertainty of a sum is the sum of the absolute uncertainties.
Addition and Subtraction Example
We measure a piece of string to be 150 mm long, using a ruler which has a reading error (see Taking
a Measurement, above) of 10 mm. We also measure the length of a miniature toy car to be 27 mm
long, using a different ruler which has a reading error of 0.5 mm. What is the total length of the car
attached to the string?
Total Length = Car Length + String Length = 150 + 27 mm = 177 mm
What is the uncertainty in the total length? This is an addition, so we add the absolute uncertainties.
Total Uncertainty = (Uncertainty in Car Length) + (Uncertainty in String Length)
= 0.5 + 10 mm = 10.5 mm
We should state our final result as:
Length of car attached to string = 177 10.5 mm

Multiplication and Division
When we multiply two values together, their absolute uncertainties do not multiply together. But they
do not add, either. Instead, it can be shown that we need to add the proportional uncertainties of
each component. It turns out that this is also the case for division, because division is the simple
inverse of multiplication: remember that the uncertainty always increases, even if the final answer gets
smaller.
So if R = a x b x then
AR
R
=
Aa
a
+
Ab
b
+
Also, if R = a / b / then
AR
R
=
Aa
a
+
Ab
b
+
The proportional uncertainty of a product is the sum of the proportional uncertainties. Remember to
multiply your answer by the actual value of R, to go from the proportional uncertainty R/R to the
absolute uncertainty R.
Multiplication and Division Example
We measure the current in an electrical circuit to be 50 A, using an ammeter which has a reading error
of 1 A (see Taking a Measurement, above). The circuit consists of a resistor, which is rated by the
manufacturer at 4.0 with a 5% tolerance (this 5% is the manufacturers estimate of the uncertainty
in the resistance, which is a reasonable uncertainty for us to use: 5% of 4.0 is 0.2 ).
We use Ohms Law (V=IR) to calculate the expected voltage V of the circuit, based on our
measurements. A is amperes (the unit of current), is ohms (the unit of resistance), and V is
volts (the unit of voltage).
Voltage = Current x Resistance = (50 A) x (4.0 ) = 200 V
What about the uncertainty? This is a multiplication, so the total proportional uncertainty is the sum of
the other proportional uncertainties. V stands for Voltage, I for Current and R for Resistance.
V = I x R
Therefore:
AV
V
=
AI
I
+
AR
R

AV
200
=
1
50
+
0.05 x 4.0
4.0

AV
200
= 0.02 +
0.2
4.0
= 0.02 + 0.05 = 0.07
So 0.07 is the proportional uncertainty. To find the absolute uncertainty:
V = 200 x 0.07 = 14
We should state our final result as:
Voltage = 200 14 V
Raising To A Power
When we square a value, or raise it to any other value, we multiply their proportional uncertainties by
the power involved. If the power is negative, ignore the negative sign remember that uncertainties
always increase. (However, beware of fractional powers!)
So if R = a
2
then
AR
R
= 2
Aa
a

Or in general, if R = a
n
then
AR
R
= n
Aa
a

Combining Equations Example
What happens if an equation has multiple parts say, addition and multiplication and division all
together? In this case, we simply break the equation into parts, and combine the uncertainties
together one by one.
This can involve some very complicated-looking algebra, but dont panic! Once you know whats
going on, its not nearly as bad as it looks.
For example: what is the uncertainty of R from this equation?
R = 2
mb
c
y
The solution is to tackle the equation piece by piece. If we think of the (2mb/c) as a single object, then
the equation becomes a simple subtraction. Remember: in a subtraction, we add the absolute
uncertainties.
R = 2
mb
c
y
AR = A 2
mb
c
|
\

|
.
|
+ Ay

Remember that means the uncertainty in.
Next, we need to determine the uncertainty of what is inside the brackets: (2mb/c). The 2 is a simple
factor of multiplication, so it has zero uncertainty; therefore we can move it outside the brackets.
A 2
mb
c
|
\

|
.
| = 2A
mb
c
|
\

|
.
|
Next we have (mb/c), a multiplication and a division. Remember: when numbers multiply or divide
together, the total proportional uncertainty is the sum of their individual proportional uncertainties.
A
mb
c
( )
mb
c
( )
=
A(mb)
mb
+
Ac
c
=
Am
m
+
Ab
b
+
Ac
c

Now we have simplified all the uncertainties down to the values which we would have measured: m,
b, c and y. We can combine all the parts together:
AR = A 2
mb
c
|
\

|
.
| + Ay
AR = 2A
mb
c
|
\

|
.
| + Ay
AR = 2
mb
c
|
\

|
.
|
Am
m
+
Ab
b
+
Ac
c
|
\

|
.
| + Ay

Remember that we multiply proportional uncertainties by the actual values to get the absolute
uncertainty.
General Functions
The above examples should cover anything you may encounter in first year laboratories. If youre
curious, the uncertainties involved in more complicated calculations (such as logarithms) can be
determined using the calculus relation below. For any calculation where R is a mathematical function
of values (a, b, c, ), the uncertainty of R based on the experimental uncertainties (a, b, c, )
can be determined as follows:
AR ~
oR
oa
Aa +
oR
ob
Ab +
oR
oc
Ac + ...
Note that this is still an approximation. For a more thorough treatment of this topic, see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_propagation.
There are many different methods of estimating uncertainties in different situations; learning how to
estimate uncertainties appropriately is a key aspect of experimental science. If you have any questions
about uncertainty analysis, talk to your demonstrator or tutor.
Minimising Errors
Uncertainty Analysis (see above) deals with the statistical uncertainties due to experimental
measurement. However, basic statistical uncertainty analysis assumes that the actual measurements are
still correct. In real life, this is not always the case equipment can be faulty, procedure can be
incorrect, assumptions can be false, etc. It is important to understand the ways in which experimental
errors can occur, and to learn to recognise and minimise the consequences.
Mistakes
There are many ways to make a mistake in an experiment: you might use equipment inappropriately,
misread a measurement scale, misunderstand what you are supposed to be doing, etc. Even the best
analysis of your results cannot overcome procedural errors like these. It is up to you to avoid making
mistakes, and to recognise and solve them when they do occur.
If you make a mistake (or you suspect that you might have), you should repeat your measurements to
check your results. If you are unsure that you are using your equipment correctly, re-read the
directions in the manual; if you are still unsure, talk to your demonstrator.
Dont try to cover up your mistakes! Discuss them in your logbook and detail what was changed to
solve the problem. You will not lose marks for catching a mistake and fixing it, but you will lose
marks if you try to cover it up or ignore it.
Systematic Errors
Systematic errors are errors which skew all results in a particular direction. They are characteristic of
faults in the use of equipment, or a consistent bias caused by the experimenter (for example, always
reading the number 1.0 on a dial as 10 instead). Because they skew all results in the same direction,
they cant be corrected by averaging a large number of repeated readings.
There are a few typical sources of systematic error which you can learn to watch out for:
- Incorrect setting of a meters zero position
- Defective or wrongly-calibrated equipment
- Rounding off numbers in the middle of a calculation (instead of only at the end)
- Assumptions which are incorrect or inappropriate for the experimental conditions
- Use of theory which is incorrect or inappropriate for the experimental conditions
- Use of a measurement device which significantly affects the system being observed
All measurement devices affect in some way the experimental conditions which they are measuring,
but this is a particularly common problem in electronics. You should take note that ammeters and
voltmeters can change the characteristics of a circuit very easily.
How To Minimise Error
There are various general methods by which you can minimise the error and uncertainty associated
with a measurement. The most important thing is simply to think about what you are doing. Dont just
blindly follow directions! You should critically assess your experimental method as you go along.
Does what you are doing make sense? If not, why not?

Trial Runs
Whenever possible, you should do a brief trial run with your equipment before you take your actual
measurements. This will allow you to familiarise yourself with the equipment, and it provides an
opportunity to discover potential sources of error sooner. If problems do occur, you will save time by
altering your procedure before (instead of during) the actual experiment.
Equipment Assessment
You need to decide whether the equipment to be used is accurate enough for the task at hand. Can you
(or should you) calibrate it? Should alternative equipment be used instead?
Careful Use of Equipment
For example:
- Meters with needle indicators should be tapped lightly, to check that the indicator is not sticking
- Check that the zero settings on instruments are actually registering as zero
- Arrange apparatus so that it cannot be easily knocked or bumped
- Connect electrical circuits and all electronic components securely
Consistent Procedure
Follow standard procedures carefully. When you change procedure or devise your own techniques,
write out your new method in point form and follow it closely. If you are consistent and methodical in
your approach, you will minimise the variability that comes from haphazard equipment use.
Checks and Cross-checks
You shouldnt just record data: you need to think about what the results mean, and check that your
answers make sense. Consider the following:
- Can you check your results while you are taking them, to see if they are consistent?
- Can you and your partner both take readings, and check each others work as you go?
- Can you draw a graph as your results come in, to see if they are making sense?
- Can you already guess, roughly, what the results should be? Are they doing what you expect?

Appendix B
Graphs and How to Use Them
Graphs are a very useful way to represent and analyse data. Trends and relationships between
variables become clear when the data are graphed in a meaningful way. It is important to learn both
how to create useful graphs, and also how to extract useful information from them.
Plotting Graphs Key Points
- If you havent used Excel (2007) to make a graph from spreadsheet data before, now is the time
to practice. To begin, select your numerical data to be graphed and choose the Insert tab, and
pick Scatter from the Charts section (of the ribbon). You will then need to select your graph
and select the Chart tools, Layout tab. In that ribbon you will see how to change your axis
titles, graph labels and even axis scales (if needed).
- When your graph is complete, remember that you can still alter it. You should right-click on
elements of the graph to explore the options available. (See also Excel Trendlines, below.)
- If you are unsure of how to do something with your graph, explore the tab sections thoroughly
and use Excels Help function. Excel can do everything that you need you only need to learn
how (and where). If in doubt, ask a fellow student or your demonstrator.
- Dont let your partner do all the work! Remember, your partner wont always be there you
need to learn how to do graphs for yourself.
- Label both axes with the quantity being plotted, as well as the unit in which it is measured, eg:
Length (m), Time (s). You should also label the graph itself.
- Most of the time, what is being graphed is the relationship between two things:
a. The independent variable. This is the quantity that you control, and that you have
chosen the initial values of e.g. the force that you apply to an object.
b. The dependent variable. This is the quantity which varies according to the
independent variable e.g. the acceleration that results from the force you apply.
Usually, the dependent variable is the thing that we are actually investigating.
In general, you should plot the independent variable on the horizontal axis, and the dependent
variable on the vertical axis. If in doubt, you should always arrange your graph so that it
displays the relationships between data as clearly as possible.
- Choose scales that make your graph simple and clear. Choose axis ranges that spread points
evenly across the graph, rather than cramping them all into a corner. (This may mean that you
need to exclude the zero point of an axis.)
- Plot data points clearly, and include error bars (see below) to display the plus-or-minus
uncertainty values of each point.
- If possible, plot your graph as you go along. This will help you to check that nothing obvious is
going wrong with your experiment. It will also allow you to fine-tune your choice of
measurement points.

- After plotting your data, draw a single straight line or smooth curve through the plotted points
(see below). Do not draw short straight lines from each point to the next!
Error Bars Graphing Uncertainties
You must always record the uncertainty values of your results (see Appendix A, above). This includes
the values displayed on graphs. Uncertainties are displayed on graphs using error bars, which show
the plus-or-minus values on either side of a data point.
For example a distance measurement x equal to 153.2 0.4 mm would be displayed with a central
data point of 153.2, an upper error bar at 153.6 and a lower error bar at 152.8:
x + x = 153.2 + 0.4 = 153.6
x = 153.2
x x = 153.2 0.4 = 152.8

} +0.4 uncertainty
} 0.4 uncertainty
By including error bars in horizontal as well as vertical directions, you can represent the uncertainties
in both dimensions simultaneously. In this way, the error bars will mark out a region of uncertainty in
which we expect the actual data point (x,y) to be.

x
yi yi
yi+ yi
yi
xi+ xi xi xi
xi
y

When graphing in Excel, error bars can be added to a graph by double-clicking the graphs data points
and then selecting the Chart Tools, layout tab, then choosing Error bars. Select more options,
both, and then used the fixed value to place your y error value. At this point Excel will also insert
some default x error bars, if you have an error for x as well, select the horizontal error bar and insert
correct value, or delete if you do not want them (sometimes they are so small you cannot see them to
select in which case do not worry about them).
We need error bars to be able to see the true relationships between data. For instance, without error
bars we might obtain a graph like this:
(0,0)
x
y

It appears as if these points could be joined together to fit a sine wave. However, this may not actually
be the case. If the uncertainties for x and y are both small (e.g. ~5%), then the error bars look
something like this:

(0,0)
x
y

As you can see, a sinusoidal curve fits within these error bars quite well, and so it is reasonable to
conclude that this relation is probably a sine wave. However, if the uncertainties are larger (e.g.
~50%), then the error bars look something like this:

(0,0)
x
y

In this case, a straight line would fit the data just as well as a curve. It may or may not actually be a
sine wave relation, but the uncertainties are too large for us to be sure.
Straight Lines
In experimental work, we often want to look for a linear relationship between two physical quantities.
If a graph of x versus y produces a straight line, then we may conclude that the relationship between x
and y is linear. This means that the quantities are related according to a linear equation (i.e. an
equation of the form y = mx + c).
Unfortunately, experimental uncertainties will usually blur a linear relationship. Data points will
rarely form a perfectly straight line on a graph. In these cases, we need to find the line of best fit.
The following graph represents a typical example:


x
y
line of
best fit
line of
maximum
slope
line of
minimum
slope

When estimating a line of best fit by eye, we expect that the line should pass inside all (or almost all)
of the error bars. You should also sketch the lines of minimum and maximum possible gradient, and
these too should pass through all (or most) of the error bars. (If you are calculating the gradient of the
line using this graphical method, then half of the difference between the minimum and maximum
gradients will be your plus-or-minus uncertainty values for the gradient.)
Examine your data carefully: there may be one or two points which are obviously very different to the
others. If you believe that these differences are anomalies, due to some experimental error, then you
may decide to ignore them when constructing your line of best fit. (If you think they are mistakes, also
be sure to investigate how and why this happened!)
Excel Trendlines
Excel can be made to construct lines of best fit for its graphs: select the data points on the graph, and
right-click to choose Add Trendline from the pop-up menu. However, be careful: Excels trendline
methods wont work for all sets of data. Be sure to double-check that its lines look reasonable and
sensible.
Least Squares Fit
This is generally not necessary at a first-year Physics level. If you are curious, however, the best way
to manually calculate the line of best fit is usually to use the least squares fit method.
This method considers the deviation (vertical distance) of each point from the proposed line of best fit.
The line of best fit is chosen to be the line for which the total (deviation)
2
of all points is least.
y
x
line
deviat ion
point

If a point falls exactly on the line, then its deviation squared is of course zero.

Reproducing this method by eye requires practice. In general, the most effective method will be for
you to use Excel.
Converting Curves to Straight Lines
A graph will often look more like a curve than a straight line. Unfortunately, it is difficult to sketch a
reliable curve from scattered data points, and it is even more difficult to extract an obvious
mathematical relation from a curve. However, if we already have a theoretical relation for our data, we
can sometimes use this to convert our curve graph into a straight-line graph. A straight-line graph can
be used to extract a linear relationship between the data (see Straight Lines, above).
Converting to a Straight Line Example
The period T of circular motion of an object of mass M depends on the centripetal force F causing the
circular motion, and the radius r of the motion, according to the following equation:
2
2
4
T
Mr
F
t
=
When F versus T is graphed, we will expect to see a curve corresponding to the above equation.
However, it will probably be difficult to show that any curve on a graph definitely matches the above
equation. Within experimental uncertainties, it is often impossible to tell the difference between one
type of curve and another type of curve (e.g. between a quadratic curve and an exponential curve).
It is much easier to look at a linear graph and decide whether or not a line is straight. We can do this
now by rewriting the above equation into a linear form.
F =
4t
2
Mr
T
2
F = 4t
2
Mr
( )
1
T
2
|
\

|
.
| + 0
y = (m)(x) + c

The equation is now in a linear form (i.e. y = mx + c). By graphing F versus (1/T
2
) instead of F versus
T, we should create a linear graph instead of a curve graph. Instead of looking for a curve to check that
the data matches the equation, we can instead look for a straight line.


F
1/T
2
rise
run
gradient = rise/run = 4 t
2
M r

F corresponds to y : both are plotted vertically

1
T
2
corresponds to x : both are plotted horizontally
4t
2
Mr corresponds to m : both are the gradients of the line
F axis intercept corresponds to c : in this case, zero
By converting to a linear graph, we make it much easier to analyse the theoretical relationship between
the data. It also makes it easier to extract the information corresponding to the gradient m and the
axis intercept c.
Linear relationships are also simpler to extrapolate beyond the measured data. It is easy to see how a
straight line will continue across the graph; extrapolating a curve is more difficult.

Appendix C
SI Units
SI stands for Le Systme International dUnits, which is the French title for the International
System of Units. SI is the modern version of the metric system, and it is the system of measurements
most widely used in science and commerce around the world today.
SI is based around seven base units: the metre m (length), the kilogram kg (mass), the second s
(time), the ampere A (electric current), the kelvin K (temperature), the candela cd (luminous
intensity), and the mole mol (amount of substance). These are the default units for all measurements
and physics equations. All other SI units of measurement (e.g., see table below) can be reduced to
some combination of these seven base units.
Except in very special circumstances, all measurements and results should be made and quoted using
SI units.

Quantity Name of SI Unit Symbol SI Base Units
frequency Hertz Hz 1 Hz = 1 / s
force Newton N 1 N = 1 kg m / s
2

energy Joule J 1 J = 1 N m
power Watt W 1 W = 1 J / s
quantity of electric charge Coulomb C 1 C = 1 A s
electrical potential /
potential difference /
electromotive force
Volt V 1 V = 1 W / A = 1 kg m
2
/ A s
3

electric capacitance Farad F 1 F = 1 A s / V = 1 A
2
s
4
/ kg m
2

electric resistance Ohm O 1 O = 1 V / A = 1 kg m
2
/ A
2
s
3

inductance Henry H 1 H = 1 V s / A = 1 kg m
2
/ A
2
s
2

Appendix D
Resistor Colour Codes
Resistors are labelled in code according to their resistance. This code is indicated on the resistor by a
set of coloured lines, as shown:
First
Digit
Second
Digit
Multiplier Tolerance

The first two colours represent the first two digits of the resistance value. The third colour represents
the multiplication factor the power of ten to multiply the digits by. The final colour represents the
manufacturers tolerance value (the level of uncertainty in the actual resistance).
Colour Number Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 1
Brown 1 10
1
1 %
Red 2 10
2
2 %
Orange 3 10
3

Yellow 4 10
4
0.50 %
Green 5 10
5
0.25 %
Blue 6 10
6
0.10 %
Violet 7 10
7
0.05 %
Grey 8 10
8

White 9 10
9

Gold 10
-1
5 %
Silver 10
-2
10 %
No colour 20 %

For example: a resistor with the colour sequence Red-Green-Orange-Silver would have a resistance of
25,000 10%.

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