Participant Observation:

Participant observation is one type of data collection method typically done in the qualitative
research paradigm. It is a widely used methodology in many disciplines, particularly cultural
anthropology, less so in sociology, communication studies, human geography and social
psychology. Its aim is to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals
(such as a religious, occupational, sub cultural group, or a particular community) and their
practices through an intensive involvement with people in their cultural environment, usually
over an extended period of time. The method originated in the field research of social
anthropologists, especially Bronisaw Malinowski in Britain, the students of Franz Boas in the
United States, and in the later urban research of the Chicago School of sociology.

In participant observation,a researcher's discipline based interests and commitments shape
which events he or she considers are important and relevant to the research inquiry. According
to Howell (1972), the four stages that most participant observation research studies are
establishing rapport or getting to know the people, immersing oneself in the field, recording data
and observations, and consolidating the information gathered.


Howell's
(1972) Participant
Observation Phases
Description
Establishing Rapport
Get to know the members, visit the scene before study. Howell states
that it is important to become friends, or at least be accepted in the
community, in order to obtain quality data.
In the Field
Do as the locals do: It is important for the researcher to connect or
show a connection with the population in order to be accepted as a
member of the community. DeWalt & DeWalt (2011)
]
call this form of
rapport establishment as talking the talk and walking the walk. Also
mentioned by Howell, DeWalt & DeWalt state that the researcher must
strive to fit in with the population of study through moderation of
language and participation. This sets the stage for how well the
researcher blends in with the field and the quality of observable events
he or she experiences.
Recording
Observations and Data
field notes
interviews
reflexivity journals: Researchers are encouraged to record their
personal thoughts and feelings about the subject of study. They
are prompted to think about how their experiences, ethnicity, race,
gender, sex, sexual orientation, and other factors might influence
their research, in this case what the researcher decides to record
and observe (Ambert et al., 1995). Researchers must be aware of
these biases and enter the study with no misconceptions about not
bringing in any subjectivities into the data collection process
(Ambert et al., 1995; DeWalt & DeWalt, 2011; Richardson, 2000).
Analyzing Data
Thematic Analysis:organizing data according to recurrent themes
found in interviews or other types of qualitative data collection
and narrative analysis:categorizing information gathered through
interviews, finding common themes, and constructing a coherent story
from data.
Types of participant observation
Participant observation is not simply showing up at a site and writing things down. On the
contrary, participant observation is a complex method that has many components. One of the
first things that a researcher or individual must do after deciding to conduct participant
observations to gather data is decide what kind of participant observer he or she will be
Spradley provides five different types of participant observations summarised below.
Participant Observation Type Chart.
Type of
Participant
Observation
Level of Involvement Limitations
Non-
Participatory
No contact with population or field
of study
unable to build rapport or ask questions as
new information comes up.
Passive
Participation
Researcher is only in the
bystander role
limits ability to establish rapport and
immersing oneself in the field.
Moderate
Participation
Researcher maintains a balance
between "insider" and "outsider"
roles
this allows a good combination of
involvement and necessary detachment to
remain objective.
Active
Participation
Researcher becomes a member of
the group by fully embracing skills
and customs for the sake of
complete comprehension
This method permits the researcher to
become more involved in the population.
There is a risk of "going native" as the
researcher strives for an in-depth
understanding of the population studied.
Complete
Participation
Researcher is completely
integrated in population of study
beforehand (i.e. he or she is
already a member of particular
There is the risk of losing all levels of
objectivity, thus risking what is analyzed
and presented to the public.
population studied).
Advantages and Disadvantages of Participant Observation:
Advantages:
Participants behave as they normally do, so evidence is valid
It takes the viewpoint of the participants rather than the researcher
It can dig deep into social interaction
The researcher is open to new insights (the questions are not fixed in advance)
Disadvantages:
It studies small groups so may not be representative
It cannot be checked or repeated for reliability
It is time-consuming in relation to the amount of data collected
The researcher's presence may change the behaviour of the grouo
The researcher may be biased
If the research is covert there are more potential disadvantages:
It can raise serious ethical issues as there is no consent
The researcher may be at risk
The researcher may not be able to ask the questions they would like to ask, as they may risk
uncovering who they actually are.


Non Participant Observation:
One of the most famous studies of non-participant observation led to what is known as the
Hawthorn effect. This was a factory where the managers were trying to increase the productivity
of their workers. They brought in experts to look at how they worked and to try different methods
to ultimately increase profits such as increasing and decreasing heat in the factory. It was found
that whatever variables were controlled that productivity increased. It was concluded that just
the fact that the workers were being observed was enough to increase the work-rate.


Advantages of Non-Participant Observations include:
It is a simple and cheap method to use.
If people are unaware they are being observed they will act as they normally do.
It can be used to analyse social interaction in a wide variety of contexts.
It can be a very valid research method given the correct circumstances.

Disadvantages of Non-Participant Observations:
It relies heavily on the researchers interpretation of what is going on.
The researcher selects the actions they deem significant.
The researcher may interpret things from their own ethnic/gender/class standpoint which can
affect the validity of the research.
If people know they are being observed they will act differently than usual.