http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9811/Huang/Huang-9811.

html

Nondestructive Evaluation: Overview

Using Acoustic Emission in Fatigue and
Fracture Materials Research
Miinshiou Huang, Liang Jiang, Peter K. Liaw, Charlie R. Brooks, Rodger Seeley,
and Dwaine L. Klarstrom
Acoustic emission is a technique to monitor
defect formation and failures in structural
materials used in services or laboratories.
Moreover, the method has been developed and
applied in numerous structural components, such
as steam pipes and pressure vessels, and in the
research areas of rocks, composite materials, and
metals. In this article, the basic concept,
terminology, theoretical modeling, and common
equipment setup associated with acoustic
emission are described. Most of the literature
available uses the traditional technique, which
only captures acoustic-emission parameters,
including acoustic-emission counts, peak levels,
and energies. These parameters can be
correlated with the defect formation and failures.
Some of the researchers analyze the waveforms
of acoustic emission as functions of sources and
wave-propagation mechanisms. Above all,
acoustic emission was found to be an effective
way of detecting fatigue and fracture behaviors
of materials.
INTRODUCTION
Acoustic emissions (AEs) are the stress waves
produced by the sudden internal stress redistribution of the materials caused by the
changes in the internal structure. Possible causes of the internal-structure changes are
crack initiation and growth, crack opening and closure, dislocation movement,
twinning, and phase transformation in monolithic materials and fiber breakage and

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
TRADITIONAL ACOUSTIC-
EMISSION TECHNIQUE
o AE Signals during
Tensile Testing
o AE Signals during
Fatigue Testing
o Corrosion
o AE in Fatigue and
Fracture of Composites
SOURCE-FUNCTION AND
WAVEFORM ANALYSIS
o AE Signals of Cracking
in 3-D Solids
o Wave Propagation in
Rods and Plates
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
References
fiber-matrix debonding in composites.
155
Most of the sources of AEs are damage-
related; thus, the detection and monitoring of these emissions are commonly used to
predict material failure.
Besides the applications of AE in research endeavors, AE has been widely used in
industries, including for the detection of faults or leakage in pressure vessels, tanks,
and piping systems. AE is also used to monitor the welding and corrosion progress.
The difference between the AE technique and other nondestructive evaluation (NDE)
methods is that AE detects the activities inside the materials, while other NDE
methods attempt to examine the internal structures of the materials. Furthermore, AE
only needs the input of one or more relatively small sensors on the surface of the
structure or specimen being examined so that the structure or specimen can be
subjected to the in-service or laboratory operation while the AE system continuously
monitors the progressive damage. Other NDE methods, such as ultrasound and x-ray,
have to access the whole structure or specimen, and therefore, the structure or
specimen often needs to be disassembled and taken to the laboratory to be examined.
The disadvantage of AE is that commercial AE systems can only estimate
qualitatively how much damage is in the material and approximately how long the
components will last. So, other NDE methods are still needed to do more thorough
examinations and provide quantitative results. Moreover, service environments are
generally very noisy, and the AE signals are usually very weak. Thus, signal
discrimination and noise reduction are very difficult, yet extremely important for
successful AE applications. The research on AE can be generally divided into two
categories
Traditional acoustic emission
Source-function and waveform analysis
TRADITIONAL ACOUSTIC-EMISSION TECHNIQUE
The traditional AE method only captures certain parameters (sometimes called AE
features), including AE counts, peak levels, and energies. Then, the AE features are
correlated with the defect formation and failures. These AE characteristics are only
related to the captured signals and do not account for the source of the signal and
wave propagation.

Figure 1. The definitions for
acoustic-emission events.
Figure 2. A typical AE system setup.

Figure 1 shows a burst AE signal and the commonly used parameters of AE
techniques. When the AE transducer senses a signal over a certain level (i.e., the
threshold), an AE event is captured. The amplitude of the event is defined at the peak
of the signal. The number of times the signal rises and crosses the threshold is the
count of the AE event. The time period between the rising edge of the first count and
the falling edge of the last count is the duration of the AE event. The time period
between the rising edge of the first count and the peak of the AE event is called the
rise time. The area under the envelope of the AE event is the energy.
Figure 2 presents a typical AE system setup. The AE transducers are generally very
sensitive piezoelectric sensors. Because the traditional AE technique only uses AE
features, the actual waveforms are not critical to this method. The AE sensors
(transducers) used are usually resonance sensors, which are only very sensitive to a
certain frequency. Since the AE signals are very weak, a preamplifier is connected
right after the AE transducer to minimize the noise interference and prevent the signal
loss. Sometimes, the transducer and the preamplifier are built as a unit. Then, the
signals pass through a filter to remove the noise. The signals are amplified by the
main amplifier before being sent to the signal conditioner. After that, the AE features
are subtracted and stored in a computer for further analysis. During investigations,
other parameters, such as load, deformation, pressure, and temperature, can also be
recorded as parametric inputs.
AE Signals during Tensile Testing

Figure 3. A tensile stress-strain curve
and AE signals.
15


Figure 4. Three-dimensional plots of AE
events, cycles, and stresses.
7,15


Figure 5. The AE count versus the
number of fatigue cycles, where R is the
load ratio that is equal to the minimum
load over the maximum load during
fatigue testing.
7,15

Acoustic-emission activities have been shown to
relate to different stages of tensile tests of
materials.
6,14,15
Figure 3 presents the cumulative AE
count, AE count rate, and stress versus strain
relationship during a tensile test.
15
The cumulative AE
count is the sum of the count of all AE events. The
AE count rate is the time derivative of the AE
cumulative count. The beginning portion of the linear
elastic region is very quiet (i.e., low count rates and
cumulative counts) or is associated with an incubation
stage. The AE activity reaches its peak in the second stage right before yielding
occurs. After the material yields, the AE activity decreases, but is still detectable until
the material fails.
AE Signals during Fatigue Testing
Fatigue tests are usually long-term experiments. A great amount of signals, including
the noises from the load-chain, are detected by the sensitive AE sensors during fatigue
testing. Therefore, signal screening methods should be used to filter out the unwanted
signals. One of the effective methods to screen out noises is to put guard sensors at
both ends of the gauge section of the specimen.
7,15
According to the time sequence for
the guard and main sensors to receive the signals, the signals originating from outside
the test section can be detected and discarded.
AE signals during fatigue tests can be caused by various mechanisms, such as
dislocation movement, cyclic softening, crack initiation, crack closure, and ultimate
failures. Berkovits and Fang
7,15
used three-dimensional (3-D) plots of AE events,
cycles, and stresses (Figure 4) to discriminate the AE signals due to plastic
deformations, crack activities, and closures in a smooth-plate sample of
INCOLOY

901 subjected to fatigue loading. For the beginning cycles of loading, the
AE signals in the high-stress region are obviously related to the plastic deformation.
Crack initiation was determined by the first appearance of the AE signal at low stress
levels. After the crack initiated, the AE signals around the zero stress were thought to
be caused by crack-face grinding when the cracks were closed. By discarding the AE
signals due to the crack opening and closure, a plot of the AE count versus the number
of fatigue cycles was made of the three damage stages (Figure 5). The first stage
corresponds to the first few cycles before the cyclic stress-strain curve stabilized. The
AE signals in the first stage result from dislocation movements and cyclic hardening
or softening. The second stage, which is the crack-incubation stage, is very quiet. This
stage has a steady-state dislocation motion that will eventually result in microvoids

Figure 6. Acoustic-emission activities of
a smooth-bar fatigue sample of an
ULTIMET

superalloy at different
fatigue cycles.
24

and initiate microcracks. The third stage is an AE-active stage. In this stage, cracks
start to grow and propagate. Many of the AE signals in the third stage can come from
the crack-tip plastic deformation, fracture of hard inclusions, microcrack coalescence,
transgranular cleavage, and fracture along grain boundaries.
15

Fatigue Crack Initiation
High-sensitivity AE sensors can pick up signals at an early stage of fatigue crack
initiation, such as dislocation movement and slip-band formation. A combination of
AE and electron microscopy during fatigue testing of carefully polished smooth
samples can be a very powerful tool in the study of fatigue crack-initiation behavior.
We investigated the surface of polished smooth-bar samples under a scanning electron
microscope (SEM) at different stages of fatigue tests when heavy AE activities were
observed. Figure 6 shows several jumps on the curve of the cumulative AE count
versus cycles.
24
The test was conducted on a cobalt-based superalloy,
ULTIMET

alloy, from Haynes International. The maximum stress was 644.8 MPa
with a ratio of 0.05, where
R =
min
/
max

min
and
max
are the applied minimum and maximum stresses, respectively. The
frequency was 5 Hz initially to study crack-initiation behavior. After 2,000 cycles, the
frequency was increased to 25 Hz to shorten the test time.
The sample was electropolished before the test started and examined under an SEM.
The surface was nearly perfect except for some defects, as shown in Figure 7a. After
approximately 600 cycles (Figure 7b), heavy AE activities were observed, the test was
stopped, and the specimen was examined. The same procedure was repeated for 2,000
and 16,000 cycles, during which time the specimen was examined following heavy
AE activities (Figures 7c and 7d). It was clear that the slip bands grew denser and
deeper after each jump of cumulative AE counts. However, how the slip bands
evolved between jumps is still not clear. Further investigation is needed to determine
whether slip bands suddenly grew when jumps of acoustic activities occurred or grew
steadily throughout the fatigue test. The areas near the surface defects were examined
carefully, but intensive slip bands around the defects were not found.


a b

c d
Figure 7. Micrographs of the surface of a smooth-bar fatigue sample of
an ULTIMET

superalloy (a) prior to testing and at (b) 600

cycles, (c)2,000 cycles, and (d) 16,000 cycles.
24


Fatigue Crack Growth
Acoustic emissions also have been used during fatigue crack-propagation tests. All the
results from the previous research agree that as the AE count rate increases, the crack-
growth rate increases. Nevertheless, how the increase of the AE count rate is related to
that of the crack-growth rate varies with different materials.
15,26,2931,38,51
The
investigations on INCOLOY

901,
15
aluminum alloys,
29,30
and some
steels
26,51
indicated that a log-log plot of the AE cumulative counts and crack-growth
rate versus stress-intensity-factor range was linear. The same linear log-log
relationship was also found between the AE count rate and the J-integral range of JIS
SS41 steel.
31

On the other hand, the log-log plot of the AE cumulative count versus crack-growth
rate and stress-intensity-factor range in the AISI 316 stainless steel
38
was bilinear
within the linear Paris regime (Figure 8). The explanation is that for many steels and
aluminum alloys, the linear Paris regime actually can be divided into two sub-regimes
in which the fatigue crack-growth mechanisms are different. At lower growth rates,
the crack may not grow in each cycle, so the AE count drops very fast in this
region.
38
In Figure 8, the heat treatments, including aging time, had significant effects
on the AE counts, even though the rates of fatigue crack propagation are insensitive to
heat treatments. Thus, AE could be used to monitor aging conditions of in-service
structural components.
Note that the relation between the
AE count rate versus stress-
intensity-factor range is dependent
on the R ratio. Harris and
Dunegan
21
found a way to
collapse all the relations at
different R ratios into one by
plotting the AE count rate versus
the function (Ba'/E)
1/2
K/(1 R),
where B is the thickness of the
specimen, E is the Youngs
modulus, a' is the crack-growth
rate (a' = da/dN), and K is the
stress-intensity-factor range. The
results for both steel and
aluminum alloys are shown in
Figure 9. The importance of the
parameter, (Ba'/E)
1/2
K/(1 R), lies in the fact that this parameter equals the square
root of the energy released per cycle, which ideally should be directly related to the
AE energy, as demonstrated.
Corrosion
Oftentimes, structural materials experience fatigue loading during and after exposure
to air, water, or other corrosive environments. Therefore, corrosion failures usually
need to be included when investigating fatigue problems. Moreover, corrosion failures
also occur under static loading, which must be considered in structural-integrity
analyses.
Yuyama
55
reviewed the fundamental aspects of AE in corrosion. His article reviews
the applications of the AE technique to detecting and monitoring active corrosion,
stress corrosion cracking, hydrogen embrittlement, corrosion fatigue, and
intergranular stress corrosion cracking in aluminum, aluminum alloys, magnesium
alloys, steels, stainless steels, and others (e.g., copper and its alloys, uranium alloys,
titanium, and zirconium alloys). Possible sources of AE signals are crack initiation
and growth induced by stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement;
dissolution of metal; hydrogen gas evolution; the breakdown of thick surface-oxide
films; the fracture or decohesion of phases, such as precipitates, second-phase

Figure 8. The AE cumulative count
versus crack-growth rate and stress-
intensity-factor range in the log-log plot
for AISI 316 stainless steel.
38
(Note that
duplicate samples, T6 and F6, are
solution-annealed; T3 and F3 are aged
at 1,023 K for 2 h; 4 and 5 are aged at
the same temperature for 8 h.)
Figure 9. The AE count
rate versus (Ba'/E)
1/2
K/
(1 R) in the log-log
plot for steel and
aluminum alloys.
21

particles, and nonmetallic inclusions; twinning deformation in the plastic zone of a
crack; slip deformation; and phase transformation. The mechanisms of possible AE
sources are illustrated in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Schematic AE sources during corrosion, stress-corrosion
cracking (SCC), and corrosion-fatigue processes.
55



AE in Fatigue and Fracture of Composites
Because of more complex damage mechanisms, such as reinforcement (fibers or
particulates) failures, delamination, matrix cracking, and debonding of the fiber and
matrix, composite materials provide a greater variety of AE sources in fatigue and
fracture experiments. AE signals resulting from different damage mechanisms often
vary significantly. Furthermore, most of the composites consist of at least one hard or
brittle phase, which causes stronger AE signals. Because of the great interest in
composite materials from industries and academic institutions, there are more
publications on AE in composites than other materials.
Hamstad
19
reviewed the areas in which AE has been used for composite studies.
Pertinent investigations included time-dependent composite properties, correlations of
AE with stress levels, applications to matrix-cure studies, relationships of AE-detected
damage to other measures of damage, the effects of matrix material, interface studies,
AE and dimensional stability, AE applied to orientation studies, and environmental
effects.
SOURCE-FUNCTION AND WAVEFORM ANALYSIS
The reason that traditional AE only uses some of the features of AE signals is because
of the limitations of sensors as well as data-capturing and analysis capabilities. In
recent years, due to the improvement of transducer technology, wide-band, high-
sensitivity sensors have been developed to capture the whole waveform. The rapid
advancement of computer technology has made quick data acquisition and analysis of
AE waveforms feasible. It is now possible to characterize the nature of AE sources
from the waveform captured by the new AE systems.
Research has been conducted on the techniques used
to characterize the source of AE by examining the AE
signals and using wave propagation for source-
function and waveform analyses. The location-
filtering technique discriminates the AE from noise
signals by using the speed of wave propagation.
Figure 11 shows an example of a location-filtering
method that employs four AE sensors to identify the
sources of the signals in a smooth cylindrical-bar
fatigue sample of a nickel-based superalloy,
Haynes

HR-120
TM
.
24
The source of the AE signal is
located in the gauge-length section only when the two
inner sensors pick up the signal earlier than the two outer sensors, as exhibited in
Figure 11. If one of the outer sensors picks up a signal first, the signal has likely
originated from the hydraulic system, load train, or other noise sources.
Ideally, it is possible to solve inverse wave-propagation problems to identify the
source of the AE signals detected using one or more sensors by analyzing the whole
waveforms. But it is extremely complex and difficult to solve the inverse problem
without any information of the source. Alternately, many researchers have been
analytically studying the responses of some known AE sources, such as the elastic
wave emitted from a finite mode I through-crack,
33
from which the characteristics of
AE sources can be identified.
AE Signals of Cracking in 3-D Solids
To conduct the source-function and waveform analyses, a fundamental knowledge of
wave propagation is essential. The wave propagation in a 3-D elastic body is actually
a dynamic problem of elasticity. Without the body force, the governing equation of
elasticity can be expressed in terms of the displacement vector field, u, as
(1)
where
2
=
2
/ x
2
+
2
/ y
2
+
2
/ z
2
, (x, y, z) is the coordinate system, is the density of the
material, and and are Lame's constants. According to Helmholtz's theorem,
18,40
the

Figure 11. Investigation of the source
location of AE signals by the arrival
times of several AE sensors in a
cylindrical bar of Haynes

HR-120
TM
.
24

vector field, u, can be written as the summation of a gradient of a scalar field, , and a
curl of a zero-divergence vector field, H
(2)
Substituting Equation 2 into Equation 1, the wave equations can be obtained as

(3)
where c
1
and c
2
are the velocities of the primary and secondary waves, respectively.
With proper formulation of initial and boundary conditions, the AE response of a bulk
material can be solved with the above equations. The problem regarding the initiation
of mode I, II, or III through-cracks has been formulated.
33
For example, the boundary
and initiation conditions of a mode I through-crack are

(4)
where H(t) is the Heaviside step function, t is the time, l is the half length of a finite
through-crack,
0
is the material-breaking strength, and
ij
are the stress components.
The waveforms of a finite through-crack in two directions calculated using Equations
24 are exhibited in Figure 12. The directional dependence of the AE amplitude for
mode I, II, or III is presented in Figure 13.

Figure 12. Waveforms for finite
cracks of normal tear (1) in =
15 and (2) = 60, where U and
T are the nondimensional
amplitude and time, respectively,
and is the angle from the
cracking surface.
33

Wave Propagation in Rods and Plates
Wave propagation in structural components, such as rods and plates, is more complex
than in large bulk materials. Because of the additional boundary conditions, the AE
signals detected by the sensors are actually superimposed by multiple reflections of
original signals. So far, only simple modes can be roughly distinguished and discussed
in the AE research. Figure 14 shows an example of an AE signal of a plate. The signal
is actually a combination of the extensional and flexural modes and their reflections.
DISCUSSION
The most important contribution of AE to industry is that AE can provide early
warnings of severe, sudden failures. One mode of such failures can involve fatigue
damage. The most dangerous characteristic of fatigue failures is that they usually
happen without warning or with very insignificant warnings. AE can detect the
accumulation of microdamage inside components, especially under service conditions.

a b c
Figure 13. The relative amplitudes of primary (P) and secondary (S) waves
at different directions/angles with respect to a finite crack of (a) normal tear
(Mode I), (b) transverse shear (Mode II), and (c) longitudinal shear (Mode
III).
33


Although AE has been used in materials-related studies for about four decades, there
are still many problems. The most important difficulty is associated with the
reliability of AE results. Many researchers simply use AE equipment to collect a large
amount of data and use the results to explain the material failures qualitatively,
without paying too much attention to the sensor calibration and attachment.
Sometimes, no distinctions are made between noises and real AE signals. Therefore, it
is very difficult to compare results from different papers. This also causes confusion
in investigating the reliability of various AE systems.
Applying AE in various environments, especially
high-temperature conditions, is also a challenge.
The operational temperature ranges of sensors,
couplants, wave guides, and other connections
need to be considered. Most couplants, such as
resin, petroleum grease, and water, can be used
only between room temperature and 100C. High
vacuum stop-cock grease and Dow Corning 200
fluid can be employed up to 200C. A 50%
indium-50% gallium mixture can be used up to
700C. For higher temperature usage, new wave
coupling techniques need to be designed.
When comparing AE results in various materials, one finds that there are more
publications regarding composites, rocks, and ceramics than metals. The reason for
this trend is that the AE signals are stronger and vary more significantly in
composites, rocks, and ceramics than in metals. On the other hand, because of the
homogeneity and simplicity of metals, the wave propagation in metals should not be
as complex as in composites and rocks, since there are less reflections, diffractions,
and scattering in metals. Therefore, metals represent a good subject for studying
source-function and waveform analyses.
For future developments of source-function and waveform analyses, analytical
formulations and closed-form solutions are not possible for complex AE sources and
boundary conditions. Numerical techniques, such as finite-element and finite-
difference methods, and large-scale computational facilities will be very helpful for
forward analyses when the sources of AEs are known by observations and proper
assumptions. However, for reverse analyses to identify unknown sources, suitable
theories and techniques still need to be developed.
CONCLUSIONS
The use of AE will become more prevalent because it can provide unique insights into
damage processes. The problems of AEincluding noise reduction, reliability, and
difficulty in solving the inverse problems of wave propagation in source-function and
waveform analysesrepresent areas of future endeavor in AE science and
technology. There is also a great need for work to develop AE theories for new
applications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Figure 14. An AE signal of a plate, which is
actually a combination of extensional and
flexural modes and their reflections.
39

This work is supported by the National Science Foundation Division of Design,
Manufacture, and Industrial Innovation, under Grant No. DMI-9724476, and the
Combined Research-Curriculum Development Program under EEC-9527527 to
the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, with Ms. Delcie R. Durham and Ms. Mary
Poats as program managers, respectively. We would like to acknowledge the financial
support of Haynes International, Inc., and the Center of Materials
Processing at University of Tennessee, Knoxville. We are grateful to Mr. Doug
Fielden, Mr. Greg Jones, Mr. Ted Long, and Mr. Mark Potter for their great help in
setting up the electrohydraulic machines.
References
1. A. Almeida and E.v.K. Hill, "Neural Network Detection of Fatigue Crack Growth
in Reveted Joints Using Acoustic Emission," Mat. Eval., 53 (1) (1995), pp. 7682.
2. J. Baram, "Fatigue-Life Prediction by an Order Statistics Treatment of Acoustic-
Emission Signals," Exper. Mech., 33 (1993), pp. 189194.
3. B.A. Barna, J.A. Johnson, and R.T. Allemeier, "Determination of Acoustic-
Emission Sites Using a Digital Nondestructive-Evaluation Workstation," Exper.
Mech., 28 (1988), pp. 210213.
4. S. Barre and M.L. Benzeggagh, "On the Use of Acoustic Emission to Investigate
Damage Mechanisms in Glass-Fibre-Reinforced Polypropylene," Comp. Sci. and
Tech., 52 (1994), pp. 369376.
5. M.N. Bassim, S.S. Lawrence, and C.D. Liu, "Detection of the Onset of Fatigue
Crack Growth in Rail Steels Using Acoustic Emission," Eng. Fracture Mech., 47 (2)
(1994), pp. 207214.
6. C. Bathias, "The Use of Experimental Techniques for Description of Fatigue
Damage, Subcritical Crack Growth Due to Fatigue, Stress Corrosion and Creep,"
Lectures from a course held at the Joint Research Center, Ispra, Italy (1984), pp. 85
107.
7. A. Berkovits and D. Fang, "Study of Fatigue Crack Characteristics by Acoustic
Emission," Eng. Fracture Mech., 51 (3) (1995), pp. 401416.
8. J.F. Boudet, S. Ciliberto, and V. Steinberg, "Dynamics of Crack Propagation in
Brittle Materials," J. de Physique II, 6 (1996), pp. 14931516.
9. G. Caprino and R. Teti, "Quantitative Acoustic Emission for Fracture Behavior of
Center-Hole GFRP Laminates," J. Comp. Mat., 28 (13) (1994), pp. 12371249.
10. H.L. Chen, C.T. Cheng, and S.E. Chen, "Determination of Fracture Parameters of
Mortar and Concrete Beams by Using Acoustic Emission," Mat. Eval., 50 (7) (1992),
pp. 888894.
11. R.B. Clough, J.C. Chang, and J.P. Travis, "Acoustic Emission Signatures and
Source Microstructure Using Indentation Fatigue and Stress Corrosion Cracking in
Aluminum Alloys," Scripta Met., 15 (1981), pp. 417422.
12. J.E. Coulter et al., "Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Fossil-Fuel Power
Plants," Mat. Eval., 46 (2) (1988), pp. 230237.
13. P.J. de Groot, P.M. Wijnen, and R.B.F. Janssen, "Real-Time Frequency
Determination of Acoustic Emission for Different Fracture Mechanics Carbon/Epoxy
Composites," Comp. Sci. and Tech., 55 (1995), pp. 405412.
14. M. Drissi-Habti and M. Gomina, "Crack Growth Resistance from Natural Crack
Lengths in Polycrystalline Alumina," J. Alloys and Compounds, 188 (1992), pp. 259
263.
15. D. Fang and A. Berkovits, "Fatigue Design Model Based on Damage Mechanisms
Revealed by Acoustic Emission Measurements," Trans. of ASME, 117 (1995), pp.
200208.
16. S.D. Glaser, "High-Fidelity Waveform Detection of Acoustic Emissions from
Rock Fracture," Mat. Eval., 50 (3) (1992), pp. 354359.
17. M.R. Gorman and S.M. Ziola, "Plate Waves Produced by Transverse Matrix
Cracking," Ultrasonics, 29 (1991), pp. 245251.
18. K.F. Graff, Wave Motion in Elastic Solids (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University
Press, 1975).
19. M.A. Hamstad, "A Review: Acoustic Emission, A Tool for Composite-Materials
Studies," Exper. Mech., 26 (1986), pp. 713.
20. D.O. Harris and H.L. Dunegan, "Verification of Structural Integrity of Pressure
Vessels by Acoustic Emission and Periodic Proof Testing," Testing for Prediction of
Material Performance in Structures and Components, ASTM STP 515 (Philadelphia,
PA: ASTM, 1972), pp. 158170.
21. D.O. Harris and H.L. Dunegan, "Continuous Monitoring of Fatigue-Crack Growth
by Acoustic-Emission Techniques," Exper. Mech., 14 (February 1974), pp. 7180.
22. T. Hashida and H. Takahashi, "Significance of AE Crack Monitoring in Fracture
Toughness Evaluation and Non-Linear Rock Fracture Mechanics," Int. J. Rock Mech.
Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 30 (1) (1993), pp. 4760.
23. C.R. Horak and A.F. Weyhreter, "Acoustic Emission System for Monitoring
Components and Structures in a Severe Fatigue Noise Environment," Mat. Eval., 35
(1977), pp. 5968.
24. M. Huang et al., "Study on Acoustic Emission in Fatigue Testing of Haynes Alloy
HR-120" (unpublished results).
25. J.G. Bakuckas Jr., W.H. Prosser, and W.S. Johnson, "Monitoring Damage Growth
in Titanium Matrix Composites Using Acoustic Emission," J. Comp. Mat., 28 (4)
(1994), pp. 3053281.
26. J.H. Williams Jr., D.M. DeLonga, and S.S. Lee, "Correlations of Acoustic
Emission with Fracture Mechanics Parameters in Structural Bridge Steels During
Fatigue," Mat. Eval., 40 (10) (1982), pp. 11841189.
27. C.J. Kim, G.Z. Lu, and J. Weertman, "Fatigue Crack Advance Presumably
Detected by Acoustic Emission Signals," Scripta Met., 17 (1983), pp. 359364.
28. D.H. Kohn et al., "Methods of Detecting and Predicting Microfracture in
Titanium," Medical Applications of Titanium and Its Alloys: The Material and
Biological Issues, ASTM STP 1272, eds. S.A. Brown and J.E. Lemons (Philadelphia,
PA: ASTM, 1996), pp. 117135.
29. C.S. Lee, C.G. Park, and Y.W. Chang, "Precise Determination of Fatigue Crack
Closure in Al Alloys," Mat. Sci. and Eng., A216 (1996), pp. 131138.
30. C.S. Lee et al., "Acoustic Emission Measurement of Fatigue Crack
Closure," Scripta Metall. Mater., 32 (5) (1995), pp. 701706.
31. K.Y. Lee, "Cyclic AE Count Rate and Crack Growth Rate under Low Cycle
Fatigue Fracture Loading," Eng. Fracture Mech., 34 (5/6) (1989), pp. 10691073.
32. M.V. Lysak, "Acoustic Emission during Jumps in Subcritical Growth of Cracks in
Three-Dimensional Bodies," Eng. Fracture Mech., 47 (6) (1994), pp. 873879.
33. M.V. Lysak, "Development of the Theory of Acoustic Emission by Propagating
Cracks in Terms of Fracture Mechanics," Eng. Fracture Mech., 55 (3) (1996), pp.
443452.
34. S. Mashino et al., "Analysis of Microfracture Mechanism of Titanium Alloy by
Acoustic Emission Technique," Mat. Sci. and Eng., A213 (1996), pp. 6670.
35. W.P. Mason, "Internal Friction, Acoustic Emission and Fatigue in Metals for High
Amplitude Ultrasonic Frequencies," Eng. Fracture Mech., 8 (1976), pp. 89101.
36. I.L. Meglis, T.M. Chow, and R.P. Young, "Progressive Microcrack Development
in Tests on Lac du Bonnet GraniteI. Acoustic Emission Source Location and
Velocity Measurements," Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 32 (8)
(1995), pp. 741750.
37. J.F. Moore and S. Tsang, "The Early Detection of Fatigue Damage by Exoelectron
Emission and Acoustic Emission," Testing for Prediction of Material Performance in
Structures and Components, ASTM STP 515 (Philadelphia, PA: ASTM, 1972), pp.
143157.
38. V. Moorthy, T. Jayakumar, and B. Raj, "Influence of Microstructure on Acoustic
Emission Behavior during Stage 2 Fatigue Crack Growth in Solution Annealed,
Thermally Aged and Weld Specimens of AISI Type 316 Stainless Steel," Mat. Sci.
and Eng., A212 (1996), pp. 273280.
39. G.N. Morscher, "Modal Acoustic Emission of Damage Accumulation in a Woven
SiC/SiC Composite" (to be published).
40. P. Morse and H. Feshbash, Methods of Theoretical Physics, vols. I and II (New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1953).
41. A. Niklas et al., "Acoustic Emission during Fatigue Crack Propagation in SiC
Particle Reinforced Al Matrix Composites," Met. and Mat. Trans. A, 26A (1995), pp.
31833189.
42. M. Ohtsu, "Determination of Crack Orientation by Acoustic Emission," Mat.
Eval., 45 (1987), pp. 10701075.
43. W.H. Prosser et al., "Advanced Waveform-Based Acoustic Emission Detection of
Matrix Cracking in Composites," Mat. Eval., 53 (9) (1995), pp. 10521058.
44. N. Sato, T. Kurauchi, and O. Kamigaito, "Material Improvement and Quality
Assurance for Composite Leaf Springs Based on Microfracture Mechanism," J.
Comp. Mat., 26 (9) (1992), pp. 12401253.
45. M. Scala and S. Mck. Cousland, "Acoustic Emission During Fatigue Crack
Propagation in the Aluminium Alloys 2024 and 2124," Mat. Sci. and Eng., 61 (1983),
pp. 211218.
46. M. Scala and S.M. Cousland, "Acoustic Emission during Fatigue of Aluminium
Alloy 2024: The Effect of and Overload," Mat. Sci. and Eng., 76 (1985), pp. 8388.
47. C.B. Scruby, G.R. Baldwin, and K.A. Stacey, "Characterisation of Fatigue Crack
Extension by Quantitative Acoustic Emission," Int. J. Fracture, 28 (1985), pp. 201
222.
48. M. Shiwa, S. Carpenter, and T. Kishi, "Analysis of Acoustic Emission Signals
Generated During the Fatigue Testing of GFRP," J. Comp. Mat., 30 (18) (1996), pp.
20192041.
49. J. Sieniawski, M. Gieron, and W. Ziaja, "Application of Resistance and Acoustic
Emission Measurements in Fatigue Tests of Two Phase + Titanium Alloys," J.
Mat. Proc. Tech., 53 (1995), pp. 363372.
50. H.W. Viehrig, K. Popp, and R. Rintamaa, "Measurement of Dynamic Elastic-
Plastic Fracture Toughness Parameters Using Various Methods," Int. J. Pres. Ves. &
Piping, 55 (1993), pp. 233241.
51. Z.F. Wang, J. Li, and W. Ke, "Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Fatigue Crack
Closure," Scripta Met. Mat., 27 (1992), pp. 16911694.
52. Z.F. Wang et al., "Characteristics of Acoustic Emission for A537 Structural Steel
during Fatigue Crack Propagation," Scripta Met. Mat., 27 (1992), pp. 641646.
53. Z.F. Wang, Z. Zhu, and W. Ke, "Behavior of Acoustic Emission for Low-Strength
Structural Steel during Fatigue and Corrosion Fatigue," Met. and Mat. Trans. A, 22A
(1991), pp. 26772680.
54. G.C. Weatherly, J.M. Titchmarsh, and C.B. Scruby, "The Effects of Oil on
Acoustic Emission Testing of a 7010 Aluminum Alloy during Fatigue
Cracking," Advances in Fracture Research (1984), pp. 34253431.
55. S. Yuyama, "Fundamental Aspects of Acoustic Emission Applications to the
Problems Caused by Corrosion," Corrosion Monitoring in Industrial Plants Using
Nondestructive Testing and Electrochemical Methods, ASTM STP 908, ASTM STP
908, eds. G.C. Moran and P. Labine (Philadelphia, PA: ASTM, 1986), pp. 4374.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Miinshiou Huang earned his Ph.D. in mechanical engineering at Northwestern
University in 1997. He is currently a research associate at the University of
Tennessee. Dr. Huang is a member of TMS.
Liang Jiang earned his M.S. in metallurgical engineering at the University of Science
and Technology, Beijing, in 1995. He is currently a graduate research assistant at
the University of Tennessee. Mr. Liang is also a member of TMS.
Peter K. Liaw earned his Ph.D. in materials science and engineering at Northwestern
University in 1980. He is currently a professor and Ivan Racheff Chair of Excellence
in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at the University of
Tennessee. Dr. Liaw is also a member of TMS.
Charlie R. Brooks earned his Ph.D. in metallurgical engineering at the University of
Tennessee in 1962. He is currently a professor at the University of Tennessee.
Rodger Seeley earned his M.S. in materials engineering at Youngstown State
University in 1974. He is currently manager of technical services for Haynes
International.
Dwaine L. Klarstrom earned his Ph.D. in metallurgical engineering at the University
of WisconsinMadison in 1970. He is currently director of research and product
development at Haynes International. Dr. Klarstrom is also a member of TMS.
For more information, contact M. Huang, University of Tennessee, Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, 323 Dougherty Engineering Building,
Knoxville, Tennessee 37996-2200; (423) 974-0645; fax (423) 974-4115; e-mail
mhuang@utk.edu.