Revision Notes Chemistry XII

1
The Solid State

1. Existance of matter as solid, liquid or gas depends
upon the net effect of intermolecular forces and
thermal energy.
2. Solids can be classified into two categories viz,
crystalline and amorphous depending upon the
arrangement of constituent particles.
3. Crystalline solids (or true solids) have long range
order of arrangement of constituent particles and are
anisotropic in nature.
4. Amorphous solids or pseudo solids (also called
supercooled liquids) have short range order of
arrangement of constituent particles and are isotropic
in nature. e.g., glass, rubber, plastic.
5. Glass panes fixed to windows or doors of buildings
are found to become thicker at the bottom because
the glass flows down slowly and makes the bottom
portion thicker.
6. Crystal lattice is the three dimensional arrangement
of identical points in the space which represent how
the constituent particles (atoms, ions or molecules)
are arranged in a crystal.
7. Unit cell is the smallest portion of a crystal lattice
which, when repeated in different directions,
generates the entire lattice.
8. Types of unit cells and number of atoms per unit cell
are tabulated below
Type of Cell
Number of
Atoms at
Corners
Number
of Atoms
on Faces
Number of
Atoms in
the Body
of Cube
Total Number
of Atoms
Present in the
Unit Cell
Simple or
Primitive cubic
1
8
8 1 =
0 0 1
Body centred
cubic
1
8
8 1 =
0 1 1 1 = 2
Face centred
cubic
1
8
8 1 =
1
2
6 3 =
0 4
9. The number of nearest neighbours of any
constituent particle in a crystal is called the
coordination number.
10. Number of voids if there are n atoms per unit cell.
In case of octahedral void = x
in case of tetrahedral void = 2x.
11. Packing efficiency is the percentage of total space
filled by the particles, i.e.,
Packing efficiency
=
Volume occupied by spheres in the unit cell
Total volume of unit cell
100
Type of Unit
Cell
Number of
Atoms per
Unit Cell
Radius
( ) r
Coordination
Number
Packing
Efficiency
Simple cubic 1
1
2
a
6 52.4%
Body centred
cubic
2 3
4
a
8 68%
Face centred
cubic
4
1
2 2
a
12 74%
12. Density (d ) of the unit cell is calculated by the
expression,
d
ZM
a N
A
=
3
where, Z = Number of atoms per unit cell
M = Molar mass or atomic mass
a = Edge length and
a
3
= Volume of the unit cell
N
A
= Avogadros constant
13. Point defects or imperfections are the
irregularities or deviation from ideal arrangement
around a point or an atom in a crystalline solid.
These are further classified as stoichiometric
defects, impurity defects and non-stoichiometric
defects.
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14. Schottky defect, a stoichiometric or
vacancy defect, arises due to missing of
equal number of cations and anions from the
lattice and is shown by crystals having
cation and anion of comparable size.
e.g., CsCl, NaCl, AgBr etc. It results in
decrease in density.
15. Frenkel defect, a stoichiometric or
interstitial defect, arises when the smaller ion
(usually cation) is dislocated from its normal
site to an interstitial site. It results in
increased conductivity but density of the
crystal remains the same.
16. Impurity defects arise when foreign atoms
are present in the lattice site or in the
interstitial site.
e.g., solid solution of CdCl
2
-AgCl.
17. In metal excess defect, the anionic sites occupied by unpaired
electrons are called F-centres, which impart colour to the
crystals. It is a non-stoichiometric defect.
18. Doping is the process of introduction of impurity in the
semiconductors to enhance their conductivity. Doping of
elements of group 14 (like silicon, germanium) with electron
deficient elements (i.e., elements of group 13) and electron
rich elements (i.e., elements of group15) result in p-type and
n-type semiconductors respectively.
19. Ferromagnetic substances are strongly attracted by the
external magnetic field because all the domains get oriented
in the direction of magnetic field. These substances behave
as permanent magnets.
20. In ferrimagnetic substances, the magnetic moments of the
domains are aligned in parallel and antiparallel directions in
unequal numbers, so net magnetic moment is small.
Solutions
1. A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two
or more substances whose composition can
be varied within certain limits.
2. Mole fraction is the number of moles of one
component to the total number of moles of
all the components present in the solution.
The mole fraction of solute,
x
n
n n
(solute)
(solute)
(solute) (solvent)
=
+
It is independent of temperature.
It can be shown, for a given solution, sum of
mole fractions of all the components of a
solution is unity, i.e.,
x x x
i 1 2
... 1 + + + =
3. Molarity is defined as the number of moles
of solute dissolved in one litre or one cubic
decimetre of the solution.
Molarity =
Moles of solute
Volume of solution (L)
4. Molality (m) is defined as the number of
moles of the solute per kilogram of the
solvent.
Molality =
Moles of solute
Mass of solvent in kg
5. Henrys law states that the partial pressure
of the gas in vapour phase (p) is
proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (
x) in the solution.
Mathematically, it is expressed as
p x or p K x
H
=
where, K
H
is called Henrys law constant.
Higher the value of K
H
at a particular
temperature, the lower is the solubility of the
gas in the liquid.
6. Solubility of gases decreases with increase of temperature.
This is the reason that aquatic species are more comfortable
in cold water rather than in warm water.
7. To avoid bends, as well as, the toxic effects of high
concentrations of nitrogen in the blood, the tanks used by
scuba divers are filled with air diluted with helium
(11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1% oxygen).
8. The pressure exerted by the vapours above the liquid surface
in equilibrium with the liquid at a given temperature is called
vapour pressure.
9. Raoults law states that at a given temperature, for a solution
of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each
component of the solution is directly proportional to its mole
fraction present in solution i.e., p x
1 1
and p p x
1 1 1
= .
For a solution of two components 1 and 2, p p p
total
= +
1 2
So, p p x p x
total
= +
1 1 2 2
As we know, x x
1 2
1 + = or x x
1 2
1 = ,
p p p p x = +
1 2 1 2
( )
10. Solutions obeying Raoults law over a wide range of
concentration are called ideal solutions but that do not are
called non-ideal solutions.
For positive deviation,
A B interaction < A A or B B interactions
e.g., CS
2
+ acetone, acetone +benzene.
For negative deviation,
A B interaction > A A or B B interactions
e.g., chloroform + acetone, chloroform + benzene.
11. The properties of solutions which depend only on the
number of solute particles, not on the nature of the solute
particles are known as colligative properties.
12. Relative lowering in vapour pressure of an ideal solution
containing the non-volatile solute is equal to the mole fraction
of the solute at a given temperature.
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3
x
p
p
p p
p
2
1
1
1 1
1
=
p p
p
W M
WM
1 1
1
2 1
1 2

=
13. The difference in the boiling points of the
solution(T
b
) and pure solvent (T
b
) is called the
elevation of boiling point (T
b
). It depends on
the number of solute particles rather than their
nature.
T T T
b b b
=
Experimentally, T m T k m
b b b
= or
where m = molality =
Moles of solute ( ) 1000
Weight of solvent ( )
n
W
and moles of solute =
w
m
k
b
= molal boiling point elevation constant
or ebullioscopic constant (unit K kg mol
1
).
T k
b b
=

w
m
1000
W
14. Addition of a non-volatile solute results in
depression of freezing point ( T
f
).
Thus, T
f
= T T
f f
or T m
f
= =

k k
w
m
f f
1000
W
Where, m = molality and k
f
= freezing point
depression constant or cryoscopic constant.
15. The excess pressure which must be applied to a
solution to prevent the passage of solvent into it
through a semipermeable membrane is called
osmotic pressure.
= CRT
=
W RT
VM
2
2
16. Isotonic solutions are the solutions having same
osmotic pressure.
17. In case of two solutions of different osmotic pressures
the solution with higher osmotic pressure is called
hypertonic solution and that with lower osmotic
pressure is called hypotonic solution.
18. People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water
retention in tissue cells and intercellular spaces because
of osmosis. This resulting puffiness or swelling is called
edema.
19. In reverse osmosis, the solvent flows from solution to
pure solvent, if pressure higher than osmotic pressure is
applied on solution side. It is used for desalination of sea
water.
20. Molar masses that are either lower or higher than the
expected or normal values are called abnormal molar
masses.
21. vant Hoff factor ( ) i is defined as the ratio of the
experimental value of the colligative property to the
calculated value of the colligative property.
i =
Normal (calculated) molar mass
Observed (abnormal) molar mass
or i =
Observed colligative property
Calculated colligative property
For electrolytes, i is also introduced in the formula of
relative lowering of vapour pressure, T T
b, f,
and . i.e.,
T ik m T ik m
b b f, f
= =
= iCRT and
p p
p
i
=
1
X
solute
Electrochemistry
1. An electrochemical cell is a device in which
chemical energy of the redox reaction is
converted into electrical energy.
e.g., galvanic cell like Daniell cell, reaction
occurring in which is
Zn Cu Zn Cu
2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) s aq aq s + +
+ +
2. While writing a cell, the anode is written on the
left and the cathode on the right. A vertical line
separates the metal from the metal ion
(electrolyte solution) and a double vertical line
indicates a salt bridge which is written between
the two half-cells (two electrolytes).
The Daniell cell is represented as
Zn ( ) | Zn ( ) || Cu ( ) | Cu ( )
2 + 2 +
s aq aq s
3. The electrode potential under the conditions of
unit concentration of all the species in the
half-cell is called the standard electrode
potential and the electrodes of known potential
is known as reference electrode. e.g., standard
hydrogen electrode (potential of which is taken
as zero) and calomel electrode.
4. The potential difference between the two half-cells is
called the cell potential.
E E E
cell cathode anode

=
5. The arrangement of various standard half-cells in order of
their decreasing values of standard reduction potentials
is called electrochemical series. If the standard
electrode potential of an electrode is greater than zero,
then its reduced form is more stable as compared to
hydrogen gas.
Similarly, in case of standard electrode potential being
less than zero (negative value), hydrogen gas is more
stable than the reduced form of the species.
6. Nernst equation is that equation which gives the relation
between electrode potential and concentration of metal
ions.
E E
RT
nF
M
M
M M M M n
n n
( (
ln
[
]
+ +
=
+ / ) / )
]
[
s
For a general electrochemical reaction of the type
aA bB cC dD
ne
+ +

4
The Nernst equation can be written as
E E
RT
nF
Q
(cell) (cell)
=
s
ln
= E
RT
nF
C D
A B
c d
a b
(cell)
s
ln
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
In general, at equilibrium
E
RT
nF
K
c (cell)
2.303
s
= log
7. Under standard conditions, the emf of a cell is
related to the Gibbs free energy
r
G as
r
G nFE
s s
=
( ) cell
8. The inverse of resistivity is called the conductivity or
specific conductance, . Its units are
or
Sm
.
k
Cell constant
=
G
R
where, G
l
a
=
9. Molar conductivity (
m
) of a solution is the
conductance of that volume of solution containing
one mole of electrolyte, kept between two electrodes
having unit length between them and large cross
sectional area so as to contain the electrolyte.
The unit of
m
will be W m mol
1 2 1
or Sm mol
2 1
.
m
M
=
1000
10. Conductivity always decreases with decrease in
concentration (that is, with dilution) of both the
strong and weak electrolytes. This is due to the fact
that the number of ions that carry current in a unit
volume of solution always decreases with decrease
in concentration. Molar conductivity increases with
decrease in concentration (that is, with dilution). This
is because the total volume V of the solution
containing one mole of electrolyte also increases.
11. Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions
states that limiting molar conductivity of an
electrolyte is the sum of the individual contributions
of the cation and the anion of the electrolyte.
In general, if an electrolyte produces
+
cations and
anions,
m

= +
+

+
12. Electrolytic cells are those cells in which electrical
energy is used to carry out non-spontaneous
chemical reactions and the reaction takes place in an
electrolytic cell is called electrolysis.
13. Faradays first law states that the amount of
chemical reaction occurring at an electrode by
passing current is proportional to the quantity of
electricity passed through the electrolyte (in solution
or in molten state).
w = Zit
where, Z = electrochemical equivalent or Faradays
constant
14. Faradays second law states that when the same
quantity of electricity is passed through different
electrolytes, the amounts of different substances
formed are proportional to their chemical equivalent
weights.
W
E
W
E
W
E
1
1
2
2
3
3
= = = ....
where W is the mass of substance and E is its
equivalent weight.
15. A battery contains one or more than one
electrochemical cells connected in series. It may be
a primary battery (non-chargeable battery like dry
cell such as Leclanche cell) or secondary battery
(rechargeable) like lead storage battery.
16. When the lead storage battery is in use (discharging),
the cell reactions are
Anode Pb ( ) SO ( ) PbSO ( ) 2
4
2
4
s + +

aq s e
Cathode
PbO SO 4H
2 4
2
( ) ( ) ( ) s aq aq e + + +
+
2
PbSO 2H O
4 2
( ) ( ) s + l
The overall reaction of the cell is written as
Pb ( ) PbO ( ) 2H SO ( )
2 2 4
s s aq + +
2PbSO ( ) 2H O( )
4 2
s + l
17. A fuel cell is a galvanic cell in which chemical
energy from combustion of fuels is converted into
electrical energy.
18. One of the most successful fuel cells uses the
reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to form water. It
was used for providing electrical power in Apollo
space programme.
The electrode reactions are
Cathode O ( ) 2H O ( ) 4
2 2
g e + +

l

4OH ( ) aq
Anode 2H ( ) 4OH ( ) 4H O( ) 4
2 2
g aq e + +

l
2H ( ) O ( ) 2H O ( )
2 2 2
g g + l
Fuel cells are pollution free, produce electricity with
an efficiency of about 70% and never become dead
due to continuous supply of fuel.
19. Corrosion is an electrochemical process in which a
metal oxide or other salt of the metal forms a coating
on the metal surface. The rusting of iron, tarnishing
of silver surface, surface of copper and bronze
turning green are some of the examples of
corrosion.
20. The anode and cathode reactions occurring in the
process of rusting are
Anode 2Fe( ) 2Fe 4
2+
s e +

E
(Fe /Fe)
2
0.44 V
+
=
s
Cathode O ( ) 4H ( ) 4
2
g aq e + +
+
2H O( )
2
l ;
E
H | O | H O
2 2
1.23 V
+
=
s
2Fe( ) + O ( ) 4H ( )
2
s g aq +
+
2Fe ( ) 2H O( )
2+
2
aq + l E
(cell)
1.67 V
s
=
Hydrated ferric oxide (Fe O H O)
3 4 2
x in the form of
rust is produced, when ferrous ions produced are
further oxidised by atmospheric oxygen.
2Fe ( ) 2H O ( )
1
2
O ( )
2
2 2
+
+ + aq l g
Fe O ( ) 4H ( )
2 3
s aq +
+
5
Chemical Kinetics
1. The speed or the rate of a chemical reaction can
be defined as the change in concentration of
reactants or products in unit time.
Its units are concentration time
1
or mol L s
1 1
.
2. The average rate of reaction is the appearance of
product or disappearance of reactants over a long
time interval.
r
av
= =
[ ] [ ] R
t
P
t
3. Reaction rate, at a particular moment of time is
called instantaneous rate of the reaction
r
inst
=
d R
dt
[ ]
=
d[P]
dt
As t 0
Instantaneous rate = Average rate
4. Rate of a chemical reaction depends upon the
experimental conditions like concentration of one or
more reactants (pressure in case of gases),
temperature, catalyst and surface area of the
reactants.
5. Rate law is the expression in which the reaction
rate is given in terms of molar concentration of
reactants with each term raised to some power,
which may or may not be same as the stoichiometric
coefficient of the reacting species in a balanced
chemical equation. Rate law for a chemical reaction
can not be decided from the balanced chemical
equation, i e . ., theoretically. It has to be determined
experimentally.
6. The sum of the powers of the concentration of the
reactants in the rate law expression is called the order
of that chemical reaction.
7. The number of reacting species (atoms, ions or
molecules) taking part in an elementary reaction, which
must collide simultaneously in order to bring about a
chemical reaction is called molecularity of a reaction.
8. Order can be zero or have fractional value but
molecularity of a reaction can not be zero or a
non-integer. It is always an integer.
9. Rate constant is the rate of chemical reaction when
concentration of each reactant is unity. The rate
constant is also called the specific reaction rate.
10. For n
th
order reaction, units of k = (mol L )
1 n
, where, n
= order of reaction.
11. Table summarises the mathematical features of
integrated laws of zero and first order reactions.
12. For a chemical reaction with rise in temperature by
10, the rate constant is nearly doubled.
13. Temperature coefficient is the ratio of rate
constant at temperature 308 K to the rate constant
at temperature 298 K.
Temperature coefficient
=
Rate constant at 308(298+10) K
Rate constant a
k
k t 298 K
14. The temperature dependence of rate of a chemical
reaction is expressed by Arrhenius equation.
k Ae
E RT
=

a
/
where, A is the Arrhenius factor or the frequency
factor, also called pre-exponential factor.
In ln k
E
RT
A
a
=

+
The plot of ln k vs 1/T gives a straight line.
log
k
k
E
. R
T T
T T
a 2
1
2 1
1 2
2 303
=

15. Activation energy (E

a
) is the extra energy contained
by the reactant molecules that results into effective
collision between them to form the products.
16. Threshold energy is the minimum energy which the
colliding molecules must have for effective collision.
Effective collisions are those collisions which lead to
the formation of product molecules.
17. According to collision theory,
Rate = Z
AB
e
E / RT
a
where, Z
AB
= collision frequency of the reactants A
and B.
e
E RT
a
= fraction of molecules with energies equal to or

greater than E
a
.
Integrated Rate Laws for the Reactions of Zero and First Order
Order
Reaction
Type
Differential
Rate Law
Integrated
Rate Law
Straight Line Plot Half-life Units of k
0 R P d R dt k [ ]/ = kt R R = [ ] [ ]
0
[ ] R vs t [ ] / R k
0
2 Conc. time
1
or
mol L
1 1
s
1 R P d R dt k R [ ]/ [ ] = [ ] [ ] R R e
kt
=

0
or
kt = In {[ ] / [ ]} R R
0
In [ ] R vs t In 2/k time
1
or s
1
6
Surface Chemistry
1. The process in which molecular species are
accumulated at the surface rather than in the bulk of
a solid or liquid is termed as adsorption. e.g., water
vapours on silica gel; H
2
, O
2
, NH
3
on activated
charcoal.
2. Solids, particularly in finely divided state, have large
surface area therefore metals in finely divided state
etc., acts as good adsorbents.
3. Adsorption is an exothermic process i.e., H
adsorption is always negative. Since, the molecules
of the gas are held on the surface of the solid
adsorbent hence entropy decreases (because their
freedom of movement become restricted), i.e., S is
also negative.
4. The adsorption in which accumulation of gas on the
surface of a solid occurs on account of weak van
der Waals forces is called physical adsorption or
physisorption. It is also called van der Waals
adsorption.
5. The adsorption in which gas molecules or atoms are
held to solid surface by chemical bonds is called
chemical adsorption or chemisorption. Chemical
bonds are responsible for the adsorption in
chemisorption, thus it is highly specific in nature and
results in the formation of only monomolecular layer.
6. Freundlich gave the following relationship between
x/m and p at particular temperature.
x
m
k p
n
=
1/
where, m = mass of adsorbent,
x = mass of gas adsorbed on mass m,
p = pressure,
k and n = constant, n = integer
or log log
1
log
x
m
k
n
p = +
When log x/m is plotted with log p, a straight line is
obtained with slope 1/n and intercept on y-axis is
equal to log k.
7. A substance that alters the rate of chemical reaction
without itself undergoing any chemical change, is
known as catalyst and this process is known as
catalysis.
8. The phenomenon in which reactants and catalyst are
present in the same phase (i.e., liquid or gas ) is
known as homogeneous catalysis.
9. The phenomenon in which the reactants and catalyst
are in the different phases, is known as hetero-
geneous catalysis.
10. When the catalytic reaction depends upon the
porous structure of catalyst and the size of the
reactant and the product molecules, the reaction is
known as shape-selective catalysis.
11. Zeolites are microporous aluminosilicates. General
formula is M z
x/n x y
[(AlO ) (SiO ) ] H O
2 2 2
. e.g., ZSM-5
converts alcohols directly into gasoline (or petrol a
mixture of hydrocarbons) by dehydrating them.
12. Enzymes are biochemical catalysts that catalyse the
reactions occurring in living beings. These are highly
specific in nature and work well only at a specific pH.
13. A colloid is a heterogeneous system in which one
substance is dispersed (dispersed phase) as very
fine particles in another substance called dispersion
medium.
14. Colloidal sols directly formed by mixing substances
like gum, gelatine, starch, rubber, etc., with a
suitable liquid (the dispersion medium) are called
lyophilic sols. These sols are also called reversible
sols or protective colloids (as they protect
lyophobic sols) from coagulation. These sols are
quite stable and cannot be coagulated.
15. Substances like metals, their sulphides etc., when
simply mixed with the dispersion medium do not
form the colloidal sol. Their colloidal sols can be
prepared only be special methods. Such sols are
called lyophobic sols. These sols are also called
irreversible sols. Lyophobic sols need stabilising
agents for their preservation.
16. Multimolecular colloids are formed by the
aggregation of a large number of atoms or smaller
molecules of a substance when they aggregate
together to form species having size in the colloidal
range, e.g., sulphur sol consists of particles
containing a thousand or more of S
8
sulphur
molecules.
17. Macromolecules in suitable solvents form solutions
in which the size of the macromolecules may be in
the colloidal range. Such colloids are called
macromolecular colloids.
These colloids are quite stable and resemble with
true solutions in many respects, e.g., naturally
occurring macromolecules such as starch, cellulose,
proteins and enzymes.
18. There are some substances which at low
concentrations behave as normal strong electrolytes,
but at higher concentrations exhibit colloidal
behaviour due to the formation of aggregates. The
aggregated particles thus formed are called
micelles. These are also known as associated
colloids.
The formation of micelles takes place only above a
particular temperature, called Kraft temperature ( ) T
k
and above a particular concentration, called Critical
Micelle Concentration (CMC).
19. Preparation of colloidal sol of non-metal.
2H S SO 3S 2H O
2 2 2
(Sol)
+ +
Preparation of colloidal sol of metals.
2AuCl 3HCHO 3H O 2Au
3 2
(Sol)
+ + + + 3HCOOH 6HCl
20. Peptisation is the process of converting freshly
prepared precipitate into colloidal sol by shaking it
with the dispersion medium in the presence of small
amount of electrolyte. The electrolyte added is called
the peptising agent.
7
21. Purification of colloidal solution by diffusion through a
suitable membrane is called dialysis. The apparatus
used for this purpose is called dialyser.
22. When light falls on sol, sol absorbs the light and
scatter it. This phenomenon of scattering of light is
called Tyndall effect. The illuminated path of light
passing through the colloids is called Tyndall cone.
23. The process of settling of colloidal particles is called
coagulation or precipitation of the sol. It is done by
electrophoresis, boiling, mixing two oppositely
charged sols or by additing electrolytes.
24. Hardy Schulze Rule According to this rule, the
greater the valence of the flocculating ion added, the
greater is its power to cause precipitation.
The order of coagulating power of the cations is
Al Ba Na .
3 2 + + +
> >
The order of coagulating power of the anions is
[Fe(CN) ]
6
4
> PO SO Cl
4
3
4
2
> > .
25. Emulsions are formed when both the dispersed
phase and dispersion medium are liquids in a
colloidal system.
26. Oil dispersed in water type - milk, vanishing
cream.
Water dispersed in oil type - butter and cream.
27. It is possible to cause artificial rain by throwing
electrifieds and or spraying a sol carrying charge
opposite to the one on clouds from an aeroplane.
28. Blood is an albuminoid suspended in water, which
implies that blood is a colloid. Alum and FeCl
3
solution stop bleeding due to coagulation.
29. Colloidal sol adsorbs one of its own ion from the
solution preferentially and gets charged. This
charge attracts ions of opposite charge from the
solution and forms an electrical double layer. This is
called Helmholtz electrical double layer.
General Principles and Processes
of Isolation of Elements
1. The substance in the form of which a metal
(or element) occur in nature, is called the mineral of
the element.
2. The minerals from which a metal can be extracted
conveniently and profitably are called ores.
e.g., bauxite is an ore of aluminium.
3. Aluminium is the most abundant metal while oxygen
is the most abundant element in the earths crust.
4. The substance which is added in the ore to convert
non-fusible gangue to fusible compound, (called slag)
is called flux.
The flux may be acidic (like SiO
2
) or basic (like CaO,
MgO etc).
5. Froth floatation process is used to concentrate
sulphide ore because of the preferential wetting of ore
with pine oil. Here collectors (like pine oil, xanthates
etc) enhance the non-wettability of mineral particles,
while froth stabilisers like cresols, aniline etc, stabilise
the froth.
6. Leaching is used when ore is soluble in some
suitable solvent while impurities remain insoluble e.g.,
leaching of alumina from bauxite by Baeyers process.
7. Gold or silver ore is leached with dilute NaCN solution
in the presence of air to give a metal complex, from
which metal is displaced by zinc. This process is
called cyanide process.
4 8CN 2H O 4[ (CN) ] 4OH
2 2
M M + + + +

2[ CN) Zn [Zn(CN) 2
2 4
2
Metal
M M ] ]

+ +
8. The process of heating of metal ore in the absence of
air is called calcination. by calcination, ore is
converted into oxide.
CaCO CaO + CO
3 2

9. The process of heating of metal ore below its

melting point in the presence of air is called
roasting. By roasting, ore is converted to oxide.
2ZnS + 3O 2ZnO + 2SO
2 2

10. The process of reduction of metal oxide into crude
metal by C or CO is called smelting.
11. According to Ellingham diagram, for a reduction
process to be feasible the sum of G of the two
reactions (oxidation of reducing agent and
reduction of metal oxide) should be negative.
12. Zone refining is based on the principle that the
impurities are more soluble in the melt than in the
solid state of the metal. Metals like, Si, Ge, Ga, B
etc are refined by this process.
13. Vapour phase refining is based on the principle
that the metal is first converted into its volatile
compound and collected elesewhere. Then it is
decomposed to give pure metal. e.g.,
(i) Monds process is used to refine nickel.
Ni 4CO Ni(CO)
Impure
330-350K
Volatile
compou
4
+
nd
450-470K
Pure
Ni 4CO +
(ii) van-Arkel process is used to refine zirconium
and titanium.
Zr 2I ZrI Zr 2I
Impure
Metal iodide
Pure
2 4 2
+ +
14. Chromatography is the most advanced technique
used for separation or metallurgical purposes.
It is based on the principle that different
components of a mixture are adsorbed differently
on an adsorbent.
8
p-Block Elements
1. Molecular nitrogen comprises about 78% by
volume of earths atmosphere. It exhibits
anomalous properties due to its smaller size,
high ionisation enthalpy, high electronegativity
and absense of d-orbitals.
2. Nitrogen has a unique ability to form p p
multiple bonds with itself and with other atoms
like C and O. Thats why it exists as N
2
molecule
with a triple bond and has high bond enthalpy.
3. Heavier members of nitrogen family form p d
bond and show catenation due to their high
single bond energy.
4. Nitrogen can not form d-p bond due to
absence of d- orbitals so it can not expand its
covalency beyond four as the heavier members
can e.g., R
3
P O
or R
3
P CH
2
(R = alkyl
group).
5. Reducing character of hydrides of nitorgen
family increases down the group due to
decrease in bond dissociation enthalpy.
6. Basic character and bond angle in the hydrides
of nitrogen family decreases down the group,
i.e.,
[NH PH AsH SbH BiH ]
3 3 3 3 3
> > >
7. Boiling point of NH
3
is more than PH
3
due to
H-bonding. After PH
3
boiling point increases
down the group.
8. Ammonia is manufactured by Habers process.
N ( ) 3H ( ) 2NH ( );
2 2 3
g g g + q
f
H = 46.1 kJ / mol
The optimum condition for the production of
ammonia are a pressure of 200 10
5
Pa (about
200 atm), a temperature of ~700 K and the use
of a catalyst such as iron oxide with small
amount of K O
2
and Al O
2 3
to increase the rate of
attainment of equilibrium.
Earlier iron was used as a catalyst with
molybdenum as a promoter.
9. NH
3
forms a number of complexes with metal
ions such as Cu , Ag
2+ +
etc.
Ag ( ) 2NH ( ) [Ag(NH ) ] Cl( )
3 3 2
+
+ aq aq aq
Cu ( ) 4NH ( ) [Cu(NH ) ] ( )
2
3 3 4
2
Blue Deep blue
+ +
+ aq aq aq s
10. Because of the presence of odd number of
valence electrons NO
2
dimerises to give N O
2 4
N O
2 4
with even number of electrons. The covalency of N
in N O
2 4
is 3 and in N O
2 5
is 4.
11. Nitric acid is manufactured by Ostwalds process and
involves the following steps.
4NH ( ) 5O ( ) 4NO
3 2
Pt /Rh gauge
500K, 9 bar
g g + ( )+6
2
g H O( ) l
2 NO( ) O ( ) 2 NO ( )
2 2
g g g + s
3NO ( ) H O( ) 2HNO ( ) NO( )
2 2 3
g l aq g + +
12. Nitric acid being a strong oxidising agent oxidises
mostly metals (except gold and platinum) and
non-metals. Its oxidises Cu to Cu
2+
, iodine to iodic acid,
C to CO
2
, S to H SO
2 4
and P to phosphoric acid ( ) H PO
3 4
.
13. White phosphorus (P
4
) is more reactive than other
solids due to less angular strain. It dissolves in boiling
NaOH solution in an inert atmosphere giving PH
3
.
P 3NaOH 3H O PH 3NaH PO
4 2 3 2 2
+ + +
14. PH
3
(phosphine) gets absorbed in CuSO
4
or mercuric
chloride solution to form corresponding phosphides.
3CuSO 2PH Cu P 3H SO
4 3 3 2 2 4
+ +
3HgCl 2PH Hg P 6HCl
2 3 3 2
+ +
15. PCl
3
hydrolyses in the presence of moisture giving
fumes of HCl.
PCl 3H O H PO 3HCl
3 2 3 3
+ +
16. In solid state PCl
5
exists as ionic solid [PCl ]
4
+
[PCl ]
6
where the cation [PCl ]

4
+
is tetrahedral and anion [PCl ]
6
is octahedral.
17. All oxo acids of P contain at least one P O == bond and
one P OH bond. In these oxoacids, the H-atom of OH
group is ionisable and cause the basicity. The acids
which contain P H bond, have strong reducing
properties.
4 AgNO 2H O H PO
3 2 3 2
+ + + + 4Ag 4HNO H PO
3 3 4
18. When H PO
3 3
(phosphorus acid) is heated, it
disproportionate to give phosphoric acid and phosgene
gas.
4H PO 3H PO PH
3 3 3 4 3
+
19. Electron gain enthalpy of oxygen is less negative than

sulphur due to compact size of oxygen atom
(inter-electronic repulsion is more in O). From sulphur
onwards, enthalpy again becomes less negative upto Po.
20. Properties of oxygen are different from other elements
of the group due to its small size, high electronegativity
and absence of d-orbital. Due to small size and high
15. Copper and zinc are refined by electrolytic method where impure metal is made to act as anode and a strip of pure
metal acts as cathode. Here, the salt solution of the metal to be extracted is generally used as electrolyte.
16. At lower temperature, CO is a better reducing agent than C but at higher temperature (983 K or above), C is the
better reducing agent.
17. Bauxite (Al O 2H O
2 3 2
) is an important ore of aluminium, haematite (F O
2 3
) and magnetic ( Fe O
3 4
) are the important
ores of iron. Copper pyrites (CuFeS
2
) is an important ore of copper.
18. Copper is extracted from low grade ores by leaching through acid or bacteria or by treating the ore with scrap Fe
or H
2
.
9
electronegativity, H O
2
forms intermolecular
hydrogen bonding which is not formed by H S
2
.
Due to absence of d-orbital oxygen shows
covalency of 4 and in practice rarely exceeds to it
while other members of the group can exceeds
their covalence beyond four. Oxygen atom can
form (p- p) bond due to small size.
21. Reducing property and acidic strength
increase from H O
2
to H Te
2
due to decrease in
bond dissociation enthalpy. However, their
thermal stability decreases from H O to H Te
2 2
.
22. Ozone is thermodynamically less stable than
oxygen because its decomposition into oxygen
results in the liberation of heat (H is negative)
and increase in entropy ( S is positive). These
two effects result in large negative Gibbs energy
change ( ) G for its conversion into oxygen.
23. Ozone oxidises iodide ions to iodine and lead
sulphide to lead sulphate.
2I ( ) H O( ) O ( ) 2OH ( )
2 3

+ + aq l g aq
+ + I ( ) O ( )
2 2
s g
PbS( ) 4O ( ) PbSO ( ) 4O ( )
3 4 2
s g s g + +
24. In quantitative method for estimating O
3
gas,
ozone is treated with an excess of KI solution
buffered with a borate buffer (pH 9.2) = . Iodine is
liberated which can be titrated against a
standard solution of sodium thiosulphate.
25. The S
8
ring in both the monoclinic and rhombic
form is puckered and has a crown shape.
26. H O
2
undergoes extensive H-bonding due to high
electronegativity of O-atom and hence, exists as
a liquid. On the other hand, H S
2
does not
undergo H-bonding and hence, exists as a
discrete molecule and as a gas.
27. Moist sulphur dioxide behaves as a reducing
agent.
It converts Fe ions to Fe ions
3 2+ +
. It also
decolourises acidified potassium permanganate
solution (a confirmative test for SO
2
gas).
SO
2
molecule is angular and is a resonance
hybrid of the following two structures.
The two S O bonds are equal.
28. Peroxomonosulphuric acid (H SO )
2 5
and
peroxodi- sulphuric acid or Marshalls acid
(H S O )
2 2 8
contain peroxide linkages in their
structure.
29. Sulphuric acid, the king of chemicals or oil of vitriol, is
manufactured by contact process, reactions involved in
which are
S O SO
2 2
+
2SO ( ) O ( ) 2SO ( )
2 2
2 5
3
V O
g g g + s ; ve H =
SO H SO H S O 2H SO
3 2 4 2 2 7
2
2 4
Oleum
H O
+
30. In SF
6
, S is sterically protected by six F atoms. Which, do
not allowH O
2
molecules to attack at S atoms. As a result
of this, SF
6
does not undergo hydrolysis.
31. Fluorine has smaller bond dissociation enthalpy than
chlorine while X X bond dissociation enthalpies from
Cl onwords show the expected trend
Cl Cl >Br Br >I I due to small size and large
electron-electron repulsion among the lone pairs of
fluorine.
32. Ionisation enthalpy, electronegativity, bond dissociation
enthalpy and electrode potential are higher for fluorine
than expected from other halogens whereas ionic and
covalent radii, melting and boiling points and electron
gain enthalpy are quite lower than expected.
This is due to the small size, highest electronegativity,
lowF F bond dissociation enthalpy and non-availability
of d-orbital.
33. Chlorine can be prepared by heating manganese
dioxide with conc. HCl.
MnO 4HCl MnCl
2 2
+ + + Cl 2H O
2 2
34. Chlorine reacts with sodium hydroxide solution in the
following manner.
(i) 2NaOH Cl NaCl NaOCl H O
(Cold, dilute)
Sodiu
2 2
+ + +
m hypochlorite
(ii) 6NaOH 3Cl 5NaCl NaClO 3H
2 3 2
( Hot, conc) Sodium ch
+ + +
lorate
O
35. Chlorine water on standing loses its yellow colour due
to the formation of HCl and HOCl.
Cl H O HCl HOCl
2 2
+ +
HOCl HCl O
Nascent
+
Nascent oxygen formed by HOCl is responsible for
oxidising and bleaching properties of chlorine.
36. Two different halogens may react to form interhalogen
compounds of the type XX, XX
3
, XX
5
, XX
7
where X =
high molecular mass halogen and X is smaller halogen.
Their geometry is respectively linear, bent T-shaped,
square pyramidal and pentagonal bipyramidal.
37. In all interhalogen compounds, X X bond is weaker than
X X or X X bond. So, these compounds are more
reactive than individual halogens.
38. Fluorine reacts with water to produce oxygen and
ozone.
2F 2H O 4HF O
2 2 2
+ +
3F 3H O 6HF + O
2 2 3
+
39. The first compound of Xe was Xe PtF
6
+
which was
discovered by Neil Bartlett.
S
S S
S S
S
S
S
107
2
0
4
p
m
The structure of S
8
ring in
rhombic sulphur
O O
S
O O
S
10
The d-and f-Block Elements
1. Elements having partially filled d-orbitals in any of
their states are called d-block elements. These are
also called transition elements because their
properties are intermediate of s and p-block
elements.
2. Zn, Cd, Hg of group 12 have full d
10
configuration
in their ground state as well as in their common
oxidation states thus they are not regarded as
transition metals.
3. The transition metals have high enthalpy of
atomisation. It first increases, reaches to the
maximum in the middle of each series and then
decreases. It can be explained on the basis of
strong inter atomic interaction due to unpaired
electrons. Greater is the number of unpaired
electrons, stronger is the resultant bonding.
4. Metals of second ( ) 4d and third ( ) 5d series have
high enthalpy of atomisation than the
corresponding elements of 3d series because of
stronger metal-metal bond. This is an important
factor in accounting for the occurrence of much
more frequent metal-metal bonding in compounds
of the heavy transition metals.
5. Ionisation enthalpy increases from left to right in a
series, but irregularities are observed due to
irregular trends in electronic configuration. First
four members show little difference in values and
last four are also fairly close. Zn shows quite high
value due to extra stability of completely filled
orbital.
6. There is a fall in IE
2
from Cr to Mn and from Cu to
Zn because after the removal of first electron, Cr,
and Cu acquire a stable configuration i.e.,
d d
5
and
10
. The high values of IE
3
for Cu, Ni and
Zn explain why they show a maximum oxidation
state of +2.
7. Cu
+
is unstable in aqueous solution and undergo
disproportionation.
2Cu Cu Cu.; Cu
2 2 + + +
+ is more stable than
Cu
+
due to much more H (hydration) of Cu
2+
(aq)
than Cu
+
. This is more than that compensates for
high IE
2
of Cu.
8. The values of E
s
across the series are less
negative because of general increase in the sum
of the first and second ionisation enthalpy. E
s
for
Mn and Zn are more negative because of half-filled
and fully filled orbitals. E
s
for Ni is more negative
due to the highest negative
hyd
H.
9. E
s
value for any metal depends on three factors;
hydration enthalpy, ionisation enthalpy, enthalpy of
atomisation. Copper has high value of enthalpy of
atomisation and low value of hydration enthalpy and
also the high energy to transform Cu(s) to Cu ( )
2+
aq is
not balanced by its hydration enthalpy, therefore it has
positive E.
10. Transition elements exhibit colour due to
d- d transition, structure defects and charge transfer.
Electrons of lower energy level of d-orbital absorb
energy from visible region for excitation to higher level.
11. Many transition metals and their compounds are used
as catalyst because of their ability to adopt multiple
oxidation states and to form complexes.
12. Acidic strength of oxides of transition elements
increases with increase inoxidation state of the
element e g . ., MnO (Mn )
2+
is basic whereas
Mn O (Mn )
2 7
7+
is acidic in nature.
13. Both oxygen and fluorine being highly electronegative
can increase the oxidation state of a particular
transition metal. In certain oxides, the element oxygen
is involved in multiple bonding with the metal and this
is responsible for the higher oxidation state of the
metal.
14. The compounds in which small atoms like H, C, N etc.,
occupy interstitial sites in the crystal lattice are called
interstitial compounds.
These compounds are well known for transition metals
because small atoms can easily occupy the positions
in the voids present in the crystal lattices of transition
metals.
15. Potassium dichromate is obtained from chromite ore
as
4FeCr O + 8Na CO + 7O 2Fe O
2 4 2 3 2 2 3
8 Na CrO 8CO
2 4 2
Sodium
chromate
+ +
2Na CrO +2H Na Cr O 2Na H
2 4 2 2 7
Sodium
dichromate
+ +
+ +
2
O
Na Cr O 2KCl K Cr O 2NaC
2 2 7 2 2 7
Potassium
dichromate
+ + l
16. Potassium dichromate is used as primary standard
solution in volumetric analysis. In acidic medium,
Cr O + 14 H + 6 2Cr + 7H O
2 7
2 + 3+
2

e
(E
s
= 1.33 V)
40. Xenon fluorides are readily hydrolysed even by traces of water.
2XeF ( ) 2H O ( ) 2Xe ( )
2 2
s l g + + + 4HF ( ) O ( )
2
aq g
XeF H O XeOF 2HF
6 2 4
+ +
XeF 2H O XeO F 4HF
6 2 2 2
+ +
XeF 3H O XeO 6HF
6 2 3
+ +
41. Helium is also used in gas-cooled nuclear reactors and as diluent for oxygen in modern diving apparatus because of
its very low solubility in blood.
42. The geometry of XeF
2
, XeF
4
, XeOF
4
and XeO
3
are respectively linear, square planar, distorted octahedral, and
pyramidal.
11
Thus, acidified potassium dichromate oxidises
iodides to iodine, sulphides to sulphur, iron (II) salts
to iron (III) and tin (II) to tin (IV).
Effect of pH on Cr O
2 7
2
Cr O CrO
2 7
2
4
2
H
OH

+
d
17. When pyrolusite ore is fused with alkali in the
presence of air or an oxidising agent like KNO
3
,
potassium permanganate is formed.
2MnO + 4KOH + O 2K MnO 2
2 2 2 4
Potassium
manganate
+ H O
2
3K MnO 4H
2 4
+
+ 2KMnO + MnO + 2H O
4 2 2
Potassium
permanganate
MnO
4
2
Electrolytic oxidation
in alkaline

solution
Permanganate ion
MnO
4
18. In acidic medium, KMnO

4
oxidises Fe to Fe ,
2 3 + +
SO
3
to SO
4
, I to I
2
whereas in neutral medium, it

converts I
to IO
3
and S O
2 3
2
to SO
4
2
.
19. Due to the poor shielding effect of 4f electrons,
effective nuclear charge increases and radius
decreases from lanthanum to lutetium. Ionic radii
decrease in regular pattern but atomic radii follow
irregular pattern because configuration is irregular.
The gradual and steady decrease in radii across the
period is known as lanthanoid contraction.
20. Due to lanthanoid contraction, the basic character of
oxides and hydroxides decreases from La (OH)
3
to
Lu (OH)
3
and Zr / Hf; Nb/Ta and Mo/ W are almost
identical in size.
21. Mischmetal is an alloy of rare earth elements (94%),
iron (5%) and traces of C, S, Ca etc. It is used in
making bullets, shells and lighter flint. Pyrophoric
alloys contain Ce (40.5%), La + neodymium (44%)
Al, Ca and S.
22. Actinoids ions are generally coloured due to
f - f transition. It depends upon the number of
electrons in 5f -orbitals.
23. The decrease in atomic (or ionic) radii in actinoid
elements (actinoid contraction) is greater than
lanthanoid contraction because 5f -electrons have
poor shielding effect as compared to 4f -electrons.
Therefore, the effect of increased nuclear charge
leading to contraction in size is more in case of
actinoid elements.
24. Actinoids exhibit more number of oxidation states
than lanthanoids. This is due to the fact that 5f, 6d
and 7s levels are of comparable energies.
Coordination Compounds
1. Double salts are the addition compounds that lose their
identity in solution. They exist only in solid state and have
properties same as those of constituent compounds.
2. Coordination compounds or complexes dont
completely lose their identity in solution. They exist in
solid state as well as in solution. Their properties are
different from their constituents.
3. According to Werners theory, primary valency is
ionisable (i.e., species present outside the coordination
sphere is ionisable] whereas secondary valencies are
not.
4. Molecules or ions which donate a lone pair of electrons
to the central atom or ion are called ligands. The number
of donor sites present in a ligand is called their denticity.
e.g., en (ethylene diamine) is a bidentate ligand and
EDTA is a hexadentate ligand.
5. When a ligand can ligate through two different atoms, it
is called ambidentate ligand.
e g . ., NO , SCN , ONO
2

.
6. The total number of ligands to which the metal is directly
attached is called coordination number(CN).
e.g., [Co(NH ) ]
3 6
3+
, CN = 6
[Co(en) ]
3
3+
, CN = = 3 2 6 (Qen is bidentate)
7. General formula for naming a neutral or cationic
complex is
ligand number ligand name me
Alphabetically
+ +
1 2 44 3 44
tal name
+(oxidation state of metal) + name of the
ligand outside the sphere.
8. General formula for naming anionic complex is
counter ion name+
Present outside
the sphere
1 2 444 3 444
ligand number
+ ligand name
Inside the sphere
and alphabetically
1 2 44 3 44
+ metal name
+ ate + (oxidation state of metal)
9. Compounds having the same molecular formula
but different arrangement of atoms are called
isomers and this phenomenon is called
isomerism.
10. (i) Complexes exhibit linkage isomerismwhen have
ambidentate ligand like NO
2
, SCN etc.
(ii) Complexes exhibit coordination isomerism
when cationic and anionic entities are complexes
of two different metals.
(iii) Hydration isomerism arises due to difference in
the number water molecules inside and outside
the coordination sphere.
(iv) Ionisation isomerism arises due to difference in
ligand or counter ion.
11. Geometrical isomerism is shown by complexes of
the type [MA B ],
2 2
[MABXL], [MA B ]
3 3
, [MA XY]
2
,
[MA X ]
4 2
, [M(AA) X ]
2 2
where M = metal, A,B,X,L,Y
are unidentate ligand and AA = bidentate ligand.
Here, if same group occupies adjacent positions,
the isomer is called cis and if the same group
occupies opposite sides, the isomer is called trans.
12
12. Tetrahedral complex do not show geome-
trical isomerism because the relative positions
of unidentate ligands attached with central
metal atom are the same with respect to each
other.
13. Optical isomerism is shown by the
compounds having lack of plane of symmetry.
Complexes of the type [M(AA) ]
3
, [M(AA) X ]
2 2
,
[M(AA)X Y ]
2 2
exhibit optical isomerism.
where, M = metal, X,Y = unidentate ligand
and AA = bidentate ligand.
14. From VBT, the hybridisation and geometry of a
complexes is find as
(i) Find the oxidation state of central atom and
write the electronic configuration of the metal
ion.
(ii) Pair up the d-electrons, if ligands are CO, CN
NH
3
etc (strong field ligand).
(iii) Now find whether unpaired electrons are
present or not. If present, the complex is
paramagnetic and if not, it is diamagnetic.
(iv) Find hybridisation and shape from the orbitals
occupied by ligand. e.g., If there are 4 ligand
(unidentate), hybridisation may be sp
3
(tetrahedral geometry) or dsp
2
(square planar
geometry). If there are 6 ligands, hybridisation
may bed sp
2 3
or sp d
3 2
(octahedral geometry).
(v) If unpaired electrons are present the complex
is coloured due to d-d transition but the colour
of KMnO
4
is due to charge transfer.
15. According to CFT, degenerate d-orbitals in the presence
of ligand split up into two sets of energy viz e
g
and t
2g
set.
16. The difference of energy between the two sets of
degenerate orbitals as a result of crystal field splitting is
known as Crystal Field Stabilisation Energy (CFSE). It is
denoted by
o
.
17. Ligands can be arranged in a series in the order of
increasing field strength. This series is known as
spectrochemical series.
l Br SCN Cl F OH C O
2 4
2 s s s s s s
< < < < < <

< < < < < < <
H O NCS EDTA NH en CN CO
2
4
3
s s
18. (i) If
o
< P, the fourth electron enters in one of the e
g
orbitals giving the configurationt e
g g 2
3 1
. Ligands for which
o
< P are known as weak field ligands and form high
spin complexes.
(ii) If
o
> P, it becomes more energetically favo- urable for
the fourth electron to occupy a t
g 2
orbital with
configuration t e
g g 2
4 0
. Ligands which produce this effect
are known as strong field ligands and form low spin
complexes.
19. cis-platin [PtCl (NH ) ]
2 3 2
is used for the treatment of cancer.
EDTA complex of Ca is used for treating lead poisoning.
20. Metal carbonyls are the compounds in which CO
(corbon monoxide) present as a ligand. The MC
bond is formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons of
carbonyl carbon to vacant orbital of metal whereas the M
C bond is formed by the donation of a d-electron pair
of metal into the vacant antibonding * orbital of CO.
Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
1. Haloalkanes and haloarenes are obtained by
the replacement of a hydrogen atom of an
alkane and arene respectively by a halogen
atom (F, Cl, Br, I).
2. Haloalkanes are named as X-haloalkanes
where, X represents the position of halogen
atom.
e.g., CH CH CH I
3 2 2
(1-iodopropane).
3. Haloalkanes are obtained from alcohols by
treating them with HX ( anhy ZnCl )
2
+ ,
PCl , PCl , SOCl
5 3 2
etc.
R R
X
OH
H (anhy ZnCl )
PCl , PCl , SOCl
2
5 3 2
Cl
SOCl
2
is the best reagent as the by products
are gases.
4. Haloalkanes are also prepared by the action of
halogen acid (HX) on alkene. The reaction
follows Markownikoffs rule, i.e., the negative
part of the reagent goes to the carbon bearing
less number of hydrogen atoms.
5. Fluoroalkanes are prepared by treating alkyl
chloride/bromide in the presence of a metallic
fluoride such as AgF, Hg F
2 2
, CoF
2
or SbF
3
. This reaction is
known as Swarts reaction.
CH Br AgF CH
3
Methyl
bromide
Silver fluoride
+
3
F+ AgBr
Fluorom
ethane
6. Generally bromoalkanes are prepared by the reaction
known as Borodine Hunsdiecker reaction.
CH COOAg Br CH Br CO AgBr
3 2 3 2
CCl
4
+ + +
7. With increase in the size of halogen atom,
carbon-halogen bond length increases and hence,
reactivity increases. Thus, R I is most reactive towards
S 1
N
and S 2
N
reactions.
8. From F to I, the electronegativity of halogen decreases,
therefore the polarity of the C X bond and thus, dipole
moment decreases accordingly. However fluorides have
lower dipole moment than chlorides because of very small
size of F.
CH Cl CH F CH Br CH I
3 3 3 3
> > >
9. Alkyl halides are slightly soluble in water, because they do
not form H-bonds with water.
10. Due to better symmetry of para isomers as compared to
ortho and meta isomers, para isomers have high melting
points as compared to their ortho and meta isomers.
13
11. S 1
N
mechanism involves carbocation intermediate, thus
the reactant giving more stable carbocation, is more
reactive towards S 1
N
reactions. The order of reactivity of
alkyl halides towards these reactions is
3>2>1
These reactions result in racemisation i.e., retention as
well as inversion.
12. S 2
N
mechanism involves transition state, thus less
hindered alkyl halides readily undergo these reactions.
These reactions result in inversion of configuration.
13. In the presence of polar solvent, KCN readily ionises to
furnish CN
ions. As CC bond is more stable than

C N bond, so cyanide is predominantly formed.
R R + +

Br CN CN Br
However, AgCN does not ionise so attacks through N
and results in the formation of isocyanide.
R R Br AgCN NC AgBr + +
14. Reaction of KNO
3
with RBr results in the formation of
RONO
2
(nitrite) whereas reaction of RBr with AgNO
3
results in RNO
3
(nitrate) predominantly.
15. An object or molecule which is non-superimposable on
its mirror image is called chiral and this property is called
chirality.
16. A chiral or asymmetric carbon is that carbon all the four
valencies of which are satisfied by four different groups.
Such a carbon bearing molecule is generally optically
active.
17. An equimolar mixture of two enantiomers (d and l-forms)
is called racemic mixture. It is represented as dl or
forms and will be optically inactive. The process of
converting d or l-form of an optically active compound
into racemic form ( ) dl is called racemisation.
18. Grignard reagents are highly reactive and react with
water (a good source of proton) to give hydrocarbons.
R X R X Mg + H O H + Mg(OH)
2

Hence, traces of moisture must be avoided during the
use of a Grignard reagent.
19. Cl, Br etc are ortho/para directing groups and direct the
incoming group in electrophilic substitution reactions at
ortho and para positions.
20. Towards nucleophilic substitution reactions
haloarenes are less reactive than haloalkanes
due to resonance effect (double bond character
in C Cl bond), sp
2
hydridisation of C bearing
halogen atom and instability of phenyl cation.
21. When aryl halide is heated with alkyl halide in the
presence of sodium in dry ether, halogen atom
is replaced by alkyl group and alkylarene is
formed. This is called Wurtz-Fittig reaction.
22. When haloarenes react with sodium in the
presence of dry ether, two aryl groups are joined
together and diphenyl is formed. This reaction is
called Fittig reaction.
23. In the presence of sunlight, chloroform is slowly
oxidised by air to produce a highly poisonous
gas, carbonyl chloride or phosgene, COCl
2
.
Thats why it is stored in dark coloured bottles
filled up to brim.
24. Chlorofluorocarbon compounds of methane
and ethane are collectively known as freons.
In stratosphere, freon is able to initiate chain
reactions that can result in depletion of ozone
layer. Since, freon has been found to be one of
the factors responsible for the depletion of
ozone layer, they are being replaced by other
harmless compounds in many countries.
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
1. Alcohols and phenols are formed when a hydrogen atom
in a hydrocarbon, aliphatic and aromatic respectively is
replaced by OH group. Alcohols are named by
replacing e of parent alkane with suffix ol.
2. Alcohols are prepared by hydration of alkene or reaction
of Grignard reagent with aldehydes or ketones.
HCHO gives 1 alcohol, RCHO give 2 alcohol and
ketone give 3 alcohol with Grignard reagent.
3. Chlorobenzene on fusion with NaOH at 623 K and
320 atm pressure gives sodium phenoxide which on
acidification yield phenol.
Cl + 2Na + ClCH
3
Dry-
Toluene
ether
CH +2NaCl
3
Chlorobenzene
Methyl Cloride
Cl + 2Na + Cl
Dry-
Diphenyl
ether
+ 2NaCl
ONa
+
OH
623 K
300 atm
Phenol
Cl
+ NaOH
HCl
Sodium phenoxide
Chlorobenzene
14
4. Cumene (isopropyl benzene) on aerial oxidation
form cumene hydroperoxide which upon
subsequent hydrolysis with dilute acid gives
phenol and propanone.
5. The boiling points of alcohols and phenols
increase with increase in number of C-atoms
(increase in van der Waals forces). Amongst
isomeric alcohols, the boiling points decreases
with increase in branching in the carbon chain
because of decrease in van der Waals forces
with decrease in surface area.
6. Phenols are more acidic than alcohols, due
to more stabilisation of phenoxide ion formed
by delocalisation of negative charge. Presence
of electron withdrawing groups such as
NO , CHO
2
, etc increases the acidic
strength of phenol by stabilising phenoxide ion
whereas electron releasing group like CH
3
reduces the acidic strength of phenol.
7. Alcohols undergo dehydration when treated
with conc.H SO
2 4
or H PO
3 4
.
The steps involved in this process is
Step I Protonation of alcohol
CH CH O H H CH CH O
|
H
H
3 2 3 2
Fast
Protonated alc
+ +
+
ohol
Step II Formation of carbocation (rate
determining step)
CH CH 2O
H
H CH CH H O
3 2 3 2 2
+
+ +
a
Step III Elimination of proton
CH CH CH CH H
3 2 2 2
Ethene
+ +
== + s
8. Esterification is the reaction of formation of
ester when alcohol or phenol react with acids or
their derivatives.
9. OH is an ortho/para directing activating group
in aromatic electrophilic substitution reactions.
10. Phenol gives 2,4,6-trinitrophenol (or picric acid) when
treated with conc. HNO
3
and 2, 4, 6-tribromophenol when
treated with Br H O
2 2
/ . However, when phenol is treated
with Br
2
in CS
2
, it gives o and p-bromophenol.
11. On treating phenol with CHCl
3
(chloroform) in the
presence of sodium hydroxide, a CHO group is
introduced at ortho position of benzene ring. This reaction
is called Reimer-Tiemann reaction. In this reaction,
electrophile is dichlorocarbene ( CCl
2
).
12. Phenol is converted to benzene on heating with zinc dust.
13. Alcohols are made unfit for drinking by mixing some
copper sulphate (CuSO )
4
and pyridine in it. This process
is known as denaturation of alcohol.
14. Ethers are named as alkoxyalkane where alkoxy is
generally the smaller group attached with O. Ethanol is
dehydrated to ethoxyethane at 413 K in the presence of
sulphuric acid.
2C H OH
2 5
2 4
Ethanol
(excess)
Conc. H SO
413 K
C H O C H H O
2 5 2 5 2
Ethoxyethane
+
Step I Protonation of alcohol.
CH CH O H H
3 2
Fast
+

+
CH CH O
H
H
3 2

+

Step II Nucleophilic attack by unprotonated alcohol
molecule on protonated alcohol molecule.
CH CH O
H
CH CH O
H
H
3 2 3 2
CH CH O
H
CH CH H O
3 2 2 3 2
+
+
Step III Loss of proton to form ethoxy ethane
CH CH O
H
CH CH
3 2 2 3

+
CH CH O CH CH +H
3 2 2 3
Ethoxy ethane

+
OH
O
2
CH CH
3
H
+
Cumene
CH
3
CH COOH
3
CH
3
H O
2
Phenol
+ CH COCH
3 3
Acetone
(propanone)
Cumene
hydroperoxide
ONa OH
CHCl
3
aq.NaOH
NaOH
OH
H
+
ONa
CHCl
2
Intermediate
Salicylaldehyde
CHO CHO
+
OH
Benzene
+ Zn + ZnO
15
15. In Williamsons synthesis, a primary alkyl halide
is allowed to react with sodium alkoxide.
R X R R +
Alkyl
halide
Sodium
alkoxide
O Na O
+ R X
Ether
Na
In case of secondary or tertiary halides,
elimination product is the major product.
16. The cleavage of C O bond in ethers takes
place under drastic conditions with excess of
HX.
R R X R RX + + O H OH
Alkyl
halide
Ether Alcohol
K 373
R X R X + + OH H H O
2
Alkyl aryl ethers are cleaved at alkyl-oxygen bond due to
the more stable aryl oxygen bond. The reaction gives
phenol and alkyl halide.
17. Alkoxy group ( ) OR activates the aromatic ring towards
electrophilic substitution and directs the incoming
electrophile at o-and p-positions (because of the negative
charges at o- and p-positions which indicates the more
electron density at these positions).
18. Anisole undergoes Friedel Crafts reaction, i.e., the alkyl
halide and acyl groups are introduced at o-and
p-positions by reaction with alkyl halide and acyl halide in
the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride (a Lewis
acid) as catalyst.
Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
1. The C O == group is known as the carbonyl group
and the compounds containing C O == group are
known as carbonyl compounds.
In aldehydes, the carbonyl group is bonded with
a carbon and a hydrogen while in ketones, it is
bonded with two carbon atoms. Aldehydes are
named by adding suffix al and ketones by
adding suffix one.
2. Aldehydes and ketones are obtained by the
oxidation of 1 and 2 alcohols respectively by
PCC (Pyridine Chloro Chromate) or
K Cr O / H SO
2 2 7 2 4
.
+ CH OH CHO H O
2 2
[O]
3. Aldehydes are obtained by the reduction of
carbonyl chloride with Pd BaSO / ,
4
S
(Rosenmund reduction).
R R C H CHO
Pd BaSO S
H
OCl +
2
4
2
/ ,
or by the reduction of CN with SnCl HCl
2
+
(Stephen reduction)
R R CN H CHO
2
3
2
H O
SnCl HCl
+
+
+
4. Etard reaction is also used to synthesis
benzaldehyde from toluene by treating it with
CrO Cl CS
2 2 2
/ followed by hydrolysis.
C H CH CrO Cl C H CHO
6 5 3 2 2
3
2
6 5
H O
CS
Benzaldehyde
+
+
5. Boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are
higher than hydrocarbons and ethers of
comparable molecular masses. This is because
weak intermolecular association arises in
aldehydes and ketones due to dipole-dipole
interactions.
6. The order of reactivity of aldehydes andketones is
HCHO>CH CHO>C H CHO>CH COCH
3 6 5 3 3
> C H COCH
6 5 3
7. Carbonyl compound form cyanohydrin when treated with
HCN in the presence of a base.
C O HCN C
OH
CN
== + (cyanohydrin)
8. Aldehydes form hemiacetal and acetal when treated with
one or two equivalents of alcohol respectively in the
presence of dry HCl gas.
R
R
R R
H
C O OH
HCl
Hemiacetal
== +

s
H
C
O
OH
H O
OH, HCl
2
Acetal

R
R R
R H
C
O
O
Ketones in this reaction form ketals.
9. Carbonyl compounds form 2,4-DNP derivatives (orange
or yellow or red ppt) with 2,4-DNP (2,4-dinitrophenyl
hydrazine), Brady's reagent.
10. Aldehydes reduce Tollens reagent (ammonical silver
nitrate ) into silver mirror, Fehlings solution into red ppt of
Cu O
2
and Benedicts solution into red ppt. These
reactions are not given by ketones.
11. C O == group is reduced to CH
2
group by
ZnHg/conc. HCl (Clemmenson reduction) or by
NH NH KOH
2 2
+ (Wolff-Kishner reduction).
12. Aldehydes and ketones containing -H atoms undergo
aldol condensation in the presence of dilute alkali as
catalyst e.g.,
-hydroxy aldehydes or ketones are collectivelly called
aldols and the reaction is called aldol condensation.
OH O R
+H X
+
R X
2CH

CHO
3
Ethanal
Dil. NaOH
CH

CH
CH

CHO
3 2
H O
2
D
CH

CH
3
CH
CHO
But-2-enal
(aldol condensation product)
OH
3-hydroxybutanal (aldol)
16
13. When aldehydes having lack of -H atoms are treated
with conc. alkali, it disproportionates to give reduction
product alcohol and oxidised product salt of acid.
This reaction is called Cannizzaro reaction.
2H CHO conc.KOH H CH OH
2
Methanol
+ + H COOK
Potassium
formate
14. Although semicarbazide has two NH
2
groups but
one which is directly attached to C O == is involved in
the resonance. Consequently, electron density on this
NH
2
group decreases and hence, it does not act as
a nucleophile. On the other hand, the lone pair of
electrons on the other NH
2
group is not involved in
resonance and hence, is available for nucleophilic
attack on the C O == group of aldehydes and ketones.
15. Due to + R effect of benzene ring, the electron density
in the carbonyl group of benzaldehyde increases. This
in turn, increases the electron density in the C H
bond of aldehyde group. As a result, the C H bond
becomes stronger and hence, only oxidising agent like
Tollens agent; Ag (NH )
3 2
+
( 0.8 V)
Ag / Ag
+
E
= can
oxidise C H to C OH to form carboxylic acids but
weaker oxidising agent like Fehlings solution or
Benedicts solution ( 0.18 V)
Cu /Cu
2+ +
E = fail to oxidise
benzaldehyde to benzoic acid.
16. Carbon compounds containing a carboxyl functional
group (COOH) are known as carboxylic acids.
Their names are derived by replacing the terminal e
from the name of corresponding straight chain
alkane by suffix oic acid.
17. Nitriles are first hydrolysed to amides and then to
acids in the presence of H or O
+

H as catalyst. Mild
reaction conditions are used to stop the reaction at
the amide stage.
R R
CN C
||
O
NH
H O
H
+
or OH
2
2

H
+
or OH
COOH R
18. Aromatic acids are obtained by vigorous oxidation of
alkyl benzene with chromic acid or acidic or alkaline
KMnO
4
.
19. As compare to hydrocarbons, aldehydes and
ketones, carboxylic acids have higher boiling
points because they have high extent of hydrogen
bonding with water, due to which they exist as
associated molecules.
20. Melting point of an acid containing even number of
carbon atoms is higher than the adjacent members
containing odd number of carbon atoms.
21. Carboxylic acids are stronger acids than phenols
because carboxylate ion is much more resonance
stabilised than phenoxide ion. Electron withdrawing
groups (EWG) increase the stability of the
carboxylate ion by dispersing the negative charge
while electron donating group decrease the
stability of the carboxylate ion by intensifying the
negative charge.
22. Carboxylic acids having an -hydrogen are
halogenated at the -position on treatment with
chlorine or bromine in the presence of small amount
of red phosphorus to give -halocarboxylic acids.
The reaction is known as Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky
reaction.
R CH COOH
2
2
(ii) H O
(i) /Red phosphorus X
2
R
X
CH
|
COOH
-halocarboxylic acid
where, X = Cl Br ,
23. Aromatic carboxylic acids undergo electrophilic
substitution reactions in which the carboxyl group
acts as a deactivating and meta-directing group.
However, they do not undergo Friedel-Crafts
reaction because the carboxyl group is
deactivating and the catalyst aluminium chloride
(Lewis acid) gets bonded to the carboxyl group.
Amines
1. Amines are derivatives of ammonia, obtained by
replacement of one, two or three hydrogen atoms by
alkyl/aryl groups. e g . .,
2. In IUPAC system, amines are named as alkanamines,
derived by replacement of e of alkane by word
amine.
3. Both aliphatic and aromatic primary amines can be
prepared by the reduction of nitro compounds either
catalytically with H
2
in the presence of Raney Ni, Pt or
Pd or chemically with active metal in acidic
medium.
C H NO 3H
6 5 2 2
Nitrobenzene
Sn HCl
or Fe H
+
+
+ Cl
Aniline
C H NH H O
6 5 2 2
+
4. In Hofmann bromamide reaction, amides on
treatment with Br
2
/NaOH gives an amine having
one carbon less than the parent amide.
R
+ + C
O
NH Br 4NaOH
2 2
R + + + NH Na CO 2NaBr 2H O
2 2 3 2
CH
3
KMnO
/
KOH
4
H O
3
+
Heat
COOK
COOH
3 amine
CH
3
N
CH NH , CH NH CH ,CH
3 2 3 3 3
CH
3
1 amine 2 amine
17
5. In Gabriel phthalimide synthesis a phthalimide is
treated with ethanolic KOH and forms potassium salt of
phthalimide which on heating with alkyl halide followed
by alkaline hydrolysis forms corresponding primary
amines.
This method produces only primary amines, without the
traces of secondary or tertiary amines. So, this method
is prefered for the synthesis of primary amines.
6. 1 amines have two, 2 amines have one while
3 amines have no hydrogen linked to nitrogen.
Therefore, the order of boiling point of amines is
1 amines > 2 amines > 3 amines
7. Aliphatic amines are stronger bases than ammonia due
to + I effect (electron donating power) of alkyl groups,
due to which electron density on nitrogen atom
increases and hence, they can easily donate their
electrons as compared to ammonia.
Aromatic amines are weaker bases than ammonia due
to electron withdrawing nature of aryl group.
8. Larger the value of K
b
or smaller the value of p
b
K ,
stronger is the base.
9. Order of basicity of amines in gaseous phase follows
the expected order.
Tertiary amine > Secondary amine
> Primary amine
> Ammonia
10. If we combine the effect of + I group, steric effect and
solvation effect and if the alkyl group is small, i e . . CH
3
,
then there is no steric hindrance to H-bonding and
hence H-bonding predominates over +I effect. Since,
all these effects are favourables for 2 amine, therefore,
order of basicity is
2 amine > 1 amine > 3 amine
If the alkyl group is bigger than CH
3
group, there is
steric hindrance to H-bonding and hence + I effect
predominates over H-bonding. Therefore, the order is
2 amine > 3 amine > 1 amine
11. In anilinium ion there is only two resonating structures,
therefore, it is less stable than aniline (five resonating
structures).
12. In case of substituted aniline, electron releasing
groups like CH
3
, OCH
3
, NH
2
increase
basic strength and electron withdrawing groups
like NO
2
, X, COOH decrease basic
strength.
13. Primary amines on heating with chloroform and
ethanolic potassium hydroxide form isocyanides
or carbylamines which have foul smell. This
reaction is called carbylamine reaction or
isocyanide test. This reaction is used to test
primary amines.
e.g., R + +
NH CHCl 3KOH
2 3
1 amine Chloroform
R + NC + 3KCl 3H O
socyanide
2
I
14. Primary aliphatic amines when treated with HNO
2
(NaNO
2
+HCl) gives alcohol whereas primary
aromatic amines in this reaction give diazonium
salt (C H N Cl )
6 5 2
+
.
15. In aniline electron density at ortho- and para-
positions to the NH
2
is high. Therefore, NH
2
group is ortho or para directing and powerful
activating. To control its activity aniline is subjected
to acetylation before subjecting to electrophilic
substitution reactions.
16. Reactions involving displacement of nitrogen
(Sandmeyer reaction)
CuCl /HCl
C H Cl + N
6 5 2
+
(Gatterman reaction)
Cu / HBr
C H Br + N
6 5 2
CuX
+ +
HBF
4
6 5 3 2
C H F + BF N HX
+
+ H PO H O
3 2 2
6 6 2
C H N + + H PO H
3 3
H O
2
6 5 2
C H OH + N H + X
17. Benzene diazonium chloride reacts with phenol in
which phenol molecule at its para position is
coupled with diazonium salt to give the product
p-hydroxyazobenzene, hence the reaction is
known as coupling reaction. The azo products
obtained are coloured and used as dyes.
N
+
NCl
Benzene
diazonium
chloride
CO
CO
NH + KOH (alc.)
Phthalimide
H O
2
CO
CO
N K
+
Potassium phthalimide
R X
CO
Na
+
CONa
+
1 amine
R
NH
2
NaOH( ) aq CO
CO
N-alkylphthalimide
NR
O
O
+
N
+
NCl
+ H
OH
OH
N N OH+Cl +H O
2
p-hydroxyazobenzene
(orange dye)
18
Biomolecules
1. Carbohydrates may be defined as optically active
polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds
which produce such units on hydrolysis.
2. Simple carbohydrates which cannot be hydrolysed to
simpler carbohydrates are called monosaccharides. e g . .,
glucose, fructose, ribose, etc.
3. Carbohydrates which give 2-10 monosaccharide units on
hydrolysis are called oligosaccharides (e.g., maltose,
lactose) and that give a large number of monosaccharide
units are called polysaccharides e g . ., starch, cellulose,
etc.
4. Carbohydrates in which ketonic or aldehydic groups are
free and are capable of reducing Fehlings solution or
Tollens reagent are known as reducing sugars. e.g., all
monosaccharides and disaccharides except sucrose.
5. Carbohydrates in which aldehydic or ketonic group are
bonded and those which do not reduce Fehling solution
or Tollens reagent are called non-reducing sugars.
e.g., sucrose.
6. On prolonged heating with HI, glucose gives n-hexane
which suggest that all the six carbon atoms in glucose are
linked linearly.
HOCH (CHOH) CHO + HI
2 4

CH (CH ) CH
3 2 4 3
-hexane n
7. When oxidised with bromine water, glucose gives gluconic
acid and with HNO
3
it gives saccharic acid.
(CHOH)
CH OH
CH OH
(CHO
4
2
2
2
Gluconic acid
Br water
H)
CH OH
CHO
(CHOH)
COOH
COO
4
2
3
4
HNO
Saccharic acid
H
8. Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives
glucose penta-acetate which confirms the presence of
five OH groups. Since, it exists as a stable compound,
five OH groups should be attached to different carbon
atoms.
(CHOH)
CH OH
CHO
4
2
3
3
(Acetylation)
CH COO
CH COO
O
(Acetic anhydride)
( )

CH
CHO
O C
O
CH
CH O C
O
CH

3 4
2 3
Glucose penta -acetate
(stable compound)
9. Open chain structure of D-glucose could not explain the
following reactions
(i) Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not
give Schiffs test and 2,4-DNP test.
(ii) Glucose does not react with sodium hydrogen
sulphide to form addition product.
(iii) The penta-acetate of glucose does not react with
hydroxyl amine showing the absence of free CHO.
10. The two monosaccharides are joined together by an oxide
linkage formed by loss of a water molecule. Such a
linkage is known as glycosidic linkage.
11. Mutarotation is the spontaneous change in the
specific rotation of an optically active compo-
und towards an equilibrium value.
12. When two cyclic forms of a carbohydrate differ
in configuration of hydroxyl groups at C-1, they
are called anomers and represented as and
-form.
13. The six membered cyclic structure of glucose is
known as pyranose structure ( or ).
14. Although, sucrose is dextrorotatory but after
hydrolysis it gives dextrorotatory glucose and
laevorotatory fructose (the mixture is
laevorotatory because laevorotation is more
than dextrorotation). Since, hydrolysis of
sucrose brings about a change in the sign of
rotation i e . ., from dextro ( ) + to laevo ( ) hence
the product is known as invert sugar.
15. Maltose is composed of two -D-glucose units
in which C-1 of one glucose unit (I) is linked to
C-4 of another glucose unit (II).
16. Lactose is composed of -D-galactose and
-D-glucose.
17. Starch consists of two components namely
amylose and amylopectin.
Amylose is soluble in water and constitutes
15-20% of starch while amylopectin is insoluble
in water and constitutes about 80-85% of
starch. In both amylose and amylopectin, the
D-glucose units are linked through -glycosidic
linkages between C-1 of one glucose unit and
C-4 of the next glucose unit whereas in
amylopectin the branching occurs by C
1
-C
6
glycosidic linkage.
18. Amino acids which are synthesised by the
body are called non-essential. On the other
hand, those which cannot be synthesised in the
human body and are supplied in the form of
diet because they are required to proper health
and growth are called essential amino acids.
19. In -helix, polypeptide chain forms all possible
hydrogen bonds between NH group of each
amino acid and C O == of an adjacent turn
leading to twisting of polypeptide chain into a
right handed helix.
-D-(+)-glucopyranose
O
OH
1
4
H
5
3 2
OH
H
HO
H
6CH OH
2
H
OH H
-D-(+)-glucopyranose
O
OH
1 4
H
5
3 2
OH
H HO
H
CH OH
2
H
OH H
6
19
20. In -structure or - pleated sheet all peptide
chains are stretched out to maximum extension
and they laid side by side which are held together
by intermolecular hydrogen bonds.
21. When there is a physical change like change in
temperature or chemical change like change in pH
in the native form, the hydrogen bond gets
disturbed. As a result, globules unfold and helices
get uncoiled and protein loses its biological
activity. This is known as denaturation of protein.
During denaturation 2 and 3 structures destroyed
but 1 structure remains intact. e.g., coagulation of
egg white on boiling and curdling of milk.
22. Biological catalysts are known as enzymes they
are made up of proteins. Enzymes are very
specific for a particular reaction and for a particular
substrate. e.g., invertase, zymase, etc.
23. Amino acids within the same molecule contain an
acidic (carboxyl) group and a basic (amino) group.
Carboxyl group in aqueous solution loses a proton
while amino group accepts a proton results in the
formation of Zwitter ion.
H N CH
|
COOH H N CH
|
COO
2 3
Zwitter ion

+
R R
In Zwitter ionic form, -amino acids show
amphoteric behaviour, as they react with acids and
bases both.
24. Deficiency diseases of vitamin A, B
6
, B
12
, C, D and E
are respectively xerophthalmia, convulsion, pernicious
anaemia, scurvy, rickets and infertility.
25. Because vitamin B and C are soluble in water, they are
excreted readily in urine and hence, cannot be stored
in the body.
26. Nucleic acids are of two types: deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
27. DNA is composed of deoxyribose sugar; adenine and
guanine purine base; thymine and cytosine pyrimidine
base and phosphoric acid. Its structural unit is called
nucleotide.
Nucleotide = phosphate + sugar + base
Nucleoside = sugar + base
Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate.
28. James Watson and Francis Crick proposed a double
helical structure of DNA.
29. The process by which a DNA molecule produces two
identical molecules of itself in the nucleus of the cell is
called replication.
30. RNA is composed of ribose sugar, adenine and
guanine purine base; uracil and cytosine pyrimidine
base and phosphoric acid.
31. There are three types of RNAs
(i) Ribosomal RNA ( r-RNA)
(ii) Messenger RNA ( m-RNA)
(iii) Transfer RNA ( t-RNA).
Polymers
1. Polymers can be defined as compounds of high
molecular mass (10
3
- 10 u)
7
formed by combination of
large number of small molecules. The small
molecules which constitute the repeating units in a
polymer are called monomer units.
2. Homopolymers are those addition polymers in
which single monomeric species is involved in their
formation. e.g., polythene.
nCH CH
2 2
Ethene
== (CH CH )
2 2
Polythene

n
3. Copolymers are those addition polymers in which
two different monomeric species are involved in their
formation. e.g., Buna-S.
n n CH CH CH CH C H CH CH
2 2 6 5 2
1, 3-butadiene
Styr
== == + ==
ene
( CH CH CH
2
Butadiene- styrene
copolymer(Buna -S)
== CH CH CH )
C H
2 2
6 5
n
4. Elastomers are rubber-like solids with elastic
properties. These polymers have the weakest
intermolecular forces, which permit the polymer to
be stretched. A few cross-links are introduced in
between the chains, through which the polymer
regain its original position after the force is released
in vulcanised rubber. e.g., Buna-S, Buna-N,
neoprene, etc.

== ( CH C
Cl
CH CH )
Neoprene
2 2 n
5. Fibres have strong intermolecular forces like
hydrogen bonding or dipole-dipole interactions. They
are useful in making fibres as their molecules are
long and thread-like. They possess high tensile
strength, high modulus and less elasticity. These
strong forces also lead to close packing of chains
and imparts crystalline nature. e.g., nylon-6,6,
(polyamides), terylene (polyester) etc.
6. Thermoplastic polymers are those polymers in
which intermolecular forces are intermediate
between those of elastomers and fibres. They are
linear or slightly branched long molecules which are
capable of repeatedly softening on heating and
hardening on cooling. e.g., polystyrene, polythene,
PVC, etc.
(CH CH )
|
Cl
2 n
(PVC)
20
7. Thermosetting polymers are heavily cross-linked or
branched molecules, which on heating undergo extensive
cross-linking and become infusible. Once they get set,
they cannot be reshaped and reused. e.g., bakelite,
urea-formaldehyde resins, etc.
8. Steps involved in free radical polymerisation are
Step I Chain initiation
(C H COO) (C H COO) 2C H
6 5 2 6 5
2
6 5
CO

Step II Chain propagation

C H CH CH C H CH CH
6 5 2 2 6 5 2 2
+ ==

Step III Chain terminating
2C H (CH CH ) CH CH
6 5 2 2 2 2

n

C H (CH CH ) CH CH CH
6 5 2 2 2 2 2
n
(CH CH ) C H
2 2 6 5
n
9. Polymers and their monomers
(i) Polymer Polythene
Monomer Ethene (CH CH )
2 2
==
(ii) Polymer Teflon
Monomer Tetrafluoroethylene. (CF CF )
2 2
==
(iii) Polymer Orlon or acrilan, polyacrylonitrile (PNA)
Monomer Acrylonitrile [CH CH(CN)
2
== ]
(iv) Polymer Terylene or dacron.
Monomers Ethylene glycol (CH OH CH OH
2 2
),
terephthalic acid,
(v) Polymer Nylon 6 or perlon
Monomer Caprolactam
(vi) Polymer Nylon 6,6
Monomers Adipic acid [HOOC(CH ) COOH]
2 4
,
hexamethylene diamine [H N(CH ) NH
2 2 6 2
]
(vii) Polymer Bakelite
Monomer Formaldehyde (HCHO),
phenol (C H OH)
6 5
(viii) Polymer PMMA
Monomer Methyl methacrylate
(CH C
COOCH
CH )
2
3
3
==
(ix) Polymer Cellulose

Monomer -D-glucose.
(x) Polymer Neoprene or synthetic rubber
Monomer Chloroprene
CH C
Cl
CH CH
2 2
==
==
(xi) Polymer Buna-S
Monomer Buta-1,3-diene
(CH CH CH CH )
2 2
== == ,
styrene (C H CH CH )
6 5 2
==
(xii) Polymer Buna-N
Monomer Buta-1,3-diene
(CH CH CH CH )
2 2
== == ,
acrylonitrile (CH CH CN)
2
==
10. Natural rubber is cis polyisoprene, a polymer
of isoprene (2-methylbuta-1, 3-diene).
11. Vulcanisation is the heating of natural rubber
with sulphur and an appropriate additive at a
temperature range between 373 K to 415 K.
Sulphur forms cross-links at the reactive sites of
the double bond and thus, rubber gets stiffened
i.e., becomes less sticky and plastic, more
resistant to swelling by organic liquids and has
enhanced elasticity. Physical properties of rubber
can be improved by vulcanisation.
12. Rubber made with 1-3% sulphur is soft and
stretchy and is used in making rubber bands
and rubber made with 5% sulphur is more rigid
and is used in the manufacture of tyres for
automobiles etc. It is also used in making
footwears, battery boxes, foam mattresses,
balloons, toys, etc.
13. Main constituent of bubble gum is
styrene-butadiene copolymer.
14. Biodegradable polymers are those polymers
which get decomposed by themselves over a
period of time due to environmental
degradation by bacteria.
e.g., PHBV(Poly -hydroxy butyrate-co--hy
droxy valerate).
H
N
C O
CH
2
CH
2
H C
2
H C
2
H C
2
(HOOC COOH)
Chemistry in Everyday Life
1. Chemotherapy means treatment of a disease with the
help of chemicals in the form of medicines.
2. Drug target are the biomolecules such as
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids with
which drugs usually interact.
3. A drug travels through the human system in order to
reach the target. So, the drug should be designed in
such a way that it reaches the target without being
metabolised in between.
4. Competitive inhibitors compete with the
natural substrate for their attachment on the
active site of enzymes.
5. Some drugs, instead of binding to the enzymes
active site, bind to a different site of enzyme,
which is called allosteric site. Due to this action,
the shape of the active site is changed to the
extent that substrate does not recognise it.
21
6. The message between two neurons and that between
neurons to muscles is communicated through certain
chemicals in the body, which are known as chemical
messengers.
7. Some chemical substances which remove the excess
acid in the stomach and raise the pH at appropriate
level are called antacids.
e.g., sodium hydrogen carbonate, a mixture of
aluminium and magnesium hydroxide, etc.
8. Tranquilizers are a class of chemical compounds used
for the treatment of stress and mild or severe mental
diseases. These form an essential component of
sleeping pills Chlorodiazepoxide, meprobamate are
mild tranquilizers and are used in relieving pain. Equanil
is used in controlling depression and hypertension.
9. Barbiturates (Derivatives of barbituric acid), like
veronal, amytal, nembutal, luminal, seconal, valium,
serotonin, etc. are used as hypnotic, i e . ., sleep
producing agents.
10. Analgesics abolish or reduce pain without causing
impairment of consciousness, mental confusion,
incoordination or paralysis or some other disturbances
of nervous system. Aspirin and paracetamol belong to
the class of (non-narcotic or non-addictive or non-habit
forming) analgesics. Morphine and many of its
homologues are narcotic or habit forming analgesics.
11. Chemical substance used to bring down body
temperature at the time of high fever are called
antipyretics e.g., aspirin, paracetamol, etc.
12. Antibiotics are the substance produced wholly or partly
by chemical synthesis, which in low concentrations
inhibit the growth or destroy microorganisms by
intervening in their metabolic processes.
Arsphenamine (salvarsan) was the first effective
antibiotic for syphilis.
13. Antibiotics which kill or inhibit a wide range of
gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria are called
broad spectrum antibiotics and those effective against
gram-positive or gram-negative bacteria are called
narrow spectrum antibiotics. Penicillin G is a narrow
spectrum antibiotics while ampicillin and amoxycillin are
synthetic penicillins and are broad spectrum antibiotics.
Chloramphenicol is one of the broad spectrum
antibiotics and can be given orally to treat typhoid,
dysentery, acute fever and pneumonia.
14. Antiseptics are chemicals which check the growth of
microorganisms or kill them but are not harmful to the
living human tissues.
Dettol, a mixture of chloroxylenol (also known as
parachlorometaxylenol) and terpineol, is a commonly
used antiseptic for wounds, cuts, diseased skin
surfaces, etc.
15. Bithional is added to soaps to impart them antiseptic
properties. Such soaps are used to reduce odour due
to bacterial action on skin surface.
16. Iodine is also used as an antiseptic in the form of
tincture of iodine i.e., a 2 3 % solution of iodine
in alchohol-water.
17. Disinfectants are the chemicals which too
prevent the growth of microorganisms or kill them
but they are harmful to the living tissues, thus
these are applied on inanimate objects.
18. 0.2% solution of phenol can be used as an
antiseptic while 1% solution of phenol acts as a
disinfectant.
19. Aspartame (an artificial sweetener) is methyl
ester of dipeptide formed from aspartic acid and
phenylalanine. It is unstable at cooking
temperature so it is only used in cold foods and
soft drinks.
20. Alitame (an artificial sweetener) is high potent
sweetener therefore control of sweetness of food
is difficult while using it. It is more stable than
aspartame.
21. Antioxidants retard the action of oxygen on food
thus, reducing the speed of decomposition by
oxidation. The most familiar antioxidants are BHT
(butylated hydroxy toluene) and BHA (butylated
hydroxy anisole).
22. Some cleansing agents have all the properties of
soaps, but actually do not contain any soap, they
are synthetic detergents. They can be used both
in soft and hard water as they give foam even in
hard water.
23. Anionic detergents are sodium salts of
sulphonated long chain alcohol or hydrocarbon.
e.g., sodium lauryl sulphate, sodiumdodecyl
benzene sulphonate.
24. Cationic detergents are quarternary ammonium
salts of amines with acetates, chlorides or
bromides as anions.
e g . ., cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide, used in
hair conditioner.
25. Non-ionic detergents do not contain any ion in
their constitution. These are esters of high
molecular mass alcohols. One such detergent is
formed by the reaction of stearic acid with
polyethylene glycol.
26. Biodegradable detergents are those
detergents which can be degraded or
decomposed by microorganisms present in
water. Such detergents have straight chains of
hydrocarbons in the molecule. e.g., sodium lauryl
sulphate, sodium dodecyl benzene sulphate.
27. Non-biodegradable detergents are not
degraded by microorganism. It is observed that
bacteria cannot degrade detergents having highly
branched hydrocarbon chain. e g . ., sodium 4-(1,3,
5, 7-tetra methyl octyl) benzene sulphonate.

Revision Notes Chemistry XII

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Revision Notes Chemistry XII

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1

The Solid State

Fast Track Revision Notes Chemistry-XII

15. Activation energy (E

= fraction of molecules with energies equal to or

9. The process of heating of metal ore below its

where the cation [PCl ]

19. Electron gain enthalpy of oxygen is less negative than

18. In acidic medium, KMnO

whereas in neutral medium, it

ions. As CC bond is more stable than

Step II Chain propagation

(ix) Polymer Cellulose

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