Measure Define Unit,defect & Defect Opportunity Set specification limits
Develop Data collection plan Collect data
Analyze Measure Improve Control Define Establish Data Collection Plan Define Performance Standards CCR Gap Sigma= X What is the specific CTQ characteristic you will improve? How will you measure the process performance? What data do you need what is the data collection plan? I s the data valid and accurate? Outputs Process Xs or Factors PROCESS X 1 X 2 X 3 X 4 Y 1 Y 2 Y 3 Measure ...measure what you care about; know your measure is good... DMAIC Measure Measure is a logical follow-up to Define and in a bridge to the next step- Analyze. Overview of Brainstorming Techniques A commonly used tool to solicit ideas by using categories to stimulate cause and effect relationship with a problem. It uses verbal inputs in a team environment. Problem or Condition The Y The Xs (Causes) l Categories Material Measurement Environment People Machine Method The Problem Cause and Effect Diagram Problem or Condition The Y The Xs (Causes) l Categories Material Measurement Environment People Machine Method The Problem Cause and Effect Diagram The Vital Few A Six Sigma Belt does not just discover which Xs are important in a process (the vital few). The team considers all possible Xs that can contribute or cause the problem observed. The team uses 3 primary sources of X identification: Process Mapping Fishbone Analysis Basic Data Analysis Graphical and Statistical A List of Xs is established and compiled. The team then prioritizes which Xs it will explore first, and eliminates the obvious low impact Xs from further consideration.
The Focus of Six Sigma Y Dependent Output Effect Symptom Monitor X1 . . . Xn Independent Input-Process Cause Problem Control Y f(X) Would you control shooter or target to get the Gold Medal at Olympics Y = F (x) OUTPUT SIGNAL IN-PROCESS PARAMETERS RELATIONSHIP or EQUATION THAT EXPLAINS Y IN TERMS OF X Distance traveled Car speed, traveling time Determined by Money to Spend Income, Commitments, Credit Rating Determined by OUTPUT (Y) IS DETERMINED BY THE VALUES OF THE IN-PROCESS PARAMETERS (Xs) Controlling the Output
We use a variety of Six Sigma tools to help separate the vital few variables effecting our Y from the trivial many. Some processes contain many, many variables. However, our Y is not effected equally by all of them. By focusing on the vital few we instantly gain leverage.
Archimedes said: Give me a lever big enough and fulcrum on which to place it, and I shall move the world. (X6) (X2) (X4) (X1) (X7) (X5) (X3) (X8) (X10) (X9) Y= F (X) Overview of Process Mapping In order to correctly manage a process, you must be able to describe it in a way that can be easily understood. The preferred method for describing a process is to identify it with a generic name, show the workflow with a Process Map and describe its purpose with an operational description. The first activity of the Measure Phase is to adequately describe the process under investigation. Finish Step A Step B Step C Step D Start 1. Process inputs (Xs) 2. Supplier requirements 3. Process outputs (Ys) 4. Actual customer needs 5. All value-added and non-value added process tasks and steps 6. Data collection points Cycle times Defects Inventory levels Cost of poor quality, etc. 7. Decision points 8. Problems that have immediate fixes 9. Process control needs Information from Process Mapping By mapping processes we can identify many important characteristics and develop information for other analytical tools: There are usually three views of a process
Process Mapping What you THINK it is.. 1 What it ACTUALLY is.. 2 3 What it SHOULD be.. Define Performance Standards Performance Standard A performance Standard defines
The customer want Clearly whether a process is performing well or not e.g. loan approval within 24 hours first call resolution A Performance Standard translates the Voice of Customer in a measurable metric. The Basic Six Sigma Metrics
Better: DPU, DPMO, RTY (there are others, but they derive from these basic three) Faster: Cycle Time Cheaper: COPQ In any process improvement endeavor, the ultimate objective is to make the process: If you make the process better by eliminating defects you will make it faster. If you choose to make the process faster, you will have to eliminate defects to be as fast as you can be. If you make the process better or faster, you will necessarily make it cheaper.
The metrics for all Six Sigma projects fall into one of these three categories Nomenclature Number of operation steps = m Defects = D Unit = U Opportunities for a defect = O Yield = Y Basic Relationships Total Opportunities = TOP = U x O Defects per Unit = DPU = D/U Defects per Unit Opportunity = DPO = DPU/O = D/UxO Defects per million Opportunity = DPMO = DPO x 10 6
The Basic Six Sigma Metrics Unit: The event/transaction produced or processed Defect: Any event/transaction that does not meet the Customer requirement Opportunity: Any inputs to event/transaction that can be measured that provides a chance of not meeting a Customer requirement Defective: A unit with one or more defects Specification Limits: Tolerance Limit beyond which customer would be dissatisfied - VOC Defective and Defect A nonconforming unit is a defective unit Defect is nonconformance on one of many possible quality characteristics of a unit that causes customer dissatisfaction. A defect does not necessarily make the unit defective Examples: Scratch on water bottle (However if customer wants a scratch free bottle, then this will be defective bottle) Defect Opportunity Circumstances in which CTQ can fail to meet. Number of defect opportunities relate to complexity of unit. Complex units Greater opportunities of defect than simple units Examples: A units has 5 parts, and in each part there are 3 opportunities of defects Total defect opportunities are 5 x 3 = 15 DPO (Defect Per Opportunity) Number of defects divided by number of defect opportunities Examples: In previous case (15 defect opportunities), if 10 units have 2 defects. Defects per unit = 2 / 10 = 0.2 DPO = 2 / (15 x 10) = 0.0133333 Yield Probability of a part made within specifications.
Yield = e -DPU
DPU = Defects per unit
Example Five defects are observed in 467 units produced. The number of defects per unit is 5/467. What will be the yield of the process? 0.98935 or 98.94% The number of acceptable is called Yield
First Time Yield FTY is the traditional quality metric for yield Unfortunately, it does not account for any necessary rework
FTY = Total Units Passed Total Units Tested Units in = 100 Units Out = 100
Units in = 100 Units Out = 100
Units in = 100 Units Out = 100 Units Passed = 50 Units Tested = 50 FTY = 100 % Process A (Grips) Process B (Shafts) Process C (Club Heads) Final Product (Set of Irons) Defects Repaired 40 Defects Repaired 30 Defects Repaired 20 Traditional metrics when chosen poorly can lead the team in a direction that is not consistent with the focus of the business. Some of the metrics we must be concerned about would be FTY - FIRST TIME YIELD.
It is very possible to have 100% FTY and spend tremendous amounts in excess repairs and rework.
First Time Yield Rolled Throughput Yield RTY is a more appropriate metric for problem solving It accounts for losses due to rework steps
RTY = X 1 * X 2 * X 3 Units in = 100 Units W/O Rework = 60 RTY = 0.6 Units in = 100 Units W/O Rework = 70 RTY = 0.7 Units in = 100 Units W/O Rework = 80 RTY = 0.8 Units Passed = 34 Units Tested = 100 RTY = 33.6 % Process A (Grips) Process B (Shafts) Process C (Club Heads) Final Product (Set of Irons) Defects Repaired 40 Defects Repaired 30 Defects Repaired 20 Instead of relying on FTY - First Time Yield, a more efficient metric to use is RTY - Rolled Throughput Yield. RTY has a direct correlation (relationship) to Cost of Poor Quality.
In the few organizations where data is readily available, the RTY can be calculated using actual defect data. The data provided by this calculation would be a Bi-Nominal Distribution since the lowest yield possible would be zero.
As depicted here, RTY is the multiplied yield of each subsequent operation throughout a process (X 1 * X 2 * X 3 )
Rolled Throughput Yield DPMO Calculations Characteristic Defects Units Opportunities Total Opportunities Defects per Unit Defects per Total Opportunities Defects per Million Opportunities D U O U X O D/U D/UxO DPO x 10 6
Type A 21 327 92 30084 0.06422 0.000698045 698.04547 Type B 10 350 85 29750 0.02857 0.000336134 336.13445 Type C 8 37 43 1591 0.21621 0.005028284 5028.28410 Type D 68 743 50 37150 0.09152 0.001830417 1830.41723 Type E 74 80 60 4800 0.92500 0.015416667 15416.6667 Type F 20 928 28 25984 0.02515 0.000769704 769.704433 Quality Level Calculation
Sigma Quality Level = 0.8406 + 29.37 2.221{ln(dpm)} Example Lets take an Example of a Coffee Shop What are the things which make a Good Hot Coffee?? Temperature Aroma Crockery Froth Ambience Coffee Beans Service Availability Price Blend Example: Defects & Opportunity What happens when the coffee is not HOT & the Service is poor?? 10 Opportunities & 2 Defects Out of 10 parameters only 8 get fulfilled
Defects = 2 Opportunities = 10 Unit = 1 D/(U*O)= 0.2 DPMO = 0.2*1000000 DPMO = 200000 Only 2.34 Sigma
Sigma DPMO YIELD Sigma DPMO YIELD 6 3.4 99.99966% 2.9 81,000 91.9% 5.9 5.4 99.99946% 2.8 97,000 90.3% 5.8 8.5 99.99915% 2.7 120,000 88.0% 5.7 13 99.99866% 2.6 140,000 86.0% 5.6 21 99.9979% 2.5 160,000 84.0% 5.5 32 99.9968% 2.4 180,000 82.0% 5.4 48 99.9952% 2.3 210,000 79.0% 5.3 72 99.9928% 2.2 240,000 76.0% 5.2 108 99.9892% 2.1 270,000 73.0% 5.1 159 99.984% 2 310,000 69.0% 5 233 99.977% 1.9 340,000 66.0% 4.9 337 99.966% 1.8 380,000 62.0% 4.8 483 99.952% 1.7 420,000 58.0% 4.7 687 99.931% 1.6 460,000 54.0% 4.6 968 99.90% 1.5 500,000 50.0% 4.5 1,300 99.87% 1.4 540,000 46.0% 4.4 1,900 99.81% 1.3 580,000 42.0% 4.3 2,600 99.74% 1.2 620,000 38.0% 4.2 3,500 99.65% 1.1 660,000 34.0% 4.1 4,700 99.53% 1 690,000 31.0% 4 6,200 99.38% 0.9 730,000 27.0% 3.9 8,200 99.18% 0.8 760,000 24.0% 3.8 11,000 98.9% 0.7 790,000 21.0% 3.7 14,000 98.6% 0.6 820,000 18.0% 3.6 18,000 98.2% 0.5 840,000 16.0% 3.5 23,000 97.7% 0.4 860,000 14.0% 3.4 29,000 97.1% 0.3 880,000 12.0% 3.3 36,000 96.4% 0.2 900,000 10.0% 3.2 45,000 95.5% 0.1 920,000 8.0% 3.1 55,000 94.5% 3 67,000 93.3% Establish Data Collection Plan Data Collection 1. What is the data source or location? Answers to this question help to clearly identify the point at which the raw data is collected. The most common mistake made in answering this question is not to identify where reports come from. Examples of raw data collection include: on tags, in log books, entered into data bases, scribbled on surveys, interpreted from phone conversations or automatically tallied by machinery.
2. Who is the data collector? The answer to this question is typically a front line employee: operator, clerk, waiter or other. If the data is scanned or automatically tallied by machinery or computer, then a simple entry of the method employed is adequate.
3. What is the sampling plan? This question is often confused with reporting. The question is meant to apply to raw data. How often is data collected? Examples include: continuously, once per minute, each setup, each shift, each customer contact, every fifth call.
Data Collection Six Sigma project leaders should develop a sound data collection plan to gather reliable and statistically valid data in the DMAIC measurement phase.
Incorporating these steps into a data collection plan will improve the likelihood that the data and measurements can be used to support the ensuing analysis. Data Collection Plan
Y - Measure Data Source & Location Sample Size Who When How X data that should also be collected
Step 1: Define Goals And Objectives
A good data collection plan should include A brief description of the project The specific data that is needed The rationale for collecting the data What insight the data might provide (to a process being studied) and how it will help the improvement team What will be done with the data once it has been collected Being clear on these elements will facilitate the accurate and efficient collection of data.
Step 2: Define Operational Definitions and Methodology
The improvement team should clearly define what data is to be collected and how. It should decide what is to be evaluated and determine how a numerical value will be assigned, so as to facilitate measurement.
How many observations are needed What time interval should be part of the study Whether past, present, and future data will be collected The methodologies that will be employed to record all the data
It is best to obtain complete understanding of and agreement on all the applicable definitions, procedures and guidelines that will be used in the collection of data. Overlooking this step can yield misleading results if members of the improvement team are interpreting loosely defined terms differently when collecting data. Serious problems can arise for the organization when business decisions are made based on this potentially unreliable data.
Step 3: Ensuring Repeatability, Reproducibility, Accuracy and Stability
The data being collected (and measured) will be repeatable if the same operator is able to reach essentially the same outcome multiple times on one particular item with the same equipment.
The data will be reproducible if all the operators who are measuring the same items with the same equipment are reaching essentially the same outcomes. In addition, the degree to which the measurement system is accurate will generally be the difference between an observed average measurement and the associated known standard value.
Step 4: The Data Collection Process
Once the data collection process has been planned and defined, it is best to follow through with the process from start to finish, ensuring that the plan is being executed consistently and accurately. Assuming project lead has communicated to all the data collectors and participants what is to be collected and the rationale behind it, he or she might need to do additional preparation by reviewing with the team all the applicable definitions, procedures, and guidelines, etc., and checking for universal agreement. This could be followed up with some form of training or demonstration that will further enhance a common understanding of the data collection process as defined in the plan.
Step 5: After The Data Collection Process
The project lead should check to see that the results (data and measurements) are reasonable and that they meet the criteria. If the results are not meeting the criteria, then the project lead should determine where any breakdowns exist and what to do with any data and/or measurements that are suspect.
Reviewing the operational definitions and methodology with the participants should help to clear up any misunderstandings or misinterpretations that may have caused the breakdowns.
Collect Visual Data to See the Problem Where possible use a Digital or Video Camera and capture the defect or process problem. A picture is worth a thousand words in understanding and communication of the origin and nature of problems. Data Segmentation Segmentation involves dividing data into logical categories for analyzing data. For instance, while recording the errors made by a data entry process, the project manager may choose to capture the step at which the error occurred, the operator who made the error and so on. Sampling Sample Determining sample size is a very important issue because samples that are too large may waste time, resources and money, while samples that are too small may lead to inaccurate results Sampling There are normally two types of studies: population and process. With a population study, the analyst is interested in estimating or describing some characteristic of the population (inferential statistics).
With a process study, the analyst is interested in predicting a process characteristic or change over time. It is important to make the distinction for proper selection of a sampling strategy. Sampling Strategies Random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Systematic sampling
Rational sub-grouping
Random Sampling Random samples are used in population sampling situations when reviewing historical or batch data. The key to random sampling is that each unit in the population has an equal probability of being selected in the sample Stratified Random Sampling Stratified random samples are used in population sampling situations when reviewing historical or batch data. Stratified random sampling is used when the population has different groups (strata) and the analyst needs to ensure that those groups are fairly represented in the sample. In stratified random sampling, independent samples are drawn from each group. The size of each sample is proportional to the relative size of the group. Systematic Sampling Systematic sampling is typically used in process sampling situations when data is collected in real time during process operation.
Systematic sampling involves taking samples according to some systematic rule e.g., every fourth unit, the first five units every hour, etc. Rational Sub grouping Rational sub-grouping is the process of putting measurements into meaningful groups to better understand the important sources of variation. Rational sub-grouping is typically used in process sampling situations when data is collected in real time during process operations. It involves grouping measurements produced under similar conditions, sometimes called short-term variation. This type of grouping assists in understanding the sources of variation between subgroups, sometimes called long-term variation. Sampling Strategy Tips Use following pointers for sampling strategy for a given process:
It is always better to collect small sample spread over longer time period than one large sample over a shorter time period. Sample more frequently for unstable process and less frequently for stable process Sample more frequently for process with short cycle time and less frequently for process with long cycle time Sampling Strategy Tips To understand the sampling frequency one should understand the objective of data collection The most important issue to remember when considering sample frequency is the data collection objective. The sampling frequency is driven by the objective of data collection
e.g. if the data collected is for monitoring process one might want to sample data daily. However if the objective is to collect data for the same process to study capability one might want to collect data for few months by sampling few data points each week or month. Analyze Sub process mapping Cause & Effect Diagram
Analyze Measure Improve Control Define Establish Process Capability Identify Variation Sources Calculate Process Capability Process Capability There are two popular measures for quantitatively determining if a process is capable:
Process capability ratio (Cp)
Process capability index (Cpk)
Process Capability Ratio For a process to be capable, its values must fall within upper and lower specifications.
Process capability is within 3 standard deviation from the process mean.
A capable process has a Cp of at least 1.0. Cp = 1.0 means 99.73 % out puts are within specifications, it suggests that a very capable process The higher the process capability ratio, the greater the likelihood the process will be within design specifications.
Process Capability Ratio A comparison between the specified limits and the process limits Your Cp is good ( > 1) Here the process limits fall out of the specified limits Your Cp is bad ( < 1) Process Capability Ratio Process Capability Ratio Process Capability When the process is in statistical control, process capability is equal to 6 Cp Cp does not measure process performance in terms of the nominal or target value.
WHAT IF YOUR PROCESS CENTRE IS SHIFTED FROM YOUR SPECIFICATION CENTRE ?
Shift In The Process Mean Process Capability Index Cpk It measures the difference between the desired and actual dimensions of goods or services produced.
Cpk = min of [Upper spec limit X/ 3, X - Lower spec limit / 3] Process Capability Ratio Cpk Cpk Cpk gives additional information about the centering. Therefore, it is also called process performance index.
Increasing value of Cpk means that the process is increasingly becoming capable Cpk Cpk > 1 a capable process
CpK < 1 a not capable process Process Capability Study Evaluating of a newly established process Evaluating the performance of a new machinery. Reviewing specification based on the inherent variability of the process Process studies Studying the effect of adjustments made to the process Data Analysis To understand the level of current process, analyze the collected data with the help of statistical tools. Baseline Process Study data for stability, shape Statistically indicate the nature of the problem Calculate the baseline capability of the process.
Describe the process by its
Descriptive statistics Nature of distribution Understand Specification Limits and Centering or Target Values Calculate: probability of a defect and process capability Setting a Goal for Y metric Following are approaches which one could adopt to define the Goal for Y metric: Benchmarking: One can target to achieve best in industry. Arbitrary Defect Reduction: This is frequently used with discrete metric. E.g.reduce DPMO by 50% Other sources for setting a goal Following are few more options which drive the goal for process metric: Corporate mandate Compliance/legal requirement Voice Of Customer Industry Standards (e.g. ISO) In Analyze phase, you work with all the information gathered in the Measure phase to determine potential causes and to prepare for making key changes to positively alter each scenario. Analyze - Summary Thank You
(Studies in American Popular History and Culture) Gail Fowler Mohanty - Labor and Laborers of The Loom - Mechanization and Handloom Weavers, 1780-1840 - Routledge (2006)