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CHAPTER- 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
An alarm clock (or sometimes just alarm) is a clock that is designed to wake a person at a
specific time. Traditional mechanical alarm clocks have one or two bells that ring by means
of a main spring that powers a gear to propel a hammer back and forth between the two bells
or between the interior sides of a single bell. In an electric bell-style alarm clock, the bell is
rung by an electromagnetic circuit and armature that turns the circuit on and off repeatedly.
Many modern cell phones feature built-in alarms that do not require the phone to be powered
on for the alarm to go off. Some of these cell phones feature, the ability for the user to set
the tone of the alarm. Now, in modern days an Alarm is attached to a Counter and provides a
mechanism for generating single-shot or periodic events based on the counter's value. So,
there developed a small circuit named "ANTI-SLEEP ALARM" can be used by the students
while studying late at night. It is a usual phenomenon that students tend to sleep while
studying but it can be hazardous sometimes like during exams. In such cases an anti sleep
alarm can be used. It can be programmed accordingly and used as per student requirement.
Further it can be expanded by connecting systems that switches off the appliances if the
alarm is not reset.
1.2 Aim of the project
In this project we present an anti sleep alarm that starts after a specific time and keeps
buzzing until it is reset. This circuit not only save time but also prevents the wastage of
electricity
1.3 Design Methodology
Firstly, we have designed our circuit in multisim as per the specifications and verified the
outputs in order to estimate the hardware resources, then the layout was designed in mentor
graphic PADS tool (9.4.1). The layout was printed on Printed Circuit Board (PCB) and
accordingly itched using ferrous chloride (fecl2) the components are placed on pcb board
and soldered and output was verified.

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1.4 Tools Used
Mentor Graphic Pads software version 9.4.1
Multisim software version 11.0
1.5 Organization Of Thesis
Chapter-2 deals with the Block Diagram explanation and Circuit diagram
Chapter -3 Deals with Functional description
Chapter -4 Software tools used
Chapter -5 Deals with the Assembly diagrams
Chapter-6 Results and analysis
Chapter-7 Conclusion and future scope











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CHAPTER-2
BLOCK DIAGRAM
2.1 Block Diagram





Fig 2.1 Block diagram of power saving anti-sleep alarm for students

Power supply stage
This stage consists of step down transformer, voltage regulator, diodes and capacitors.
The external power supply(230V AC 50Hz freq) is given to the transformer by which it
generates 12V power and the regulator regulates the power fluctuations and gives the constant
power supply to the main circuit.

Main Circuit stage
This stage consists of voltage amplifier stage, Monostable circuit stage and Counter
stage.The voltage amplifier stage consists of microphone, BC547 transistor, resistors(10k,
100k), variable resistor and capacitors(0.1f). The voltage amplifier takes the input amplifies it
and the output is given to monostable circuit. This monostable circuit stage consists of 555 timer,
resistors(10k) and capacitors(0.01f). The 555 timer takes the input from voltage amplifier and
it acts as a pulse generator and gives the output to counter.



Main Circuit stage
Power
supply
stage


Voltage
Amplifier
stage
Astable
stable
circuit
stage

Counter
stage

Output
(relays)
stage
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The counter stage consists of LS7493 IC, resistors(1k,100), BC547 transistors. The
7493 IC which acts as counter and counts the no. of pulses as per the clap combination and the
output of this counter is connected to the base of the bc547 transistor and the collector pin is
connected to the relay circuit which is the output circuit.
Output stage
The output stage consists of relays and LEDs. the output from the transistor is given as
input to the relay (from the collector terminal). The relay acts as a switch and the LED glows
according to the clap combination
2.2 Circuit Diagram

Fig 2.2 Circiut Diagram of Anti-sleep alarm for Students


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CHAPTER-3
FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION
3.1 DESCRIPTION ABOUT TIMER CHIP
The 555 Timer is a very cheap, popular and useful precision timing device that can act as
either a simple timer to generate single pulses or long time delays, or as a relaxation oscillator
producing stabilized waveforms of varying duty cycles from 50 to 100%. The 555 timer chip is
extremely robust and stable 8-pin device that can be operated either as a very accurate
Monostable, Bistable or AstableMultivibrator to produce a variety of applications such as one-
shot or delay timers, pulse generation, LED and lamp flashers, alarms and tone generation, logic
clocks, frequency division, power supplies and converters etc, in fact any circuit that requires
some form of time control as the list is endless.


Fig 3.1.1 555 Timer block diagram
The single 555 Timer chip in its basic form is a Bipolar 8-pin mini Dual-in-line Package
(DIP) device consisting of some 25 transistors, 2 diodes and about 16 resistors arranged to form
two comparators, a flip-flop and a high current output stage as shown below. As well as the 555
Timer there is also available the NE556 Timer Oscillator which combines TWO individual 555's
within a single 14-pin DIP package and low power CMOS versions of the single 555 timer such
as the 7555 and LMC555 which use MOSFET transistors instead.
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A simplified "block diagram" representing the internal circuitry of the 555 timer is given
below with a brief explanation of each of its connecting pins to help provide a clearer
understanding of how it works.
555 Timer Oscillator Block Diagram
Pin 1: Grounded Terminal: The ground (or common) pin is the most negative supply
potential of the device, which is normally connected to circuit common (ground) when operated
from positive supply voltages.
Pin 2: Trigger Terminal:This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set the
latch, which in turn causes the output to go high. This is the beginning of the timing sequence in
mono-stable operation. Triggering is accomplished by taking the pin from above to below a
voltage level of 1/3V+(or, in general, one-half the voltage appearing at pin 5).
Pin 3:Output Terminal:Output of the timer is available at this pin. There are two ways in
which a load can be connected to the output terminal either between pin 3 and ground pin (pin 1)
or between pin 3 and supply pin (pin 8). The load connected between pin 3 and ground supply
pin is called the normally on loadand that connected between pin 3 and ground pin is called the
normally off load.
Pin 4:Reset Terminal:To disable or reset the timer a negative pulse is applied to this pin
due to which it is referred to as reset terminal. When this pin is not to be used for reset purpose,
it should be connected to + V
CC
to avoid any possibility of false triggering.
Pin 5:Control Voltage Terminal:The function of this terminal is to control the threshold
and trigger levels. Thus either the external voltage or a pot connected to this pin determines the
pulse width of the output waveform. The external voltage applied to this pin can also be used to
modulate the output waveform. When this pin is not used, it should be connected to ground
through a 0.01 micro Farad to avoid any noise problem.
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Pin 6: Threshold Terminal:This is the non-inverting input terminal of comparator 1, which
compares the voltage applied to the terminal with a reference voltage of 2/3 V
CC
. The amplitude
of voltage applied to this terminal is responsible for the set state of flip-flop.
Pin 7: Discharge Terminal:This pin is connected internally to the collector of transistor
and mostly a capacitor is connected between this terminal and ground. It is called discharge
terminal because when transistor saturates, capacitor discharges through the transistor. When the
transistor is cut-off, the capacitor charges at a rate determined by the external resistor and
capacitor.
Pin 8:Supply Terminal:A supply voltage of + 5 V to + 18 V is applied to this terminal with
respect to ground (pin 1).
The important features of the 555 timer are :
It operates from a wide range of power supplies ranging from + 5 Volts to + 18 Volts supply
voltage.
Sinking or sourcing 200 mA of load current.
The external components should be selected properly so that the timing intervals can be made
into several minutes Proper selection of only a few external components allows timing intervals
of several minutes along with the frequencies exceeding several hundred kilo hertz.
It has a high current output; the output can drive TTL.
It has a temperature stability of 50 parts per million (ppm) per degree Celsius change in
temperature, or equivalently 0.005 %/C.
The duty cycle of the timer is adjustable with the maximum power dissipation per package is
600 mW and its trigger and reset inputs are logic compatible.
The 555 Timers name comes from the fact that there are three 5k resistors connected
together internally producing a voltage divider network between the supply voltage at pin 8 and
ground at pin 1. The voltage across this resistive network holds the positive input of comparator
two at 2/3Vcc and the positive input to comparator one at 1/3Vcc. The two comparators produce
an output voltage dependent upon the voltage difference at their inputs which is determined by
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the charging and discharging action of the externally connected RC network. The outputs from
both comparators are connected to the two inputs of the flip-flop which in turn produces either a
"HIGH" or "LOW" level output at Q based on the states of its inputs. The output from the flip-
flop is used to control a high current output switching stage to drive the connected load
producing either a "HIGH" or "LOW" voltage level at the output pin.
The most common use of the 555 timer oscillator is as a simple Astable oscillator by
connecting two resistors and a capacitor across its terminals to generate a fixed pulse train with a
time period determined by the time constant of the RC network. But the 555 timer oscillator chip
can also be connected in a variety of different ways to produce Mono-stable or Bi-stable multi-
vibrators as well as the more common Astable Multi-vibrator.
Functional Diagram of 555 timer:

Fig 3.1.2 I nternal diagram of the 555 timer

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Functional Parts of 555 Timer I C:
555 Timer IC has basically three functional parts. They are as follows:
1. Comparator: It is used to compare two voltages at the input level which is inverting (-)
one and non inverting (+). If the voltage at the non-inverting is higher than other than the
output is high. For ideal comparator input resistance is infinite.
2. Voltage Divider: As the input resistance is infinite in the comparator so the voltage among
all three resistors is being divided equally. Value across each resistor is Vin/3.
3. Flip/Flop: Digital electronic device with memory. If the input is high while low at R then
the output at Q is high. It means when S is high Q output is high and if R is high Q output is low
The 555 has three operating modes:
Mono-stable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator.
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, and touch switches,
frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) and so on.
Astable free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and
lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position
modulation and so on.
Bi-stable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free latched switches.
555 Timer as Astable Multivibrator:
In this mode, the 555 work as a free running mode. The output of this astable
multivibrator toggle between low and high continuously there by generating a train of pulse, that
is why it is known as pulse generator. They are used as an inverter and also used in many of the
internal part of the radio. Selecting a thermistor as a timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a
temperature sensor.

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Circuit diagram of 555 timer in Astable mode is shown below:

Fig 3.1.3 Astable Mode of 555 Timer
n astable circuit produces a square wave and is shown below:

Fig 3.1.4 Waveforms of Astable Mode
As shown in the diagram below timer 555 works in astable mode along with the internal
circuit described in the block. There are three resistors named R inside it and all have equal
values. These form a voltage divider having reference voltages of 1/3 and 2/3 of Vcc (the power
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supply). The logic state of the flip flop is controlled by the reference voltage which is given to
one of the inputs of both two comparators.
Pin 2 of the 555 is the trigger input. If the voltage at pin 2 is<1/3 of Vcc, the flip flop
switch to a low state of the output of the lower comparator. The output stage has an inverting
action. In other words, output at 555 high when flip-flop output is low.
Now imagine if the power supply is first connected to the astable circuit. Timing
capacitor is discharged at the starting. The output in 555 is high and voltage is 0V at pin2. With
the help of resistor R1 and R2 and capacitor C starts charging. Note that C is also connected to
pin 6, which is the threshold input of 555 timer.
Functional diagram and Output Waveforms

Fig 3.1.5 Functional diagram of Astable multivibrator
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Fig 3.1.6 Capacitor and Output Voltage Waveforms
Working:
The circuit diagram for the astable multivibrator using IC 555 is shown here. The astable
multivibrator generates a square wave, the period of which is determined by the circuit external
to IC 555. The astable multivibrator does not require any external trigger to change the state of
the output. Hence the name free running oscillator. The time during which the output is either
high or low is determined by the two resistors and a capacitor which are externally connected to
the 555 timer.
The above figure shows the 555 timer connected as an astable multivibrator. Initially
when the output is high capacitor C starts charging towards Vcc through R
A
and R
B
.
However as soon as the voltage across the capacitor equals 2/3 V
cc
, comparator1 triggers
the flip-flop and the output switches to low state.
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Now capacitor C discharges through R
B
and the transistor Q1. When voltage across C
equals 1/3 V
cc
, comparator 2s output triggers the flip-flop and the output goes high. Then the
cycle repeats.
The capacitor is periodically charged and discharged between 2/3 V
cc
and
1/3 V
cc
respectively. The time during which the capacitor charges from 1/3 V
cc
to 2/3 V
cc
is equal
to the time the output remains high and is given by

where R
A
and R
B
are in ohms and C is in Farads. Similarly the time during which the
capacitor discharges from 2/3 V
cc
to 1/3 V
cc
is equal to the time the output is low and is given by

Thus the total time period of the output waveform is
Therefore the frequency of oscillation
Design Analysis:
The time during which the capacitor C charges from 1/3 V
CC
to 2/3 V
CC
is equal to the time the
output is high and is given as t
c
or T
HIGH
= 0.693 (R
A
+ R
B
) C, which is proved below.
Voltage across the capacitor at any instant during charging period is given as,v
c
=V
CC
(1-e
t/RC
)
The time taken by the capacitor to charge from 0 to +1/3 V
CC = 1/3 VCC
(1-e
t/RC
)
The time taken by the capacitor to charge from 0 to +2/3 V
CC
or

t
2
= RC log
e
3 = 1.0986RC
So the time taken by the capacitor to charge from +1/3 V
CC
to +2/3 V
CC

t
c
= (t
2
t
1
) = (10986 0.405) RC = 0.693 RC
Substituting R = (R
A
+ R
B
) in above equation we have
T
HIGH
= t
c
= 0.693 (R
A
+ R
B
) C
where R
A
and R
B
are in ohms and C is in farads.
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The time during which the capacitor discharges from +2/3 V
CC
to +1/3 V
CC
is equal to
the time the output is low and is given as t
d
or T
L0W
= 0.693 R
B
C where R
B
is in ohms and C is
in farads The above equation is worked out as follows: Voltage across the capacitor at any
instant during discharging period is given as
v
c
= 2/3 V
CC
e
-
t
d/
R
B
C
Substituting v
c
= 1/3 V
CC
and t = t
d
in above equation we have
+1/3 V
CC
= +2/3 V
CC
e
-
t
d/
R
B
C Or t
d
= 0.693 R
B
C

Overall period of oscillations, T = T
HIGH
+ T
LOW
= 0.693 (R
A
+ 2R
B
) C , The frequency
of oscillations being the reciprocal of the overall period of oscillations

T is given as f = 1/T = 1.44/ (R
A
+ 2R
B
)C

Equation indicates that the frequency of oscillation / is independent of the collector
supply voltage +V
CC
.

The duty cycle, the ratio of the time t
c
during which the output is high to the total time period T
is given as
% duty cycle, D = t
c
/ T * 100 = (R
A
+ R
B
) / (R
A
+ 2R
B
) * 100

3.2 POWER SOURCE DESCRIPTION

INTRODUCTION
The power supplies are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a
suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A RPS (Regulated Power
Supply) is the Power Supply with Rectification, Filtering and Regulation being done on the AC
mains to get a Regulated power supply for Microcontroller and for the other devices being
interfaced to it.
For example a 5V regulated power supply system as shown below:
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Fig3.2.1: Block Diagram of the Power Supply
A power supply unit can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs
a particular function. A d.c power supply which maintains the output voltage constant
irrespective of a.c mains fluctuations or load variations is known as Regulated D.C Power
Supply.

TRANSFORMER
A transformer is an electrical device which is used to convert electrical power from one Electrical
circuit to another without change in frequency. Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to
another with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why
mains electricity is AC. Step-up transformers increase in output voltage, step-down transformers
decrease in output voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously
high mains voltage to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is
called the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by
an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle
of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is
(almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of
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the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down
transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage
mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.

Fig 3.2.2: An Electrical Transformer

Turns ratio = Vp/ VS = Np/NS
Power Out= Power In
VS x IS=VP x IP
Vp = primary (input) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ip = primary (input) current

RECTIFIER
A circuit which is used to convert a.c to dc is known as RECTIFIER. The process of conversion
a.c to d.c is called rectification.

Types of Rectifiers
1. Half wave Rectifier
2. Full wave Rectifier
(i). Centre tap full wave rectifier.
(ii). Bridge type full bridge rectifier.



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Parameter
Type of Rectifier
Half wave Full wave Bridge
Number of diodes 1 2 4
PIV of diodes Vm 2Vm Vm
D.C output voltage Vm/ 2Vm/ 2Vm/
Vdc,at no-load 0.318Vm 0.636Vm 0.636Vm
Ripple factor 1.21 0.482 0.482
Ripple frequency F 2f 2f
Rectification efficiency 0.406 0.812 0.812
Transformer
Utilization
Factor(TUF)

0.287

0.693

0.812
RMS voltage Vrms Vm/2 Vm/2 Vm/2

Table: Comparison of Rectifier Circuits

Full-wave Rectifier
From the above comparison we came to know that full wave bridge rectifier as more advantages
than the other two rectifiers. So, in our project we are using full wave rectifier circuit.
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant
polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the
input waveform to pulsating DC (direct current), and yields a higher average output voltage. Two
diodes and a center tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC
source (including a transformer without center tap), are needed. Single semiconductor diodes,
double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four-diode bridges, are
manufactured as single components. For single-phase

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AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-to-back (cathode-to-
cathode or anode-to-anode, depending upon output polarity required) can form a full-wave
rectifier. Twice as many turns are required on the transformer secondary to obtain the same
output voltage than for a bridge rectifier, but the power rating is unchanged.

FILTER

A Filter is a device which removes the a.c component of rectifier output but allows the d.c
component to reach the load

Capacitor Filter
We have seen that the ripple content in the rectified output of half wave rectifier is 121%
or that of full-wave or bridge rectifier or bridge rectifier is 48% such high percentages of ripples
is not acceptable for most of the applications.

Filtering is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC
supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from
the rectifier is falling. The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then
discharges as it supplies current to the output. Filtering significantly increases the average DC
voltage to almost the peak value (1.4 RMS value).
To calculate the value of capacitor(C),
C = *3*f*r*Rl
Where,
f = supply frequency,
r = ripple factor,
Rl = load resistance

Note: In our circuit we are using 1000F hence large value of capacitor is placed to
reduce ripples and to improve the DC component.

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Circuit Diagram of Power Supply is shown below:

Fig 3.2.3 Power supply Circuit diagram

3.3 Voltage regulator

7809 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit(IC) which is widely used in electronic
circuits. Voltage regulator circuit can be manually built using parts available in the market but it
will take a lot of time to assemble those parts on a PCB. Secondly, the cost of those parts is
almost equal to the price of 7809 itself so professionals usually prefer to use 7809 IC instead of
making a voltage regulator circuit from scratch. Before you start using 7809, you will need to
know about the pin structure of IC 7809. Apparently, it looks like a transistor. It has three pins.
For a better understanding, I have given an image of 7809 bellow. Please take a look.
You can easily see the V in and V out pins as well as the ground pin. It is really easy to
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use 7809 for voltage regulation purposes. I have also included a circuit diagram of 7809 so that
you may learn how to use it in a circuit diagram.

Fig 3.3.1 Voltage Regulator
It is wise to use two .1uF capacitors on both input and output sides to filter any ripple or
distortion in voltage but it is not necessary. In the image, you can see that 12V are being
supplied on the input side of 7809 but the output side of 7809 is outputting Regulated 9V. As
long as the input voltage remains above 9V, output voltage of 7809 will remain smooth and
regulated.
Please note that input voltage of 7809 can be up to 23V but under my experience, it
is wise to avoid input over 15V. 7809 is claimed to output 9V and almost 1.5A Current but
again, I have experienced that we should not put a load over 9V and 1A on it. Since we are
using it in power supply, the transfer of power will result in heat output. We will need to use a
heat sink with 7809 otherwise this heat can damage it. It is advised to use a 1A fuse on the
output side of 7809 and a 1.5A fuse on the input side of 7809 to avoid damage in case of short
circuit.

Fig 3.3.2 7809 Circuit diagram
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voltage regulator circuit that uses IC 7809 to regulate an input of 16 volts. The 230 volts
mains is stepped down using transformer and is then converted to 16 volts DC using a bridge and
then it is regulated using the IC. As you know 7809 is a reliable IC with internal current limiting,
thermal shut down and safe operation area etc.
The 78xx is a family of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulatorintegrated circuits.
The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due
to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits,
indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7809 has a 9 volt output, while the 7812 produces
12 volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage regulators they produce a voltage that is positive
relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which are complementary
negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide positive
and negative supply voltages in the same circuit.
78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO220 form factor,
although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are available. These devices support an
input voltage anywhere from a few volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of
35 to 40 volts depending on the make, and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current
The 7809 is a 9 Volt voltage regulator IC with features such as internal current limit,
safe area protection, thermal protection etc. A 16 V transformer brings down the 230V mains, 1A
bridge rectifier rectifies it and capacitor C1 filters it and 7809 regulates it to produce a steady9V
DC output.

Fig 3.3.3 78xx ICs
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Note:
If a current of 300 mA or above is required, fit a proper heat sink to the IC 7809.
If 1A bridge is not available, make one using four 1N 4007 diodes.
Advantages
78xx series ICs do not require additional components to provide a constant, regulated
source of power, making them easy to use, as well as economical and efficient uses of
space. Other voltage regulators may require additional components to set the output
voltage level, or to assist in the regulation process. Some other designs (such as a
switched-mode power supply) may need substantial engineering expertise to implement.
78xx series ICs have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much power. They
have protection against overheating and short-circuits, making them quite robust in most
applications. In some cases, the current-limiting features of the 78xx devices can provide
protection not only for the 78xx itself, but also for other parts of the circuit.
Disadvantages
The input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage by some minimum
amount (typically 2.5 volts). This can make these devices unsuitable for powering some
devices from certain types of power sources (for example, powering a circuit that requires
5 volts using 6-volt batteries will not work using a 7805).
As they are based on a linear regulator design, the input current required is always the
same as the output current. As the input voltage must always be higher than the output
voltage, this means that the total power (voltage multiplied by current) going into the
78xx will be more than the output power provided. The extra input power is dissipated as
heat. This means both that for some applications an adequate heat sink must be provided,
and also that a (often substantial) portion of the input power is wasted during the process,
rendering them less efficient than some other types of power supplies. When the input
voltage is significantly higher than the regulated output voltage (for example, powering a
7805 using a 24 volt power source), this inefficiency can be a significant issue.
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Less common are lower-power versions such as the LM78Mxx series (500 mA) and
LM78Lxx series (100 mA) from National Semiconductor. Some devices provide slightly
different voltages than usual, such as the LM78L62 (6.2 volts) and LM78L82 (8.2 volts) as well
as STMicroelectronics L78L33ACZ (3.3 volts)
Part Number Output Voltage (V) Minimum Input Voltage (V)
7805 +5 7.3
7806 +6 8.3
7808 +8 10.5
7810 +10 12.5
7812 +12 14.6
7815 +15 17.7
7818 +18 21.0
7824 +24 27.1

Table- Different types of voltage regulator
LM7809
The voltages available to allow these regulators to be used in logic systems,
instrumentation, hi-fi audio circuits and other solid state electronic equipment. If adequate heat
sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as
fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable
voltages and currents.
3.4 7493 Counter
74LS93 is a 4-bit binary counter. The device has four flip flops internally connected to
provide a divide by two and divide by eight section. Each section has a separate clock inputto
initiate state changesof the counter on high to low clock transition. State changes of the Q
outputs do not occur simultaneously because of the internal ripple delays. Therefore, decoded
output signals are subject to decoding spikes and should not be used for clocks
A gated AND asynchronous master reset is provided which over rides both clocks and
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resets all flip flops 7493 is a 14 pin IC in which pin 1 is short to pin 12 and pin 2 and 3 are short
and pin 2 is connected to VDD along with a reset pin and pin 3 is grounded along with a resistor.
Pin 5 is connected to VDD and pin 14 is the input pin of 7493 and pin 8, 9, 11, 12 are the output
pins of the 7493 counter and pin 10 is grounded and the rest pin 4, 6, 7, 13 are not connected.
the output from the pulse generator is given as input to the 7493 counter


Fig 3.4.1 7493 I C
The NTE7493A is a monolithic 4bit binary counter in a 14Lead DIP type package that
contains four master slave flip flops and additional gating to provide a divide by two counter and
a three stage binary counter for which the count cycle length is divide by eight. The counter also
contains a gated zero reset. To use the maximum count length of this device, the CKB input is
connected to the QA output. The input count pulses are applied to CKA input and the outputs are
as described in the function tables


Fig3.4.2 7493 I C pin diagram
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Pin Symbol Description
1 CP
1
clock input, 2nd, 3rd and 4th section (high-to-low edge-triggered)
2 MR
1
asynchronous master reset
3 MR
2
asynchronous master reset
4 NC no connection
5 Vcc supply voltage
6 NC no connection
7 NC no connection
8 Q
2
counter output
9 Q
1
counter output
10 GND ground
11 Q
3
counter output
12 Q
0
counter output
13 NC no connection
14 CP
0
clock input, 1st section (high-to-low edge-triggered)

Table- pin description of 7493 counter
Note
State changes of Q
n
outputs do not occur simultaneously.
Setting both MR
1
and MR
2
high resets the counter to zero.
For a 4-bit counter, connect Q
0
to CP
1
, and apply count pulses to CP
0
.
For a 3-bit counter, apply count pulses to CP
1
.
Features
Contains a divide-by-two Section and a divide-by-eight Section
Sections Can be Combined to form BCD, modulo-12 or modulo-16 Counters
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Low Power Dissipation
Operating Temperature up to 70oC
Standard TTL Switching Voltages
Counting in binary
As you know, the binary count sequence follows a familiar pattern of 0's and 1's
LSB changes on every number.
The next bit changes on every other number.
The next bit changes on every fourth number
A counter can form the same pattern of 0's and 1's with logic levels. The first stage in the counter
represents the least significant bit notice that these waveforms follow the same pattern as counting in
binary.

Fig 3.4.3 7493 wave forms
Analysis of sequential circuits
Sequential logic circuits follow a predetermined sequence of digital states and are
triggered by timing pulses or clock.
Most sequential logic can best be analyzed using timing diagrams.
The timing analysis can be done by observing the level on the D or J-K inputs prior to the
clock.
Asynchronous inputs (set and reset) must be considered separately.
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Ripple counters
A counter circuit can be built by cascading flip-flops together. (Connecting the Q output
of one flip-flop to the clock input of the next)
The number of states in a counter (modulus) is 2
N
where N is the number of flip-flops.
In order for a counter to operate properly each flip-flop must toggle. For J-K flip-flops
this means both J and K must be high.
In a ripple counter the clock input has to propagate through each flip-flop of the counter.
A ripple counter is also called an asynchronous counter because each flip-flop does not
change at the same time.
The propagation delay of each flip-flop adds together to give a total propagation delay for
the counter. This propagation delay will limit the maximum frequency allowed by the
input trigger clock.
A down counter can be formed by taking the output from the output instead of the Q
output of each flip-flop.
In an asynchronous counter, the clock is applied only to the first stage. Subsequent stages
derive the clock from the previous stage.
The three-bit asynchronous counter shown is typical. It uses J-K flip-flops in the toggle
mode.


Fig 3.4.4 J K Flip Flops
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Design of divided by N counters
A counter can also be used as a frequency divider.
Each flip-flop will divide its input signal by 2 such that the output of the last stage will be
a frequency equal to the input frequency divided by the Modulus number.
A counter with any Modulus number can be formed by using an external gate to reset the
counter at a predetermined number.
The logic gate is used to decode the binary equivalent of the MOD number. For a MOD-5
counter, the NAND gate must decode state 101.
The decoder can be used to preset some of the flip-flops as well as reset the flip-flops.
This means that the count sequence will start at some state other then zero.
An enable gate (2-input AND gate) can be used to stop a counter when its final state is
reached.

Fig 3.4.5 7493 output waveforms
Ripple counter integrated circuit
The 7493 is a four-bit ripple counter with a common reset.
The 7493 can be used as a MOD-2, a MOD-8 or a MOD-16 counter without the reset.
By using the reset inputs, the 7493 can be configured in any Modulo number up to 16.
The 7490 is a four-bit ripple counter that has a divide-by-2 section and a divide-by-5
section.
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The 7490 is most commonly used as a decade counter (MOD-10) with reset inputs and
set inputs that force the counter to state 9.
The 7492 is a four-bit ripple counter that has a divide-by-2 section and a divided-by-6
section.
The 7492 is most commonly used as a MOD-6 or a MOD-12 counter.
Output:

Fig 3.4.6 outputs of 7493
Outputs of 7493 binary counter according to clap combination.
3.5 BC547 Transistor
BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer of
resistance, is commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base controls a larger
current a collector & emitter terminals.
BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It has a maximum current gain
of 800. Its equivalent transistors are BC548 and BC549.
The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of
its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications, the
transistor is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is
amplified and taken at the emitter. BC547 is used in common emitter configuration for
amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching applications,
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transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In the absence of base
signal, it gets completely off.

There are various types of transistors, and the BC547 is a bipolar junction transistor.
There are also transistors that have one junction, such as the junction field-effect transistor, or no
junctions at all, such as the metal oxide field-effect transistor. During the design and manufacture
of transistors, the characteristics can be predefined and achieved. The negative N-type material
inside an NPN transistor has an excess of electrons, while the positive P-type material has a lack
of electrons, both due to a contamination process called doping.

The BC547 transistor comes in one package. When several are placed in a single
package, it is usually referred to as a transistor array. Arrays are commonly used in digital
switching. Eight transistors may be placed in one package to make layout much easier

Fig 3.5.1 BC547 Transistor
To make use of a transistor as an audio preamplifier, a direct current (DC) source is
needed, such as a 12-volt (V) power supply. In a common emitter configuration, the negative
side of the power supply is alternating current (AC)-coupled to the emitter via a capacitor. There
is also a small resistance connecting the power supply to the emitter. The power supply is then
connected to the collector via a resistor, which may be referred to as a limiting resistor. When the
collector-to-emitter current flows, there will be a voltage drop in the limiting resistor, and in the
idle state, the collector voltage is typically 6 V.
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Transistor circuit design requires a thorough understanding of current-voltage ratings of
various components, such as transistors and resistors. One goal is to keep the components from
burning up, while another is to make the circuit work. Saving electricity is also important, such
as in the case of battery-operated devices.
3.6 Buzzer
A buzzer or beeper is an audio signalling device, which may
be mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers
include alarm devices, timers and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke.


Fig 3.6.1 Buzzer
Buzzers are very much like sensors. They are designed to 'buzz when prompted. This is
done by proper wiring, which connects a push button to the ringer. Once the button is pushed, a
flow of electricity triggers the buzzer, and it delivers a buzzing sound to alert home residents.
Buzzers work in much the same way that a switch works. When the electrical circuit is
completed the buzzer will sound. When the circuit is broken the buzzer stops.
A buzzer works by using a magnetic coil which is attached to the electrical circuit, and an
metal contact. There is a mechanical arm which moves when a button is pressed completing the
circuit and causing a buzzing sound.
Buzzer can be made using piezoelectric crystal such as Quartz and an oscillating circuit.
When voltage is given, oscillating circuit makes crystal to vibrate to make sound.
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DC Operated Buzzer:
An extremely loud PCB-mounting, piezoelectric buzzer designed to operate over a wide
range of supply voltages. It has a built-in driver circuit and requires only a DC voltage to drive it.
Working with a 24 Vdc supply voltage, this tiny unit can supply sound levels of over 95 dB at a
30 cm distance. The unit will operate well with 5V TTL voltages, drawing only around 2 mA. It
will therefore make an excellent bell or warning alarm for digital systems. Two 1.5 mm dia.
holes are required 16mm apart. The case is finished in a cream colour, and features a dot to
indicate the side with the positive terminal.
Piezo Buzzer:
Piezo buzzer is an electronic device commonly used to produce sound. Light weight,
simple construction and low price make it usable in various applications like car/truck reversing
indicator, computers, call bells etc. Piezo buzzer is based on the inverse principle of piezo
electricity discovered in 1880 by Jacques and Pierre Curie. It is the phenomena of generating
electricity when mechanical pressure is applied to certain materials and the vice versa is also
true. Such materials are called piezo electric materials. Piezo electric materials are either
naturally available or manmade. Piezoceramic is class of manmade material, which poses piezo
electric effect and is widely used to make disc, the heart of piezo buzzer. When subjected to an
alternating electric field they stretch or compress, in accordance with the frequency of the signal
thereby producing sound.


Fig 3.6.2 Piezo Buzzer

Department of ECE 33 CMR Institute of Technology

3.7 BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT RELAYS

Introduction
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical
circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or
many sets of contacts. A relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input
circuit, it can be considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an electrical amplifier.
Relay
Relays are usually SPDT (single pole double through switch) or DPDT (double pole
double through switch) but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays
with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available.
Basic operation of a relay
An electric current through a conductor will produce a magnetic field at right angles to the
direction of electron flow. If that conductor is wrapped into a coil shape, the magnetic field produced will
be oriented along the length of the coil. The greater the current, the greater the strength of the magnetic
field, all other factors being equal.

Fig 3.7.1 Relays
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Fig 3.7.2 Relay circuit
Relays can be categorized according to the magnetic system and operation
Neutral Relays
This is the most elementary type of relay. The neutral relays have a magnetic coil, which
operates the relay at a specified current, regardless of the polarity of the voltage applied.
Biased Relays
Biased relays have a permanent magnet above the armature. The relay operates if the
current through the coil winding establishes a magneto-motive force that opposes the flux by the
permanent magnet. If the fluxes are in the same direction, the relay will not operate, even for a
greater current through the coil.
Polarized Relays
Like the biased relays, the polarized relays operate only when the current through the coil
in one direction. But there the principle is different. The relay coil has a diode connected in
series with it. This blocks the current in the reverse direction. The major difference between
biased relays and polarized relays is that the former allows the current to pass through in the
reverse direction, but does the not operate the relay and the later blocks the current in reverse
Department of ECE 35 CMR Institute of Technology

direction. You can imagine how critical these properties when relays are connected in series to
form logic circuits.
Magnetic Stick Relays or Perm polarized Relays
These relays have a magnetic circuit with high permanence. Two coils, one to operate
(pick up) and one to release (drop) are present. The relay is activated by a current in the operate
coil. On the interruption of the current the armature remains in picked up position by the residual
magnetism. The relay is released by a current through the release coil.
Slow Release Relays
These relays have a capacitor connected in parallel to their coil. When the operating
current is interrupted the release of relay is delayed by the stored charge in the capacitor. The
relay releases as the capacitor discharges through the coil.
Relays for AC
These are neutral relays and picked up for a.c. current through their coil. These are very
fast in action and used on power circuits of the point motors, where high current flows through
the contacts. A normal relay would be slow and make sparks which in turn may weld the
contacts together.All relays have two operating values (voltages), one pick-up and the other other
drop away. The pick-up value is higher than the drop away value.
Applications
To control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems
or audio amplifiers,
To control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an
automobile,
To detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing
circuit breakers (protection relays),
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To isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage
switch. They may also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to
conserve energy.
To perform logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by
connecting NO relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting NO contacts in
parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function.
Similar functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using NC contacts. The Ladder
programming language is often used for designing relay logic networks.

RELAY CHARACTERSTICS

A relay is a device that opens or closes an auxiliary circuit under predetermined condition
in the main circuit. The object of a relay is generally to act as a sort of electrical magnifier; that
is to say, it enables a comparatively weak current to bring into operation a much stronger current.
It also provides complete electrical isolation between the controlling circuit and the controlled
circuit.
Relays are extensively used in electronics, electrical engineering and many other fields. A
wide variety of relays have been developed to meet the varied requirements of industry. There
are relays that are sensitive to conditions of voltage, current, temperature, frequency, or some
combination of these conditions. The basic working of an electromagnetic relay is easy to
understand. However, in order to select a relay to perform a particular function efficiently and
that too for a long time requires knowledge of relay characteristics and that of the circuits in
which the relay is used.

3.8 Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time,
act to lower voltage levels within circuits. Resistors may have fixed resistances or
thermistors, varistors, trimmers, photoresistors, humistors and potentiometers.
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The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's
terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:



where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in
units of ohms (symbol: ).




Fig 3.8.1 Various resistor symbols

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Colour Code
The axial lead carbon resistors measured by the colour codes marked on them.
Information such as resistance value, tolerance, temperature co-efficient measured by the
colour codes, and the amount of power (wattage) identified by the size.

The colour bands of the carbon resistors can be four, five or, six bands, for all the first
two bands represent first two digits to measure their value in ohms. The third band of a four-
banded resistor represents multiplier and the fourth band as tolerance. Whereas, the five and
six colour-banded resistors, the third band rather represents as third digit but the fourth and
fifth bands represent as
Colour
1st. Two
Digits
Multiplier Tolerance
Temperature
Co-efficient
Black 0 10
0
- -
Brown 1 10
1
1% 100
Red 2 10
2
2% 50
Orange 3 10
3
- 15
Yellow 4 10
4
- 25
Green 5 10
5
- 0.5
Blue 6 10
6
- 0.25
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multiplier and tolerance
respectively.



Table 3.8.2 Colour Coding


Fig 3.8.3 Resistor with different colour coding
3.9 Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passivetwo-terminalelectrical
component used to store energyelectrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e., insulator).

The conductors can be thin films of metal, aluminium foil or disks, etc. The 'non-
conducting' dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be
glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, paper, mica, etc.
Violet 7 10
7
- 0.1
Grey 8 10
8
- -
White 9 10
9
- -
Silver - 10
-2
10% -
Gold - 10
-1
5% -
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An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for its capacitance.
Capacitance is expressed as the ratio of the electric charge (Q) on each conductor to the
potential difference (V) between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is
equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF
(1012 F) to about 1 mF (103 F).



Fig 3.9.1 Various Symbols of the capacitors


Capacitor types
Practically capacitors are available commercially in many different forms. The type of
internal dielectric, the structure of the plates and the device packaging all strongly affect the
characteristics of the capacitor, and its applications. Here two types of capacitors are listed.
They are:

Electrolytic capacitors use an aluminium or tantalum plate with an oxide dielectric
layer. The second electrode is a liquid electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another
foil plate. Electrolytic capacitors offer very high capacitance but suffer from poor
tolerances, high instability, gradual loss of capacitance especially when subjected to
heat, and high leakage current. Poor quality capacitors may leak electrolyte, which is
harmful to printed circuit boards. The conductivity of the electrolyte drops at low
temperatures, which increases equivalent series resistance.
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Fig 3.9.2 Electrolytic capacitor picture and symbol

A ceramic capacitor is a fixed value capacitor in which ceramic material acts as the
dielectric. It is constructed of two or more alternating layers of ceramic and a metal
layer acting as the electrodes. The composition of the ceramic material defines the
electrical behaviour and therefore applications.


Fig 3.9.3 Ceramic capacitor picture and symbol

Uses

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass.
In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies.
In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies.
In electric power transmission systems they stabilize voltage and power flow.



Department of ECE 42 CMR Institute of Technology

3.10 Diodes
Diode is a two-terminalelectronic component with asymmetric conductance; it has low
(ideally zero) resistance to current in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in
the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of
semiconductor material with a pn junction connected to two electrical terminals.[5] A
vacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated cathode. Semiconductor
diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices.

Fig 3.10 Diode
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one
direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite
direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a
check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert
alternating current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in
radio receiversthese diodes are forms of rectifiers.

3.11 LED- Light Emitting Diode

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source that resembles a
basic PN-junction diode, except that an LED also emits light. When an LED's anode lead
has a voltage that is more positive than its cathode lead by at least the LED's forward voltage
drop, current flows.

Electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of
photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the colour of the light (corresponding
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to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor. An
LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be
used to shape its radiation pattern.




Fig 3.11 LED with different colours
3.12 PCB
A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects
electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from copper
sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. PCBs can be single sided (one copper
layer), double sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer. Conductors on different layers are
connected with plated-through holes called vias.

Fig 3.12 Printed circuit board
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When the board has only copper connections and no embedded components it is more
correctly called a printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated
with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed circuit board
assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA).

3.13 Connecting wires
Copper is the electrical conductor in many categories of electrical wiring. Copper wire is
used in power generation, power transmission, power distribution, telecommunications,
electronics circuitry, and countless types of electrical equipment. Copper and its alloys are
also used to make electrical contacts. Electrical wiring in buildings is the most important
market for the copper industry. Roughly half of all copper mined is used to manufacture
electrical wire and cable conductors.

Fig 3.13.1 Symbol of connecting wires


Department of ECE 45 CMR Institute of Technology



Fig 3.13.2 Connecting wires
3.14 IC Package
In microelectronics, a dual in-line package (DIP or DIL) is an electronic device package
with a rectangular housing and two parallel rows of electrical connecting pins. The package may
be through-hole mounted to a printed circuit board or inserted in a socket.

DIP packages are usually made from an opaque molded epoxy plastic pressed around a
tin-, silver-, or gold-plated lead frame that supports the device die and provides connection pins.
DIPs can be mounted either by through-hole soldering or in sockets. A socket allows easy
replacement of a device and eliminates the risk of damage from overheating during soldering.
Generally sockets were used for high-value or large ICs, which cost much more than the socket.
Where devices would be frequently inserted and removed.



Fig 3.14 I C Packages

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CHAPTER- 4
SOFTWARE TOOLS
4.1 PADS (Portable Application Description specification)
4.2 Multism Software
Introduction to Multisim
NI Multisim (formerly MultiSIM) is an electronic schematic capture and simulation program
which is part of a suite of circuit design programs, along with NI Ultiboard. Multisim is one of
the few circuit design programs to employ the original BerkeleySPICE based software
simulation. Multisim was originally created by a company named Electronics Workbench, which
is now a division of National Instruments. Multisim includes microcontroller simulation
(formerly known as MultiMCU), as well as integrated import and export features to the Printed
Circuit Board layout software in the suite, NI Ultiboard. Multisim is widely used in academia
and industry for circuits education, electronic schematic design and SPICE simulation.
History
Multisim was originally called Electronics Workbench and created by a company called
Interactive Image Technologies. At the time it was mainly used as an educational tool to teach
electronics technician and electronics engineering programs in colleges and universities.
National Instruments has maintained this educational legacy, with a specific version of Multisim
with features developed for teaching electronics.
In 1999, Multisim was integrated with Ultiboard after the original company merged with
Ultimate Technology, a PCB layout software company.
In 2005, Interactive Image Technologies was acquired by National InstrumentsElectronics
Workbench Group and Multisim was renamed to NI Multisim.
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Fig 4.2.1 Multisim simulation
Multisim Applications
Analog Circuit Analysis
Digital Logic Circuits and Microcontrollers Analysis
Power Electronics and Systems
Aerospace and National Research
Semiconductor Analysis
Life Science, Medical Devices, and Bioinstrumentation
Low-Frequency Circuit Design for RF
Automotive Electronics



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CHAPTER 5
ASSEMBLY DIAGRAMS
5.1 Power circuit

5.3 Astable

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5.4 Counter











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CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS



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CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
7.1 Conclusion
We conclude based upon the foregoing that the Anti-sleep alarm for students in my
analysis is correct and predict that my margin of error is within tolerant limits.
.