CN1 Notes Compiled by Anita Kanavalli

www.bookspar.
com | Website for students | VTU NOTES

A computer network is a collection of computers and other deices !nodes" that use a
common network protocol to share resources with each other oer a network medium.
#interconnected collection of autonomous computers connected b$ a single technolo%$&
'Tanenbaum(
To share information or receie a serice ia a network) %roup members must be able to
communicate with each other.
The followin% is a fi%ure which shows a communication model.
Communication Model
* Source
+enerates data to be transmitted
* Transmitter
,onerts data into transmittable si%nals
* Transmission S$stem
,arries data
* -eceier
,onerts receied si%nal into data
* .estination
Takes incomin% data
The fi%ure also shows an e/ample of a public telephone network.
The networks can be classified as shown below
* Wired) Wireless and 0iber Optic Networks
* 1ANs) 2ANs and WANs
* ,ircuit Switched) 3acket Switched and Virtual ,ircuit Switched Networks
* Access) Ed%e and ,ore Networks
The computer network can be classified based on architecture and access as shown below
* Architecture
,ommon 1AN architectures4 Ethernet 5EEE 678.9) Token -in%) and 0..5.
* Access 3ossibilities
Shared:media networks
www.bookspar.com ;
www.bookspar.com | Website for students | VTU NOTES
switchin% networks
* Transmission Technolo%$
<roadcast links
3oint:to:point links
The architecture based classification will be dealt later. The shared media networks4 The
stations connected to the same media and can share all the resources like printers and
scanners and also software resources and share the same communication channel. Where
as incase of switchin% networks a switchin% element is used and will route the
information to the releant output. The information comes from man$ sources and
forwarded onl$ to the correct output.
<road cast links hae a sin%le communication channel shared b$ all the machines on the
network. A short messa%e called a packet is sent b$ an$ machine and receied b$ all the
others in the network. The address of the receier is present in the messa%e all the
machine simpl$ i%nores. Actuall$ there is a special address called broadcast address
where all the machines receie the packet. This t$pe of transmission is called the
<roadcastin%. Some broadcast s$stems allow the messa%e to be sent to onl$ a subset of
the machine or a %roup b$ usin% a bit in the address field to indicate that the messa%e is
intended for the %roup. This method is called the multicastin%. 5n contrast the point to
point link) the source and the destination hae seeral links. The messa%e ma$ hae to
isit an intermediate station before reachin% the destination. The point to point link
between one sender and the receier is also called as unicastin%.
Wired network4 All the machines are connected usin% a wire) that could be a copper wire
or fibre optic. The$ are man$ different topolo%ies used to connect the machines. The
fi%ure below shows how the machines are connected usin% the wire this is an e/ample of
a bus topolo%$.
All the machines are connected usin% a wire and can share all the resources.
Wireless network:
www.bookspar.com 8
The aboe fi%ure shows a wireless network. 5t consists of mobile machines such as
laptops and there is a base station it is called as access point. The machines can access
other network usin% the access point. The access point is wired to the router which is a
switchin% element and is inturn connected to the wired network. 5EEE 678.;; describes
the wireless technolo%$.
Fiber optic network:
The machines can be connected usin% the fiber optic cable. This is mainl$ used in
connectin% the s$stems in the backbone. .ifferent serers and 5S3 proider e=uipment
are the e/amples of the s$stems in the backbone. The fiber optic cable uses li%ht as the
si%nal to transmit information in the cable. 5t offers %ood bandwidth and less interference
but it is e/pensie to use this cable.
LANs
www.bookspar.com
base
statio
n
mobile
hosts
router
To the wired network
9
* compan$>uni local area network !1AN" connects end s$stem to ed%e router
* Ethernet4
shared or dedicated link connects end s$stem and router;7 2bs)
;772bps)+i%abit Ethernet
* deplo$ment4 institutions) home 1ANs happenin% now
* Occupies a small %eo%raphical area. Use onl$ one t$pe media and different
topolo%ies. 3rinters scanners and machines can be connected.
* 1ANs %ie lot of fle/ibilit$) speed )reliabilit$) adaptabilit$) securit$ priate
ownership.
* ,onnection to other 1ANs and WANs
MANs
5t is lar%er than the 1AN and occupies a cit$ or a %roup of nearb$ corporate offices. 5t
uses the same technolo%$ as 1AN. The e/ample is the cable TV network. 5t uses the
coa/ial cable. The serice proider connects the home TVs this forms a lar%e network.
The serice is proided b$ the cable TV operator. 0iber optic cable is also used. 5t can
support both oice and data transmission.
WANs
www.bookspar.com ?
* Spans a lar%e %eo%raphic area) e.%.) a countr$ or a continent
* A WAN consists of seeral transmission lines and routers 5nternet is an e/ample
of a WAN
* All the machines are connected usin% the subnets.
* ,ompared to 1AN the speed is er$ less
* Used to connect different 1ANs
Circuit switched network
The sender and the receier has a dedicated link between them. 0or e/ample consider the
telephone network when a sender places a call a dedicated link is established between the
sender and receier as lon% as the call e/ists. Then the link is terminated when the call
ends.
Packet switched network
No dedicated link present between the sender and receier. When a data frame or packet
is sent it is sent to the subnet and to the intermediate s$stem and reaches the destination.
The same messa%e is broken into small packets and sent on the subnet all packets need
not take the same route. The switchin% elements decide the route.
Virtual circuit switched network
5t is like circuit switched and a dedicated link present and a identifier is assi%ned to the
link and same channel used for different communication.
Internetwork
* internetwork @ interconnection of networks @ also called an #internet&
* Subnetwork @ a constituent of an internet
www.bookspar.com A
* 5ntermediate s$stem @ a deice used to connect two networks allowin% hosts of
the networks to correspond with each other
<rid%e
-outers
* 5nternet is an e/ample of an internetwork.
* network of networks&
* #collection of networks interconnected b$ routers&
* #a communication medium used b$ millions&Email) chat) Web #surfin%&)
streamin% media
* millions of connected computin% deices4 hosts, end-systems
@ 3,s workstations) serers
@ 3.As phones) toasters runnin% network apps
* communication links
@ fiber) copper) radio) satellite
@ 1inks hae different bandwidth
* routers: forward packets
* 3acket4 a piece of messa%e
Uses o computer network
* <usiness applications
* -esource sharin%4 end s$stems !hosts"4
* run application pro%rams
* e.%. Web) email
* at #ed%e of network&
* client>serer model
* client host re=uests) receies serice from alwa$s:on serer
* e.%. Web browser>sererB email client>serer
* ,lient>serer model is applicable in an intranet.
E:mail4 Now all the companies uses email as the means of communication
E:commerce4 Now teleshoppin% and marketin% is er$ popular and findin% the
application in business
2obile users are connected usin% network such as laptops palmtops etc
1ike wise een home users hae increased now and becomin% popular.
Notes
* A 3rotocol can be defined as a set of rules %oernin% the e/chan%e of data
between two entities.
* Used for communications between entities in a system
* Two entities hae to speak the same lan%ua%e to successfull$ communicate
* Networks are comple/ and consist of man$ #pieces&4
www.bookspar.com C
* hosts
* routers
* switches
* links of arious media
* applications
* protocols
* reliabilit$
* connection t$pe
Dow to simplif$ the comple/ structures. A la$ered structured can be used to reduce the
comple/it$. 2ost of the network are or%aniEed as a stack of la$ers or leels each one
built oer the other. The number of la$ers and the name of the la$ers and the function of
each la$er differ from network to network. The purpose of each la$er is to offer serice to
la$er aboe it. 1a$er n on one machine carries conersation with la$er n on another
machine. The rules and conentions used collectiel$ known as the la$er n protocol.
0or e/ample consider a fie la$ered network.

The entities comprisin% the correspondin% la$ers on different machines are called peers.
The peers ma$ be processes or hardware deices or human bein%s. 3eers communicate
usin% protocol. No data is sent from la$er n to la$er n instead the$ send to the la$er below
until the last la$er is reached. <etween the la$ers it is the irtual communication.
<etween each pair of la$ers is the interface. 5t defines the primitie operation and
serices what the lower la$er makes aailable to the upper one. Network desi%ners decide
about the function and the number of la$ers. 5t is er$ important to define a clear
interfaces. A set of protocol and la$ers is called the network architecture. A list of
protocol used b$ a certain s$stem one protocol per la$er is called a protocol stack.
www.bookspar.com F
,onsider the aboe fi%ure
This shows how communication happens between two s$stems. A messa%e 2 is
produced b$ the la$er A. 5t is %ien to la$er ? and it puts the header in front of the
messa%e and passes to la$er 9. The header includes the control information such as
se=uence numbers to allow the la$er ? on the destination machine to delier messa%es in
the ri%ht order. The la$er 9 breaks up the messa%e into smaller units called packets addin%
la$er 9 header to each packet. 5n this e/ample 2 is split into 8 packets 2; and 28. 1a$er
9 decides which of the out%oin% line to use and sends on that line to la$er 8. 1a$er 8 adds
a header and also a trailer and %ie the resultin% unit to la$er ; for ph$sical transmission.
At the receiin% machine the messa%e moe upwards from la$er to la$er) with header
bein% stripped off as it pro%resses.
!esi"n issues or la#ers
* Addressin%
* Error ,ontrol
* 0low ,ontrol
* 2ultiple/in%
* -outin%
Addressin" Le$el
1eel in architecture at which entit$ is named
* Uni=ue address for each end s$stem !computer" and each intermediate s$stem
!router"
* Network leel address
53 or internet address !T,3>53"
Network serice access point or NSA3 !OS5"
* 3rocess within the s$stem
3ort number !T,3>53"
www.bookspar.com 6
Serice access point or SA3
Addressin" %cope
* +lobal nonambi%uit$
+lobal address identifies uni=ue s$stem
There is onl$ one s$stem with address G
* +lobal applicabilit$
5t is possible at an$ s$stem !an$ address" to identif$ an$
other s$stem !address" b$ the %lobal address of the
other s$stem Address G identifies that s$stem from
an$where on the network
* e.%. 2A, address on 5EEE 678 networks
Connection Identiiers
* ,onnection oriented data transfer !irtual circuits"
* Allocates a connection name durin% the transfer phase
* the adanta%es are4
* -educed oerhead as connection identifiers are shorter than %lobal
addresses
* -outin% ma$ be fi/ed and identified b$ connection name
* Entities ma$ want multiple connections @ multiple/in%
* State information
&rror Control

+uard a%ainst loss or dama%e of data and control information
Error control is implemented as two separate functions4
Error detection
Sender inserts error detectin% bits
-eceier checks these bits
5f OH) acknowled%e
5f error) discard packet
-etransmission
5f no acknowled%e in %ien time) re:transmit
3erformed at arious la$ers of protocol
Flow Control
.one b$ receiin% entit$
0unction to limit amount or rate of data sent b$ a transmittin% entit$
Simplest form4 stop:and:wait procedure
2ore efficient protocols4 ,redit s$stems Slidin% window
Needed at application as well as network la$ers
www.bookspar.com I
Multiple'in"
:Supportin% multiple connections on one machine
:2appin% of multiple connections at one leel to a sin%le connection at another
:,arr$in% a number of connections on one fiber optic cable
:A%%re%atin% or bondin% 5S.N lines to %ain bandwidth
(outin"
.etermine path or route that packets will follow
Use routing protocol based on a routing algorithm
#+ood& path should be least cost path
,ost 4 depends on the followin% factors.
Aera%e =ueuin% dela$
3ropa%ation dela$
<andwidth) mean =ueue len%th) etc.
End s$stems and routers maintain routin% tables
Dynamic or static
)%I Model
* Not a network architecture) because it does not specif$ the e/act serices and
protocols to be used in each la$er) it Just formall$ defines and codifies the concept
of la$ered network architecture
* Each la$er describe what happens at each sta%e in the processin% of data for
transmission
* 1a$ers help to reduce comple/it$
* Each la$er relies on the ne/t lower la$er to perform more primitie functions
* Each la$er proides serices to the ne/t hi%her la$er
* ,han%es in one la$er should not re=uire chan%es in other la$ers
www.bookspar.com ;7
*he unctions o dierent la#ers
Ph#sical
* responsible for transmittin% raw bits oer a communication path
* concerned with issues such as
:mechanical interfaces) e.%. desi%n of a network connector
:electrical interfaces) e.%. olta%e leel of bits
:procedural interfaces) e.%. whether transmission ma$
proceed simultaneousl$ in both directions
!ata Link
* -esponsible for the transfer of data between the ends of a ph$sical link
* 3roides for error detection) Kframin%K) and flow control
* -esoles problems due to dama%ed) lost) or duplicate frames
* 0ormatted messa%es are referred to as frames rather than packets
Network
* -esponsible for the source to destination routin%
* Addresses and resoles all inherent problems related to the transmission of data
between hetero%eneous networks
* 0ormatted messa%es are referred to as packets
* 5n broadcast networks the network la$er is often thin or none/istent) because of
eas$ to sole routin% problems
* Sometimes no need for a network la$er if usin% point:to:point link
*ransport
* 3roides for error:free delier$ of data
* Accepts data from the session la$er and splits data into smaller packets if
necessar$
* passes these packets to the network la$er) and ensures that packets arrie in
se=uence) with no losses or duplications) at their destination
%ession
* 3roides for coordination between communicatin% processes between nodes.
* 2ana%es dialo% control !e.%. ,an allow traffic to %o in both direction at the same
time) or in onl$ one direction at time."
* -esponsible for s$nchroniEin% the flow of data) and reestablishin% a connection
in the eent a failure occurs.
Presentation
* 3roides for data formats) and code conersions
* ,oncerned with s$nta/ and semantics of data bein% transmitted
* Encodes messa%es in a form that is suitable for electronic transmission
* .ata compression and encr$ption is done at this la$er
Application
* ,onsists of protocols that define specific user:oriented applications such as e:
mail) file transfer) and irtual terminal
www.bookspar.com ;;
Notes
.ifferences between a computer network !,N" and a distributed s$stem!.S"
* ,N collection of computers connected b$ sin%le technolo%$
* .S collection independent computers appears as one coherent s$stem
* 2iddleware responsible for the .S
* WWW is the e/ample of .S
* .S software s$stem built on top of network
The two serices a network offers
Connection oriented
* A connection is established between ESLs !end S$stem" that is used for duration
of call
,all setup
.ata transfer
,all termination
E.%4 Virtual circuits at this la$er
* 5SLs ! intermediate s$stem" connect two or more networks
5S appear as ES to each network
1o%ical connection set up between ESs
:,oncatenation of lo%ical connections across networks 5ndiidual network irtual circuits
Joined b$ 5S
* Adanta%es
@ 0i/ed path
@ Order of messa%e presered
@ No loss of data
* -eliable
@ <ut the process of acknowled%ement adds oerhead and dela$
@ E/ample4 telephone) ftp
Connectionless
* Each packet sent independentl$
* -outin% decisions made at eer$ 5S
* ,orresponds to data%ram serice in packet switched network
* Network la$er protocol common to all ESLs and routers
@ Hnown %enericall$ as the internet protocol
* 5nternet 3rotocol
www.bookspar.com ;8
@ One such internet protocol deeloped for A-3ANET
@ E/ample4 Tele%raph s$stems) email) remote lo%in
@ Adanta%es
@ 0le/ibilit$
@ -obust
@ No unnecessar$ oerhead
@ Unreliable
@ Not %uaranteed delier$
@ Not %uaranteed order of delier$
@ 3ackets can take different routes
@ -eliabilit$ is responsibilit$ of ne/t la$er up !e.%. T,3"
The followin% table shows an e/ample of C different serices
%er$ice primiti$es
A serice is specified b$ a set of primities aailable to a user process to access the
serice. These primities tell the serice to perform some action or report on an action
taken b$ a peer entit$. The set of primities aailable depends on the nature of the serice
bein% proided. The primities for connection oriented are different from the
connectionless serice.
The fie different serice primities for implementin% a simple connection oriented
serice
Listen: The serer e/ecutes 15STEN to indicate that it is prepared to accept the incomin%
connection. The serer process is blocked until a re=uest for connection appears
Connect: the client process e/ecutes a ,ONNE,T call to establish the connection with
the serer. Specif$ the address too.
www.bookspar.com ;9
When the serer receies this packet it unblocks the serer and sends back the
acknowled%ement and this releases the client. At this point the client and serer both are
runnin%. The connection established.
(ecei$e: the serer e/ecutes -E,E5VE to prepare the first re=uest. This call blocks the
serer.
%end: the client e/ecutes SEN. to transmit its re=uest followed b$ the e/ecution of
receie to %et the repl$. 5f the client has additional re=uests it makes now
!isconnect: The client use .5S,ONNE,T to end the connection. The serer also issues
a acknowled%ement to terminate the connection it send the disconnect.
The followin% fi%ure shows the relationship between the serice and the protocol
A serice is the set of primities or operations where as protocol are the rules.
&'ample networks
Internet
* internetwork @ interconnection of networks @ also called an #internet&
* Subnetwork @ a constituent of an internet
* 5ntermediate s$stem @ a deice used to connect two networks allowin% hosts of
the networks to correspond with each other
<rid%e
-outers
* 5nternet is an e/ample of an internetwork.
* internet 4 collection of networks interconnected b$ router and>or brid%es
* The 5nternet
* The %lobal collection of thousands of indiidual machines and networks
* 5ntranet
* ,orporate internet operatin% within the or%aniEation
www.bookspar.com ;?
* Uses 5nternet !T,3>53 and http" technolo%$ to delier documents and
resources
* End S$stem !ES"
* .eice attached to one of the networks of an internet
* Supports end:user applications or serices
* ES sometimes called .TE
* 5ntermediate S$stem !5S"
* .eice used to connect two networks
* 3ermits communication between end s$stems attached to different
networks
* E/amples4 -outers and <rid%es
* <rid%e
@ 5S used to connect two 1ANs usin% similar 1AN protocols
@ Address filter passin% on packets to the re=uired network onl$
@ OS5 la$er 8 !.ata 1ink"
* -outer
@ ,onnects two !possibl$ dissimilar" networks
@ Uses internet protocol present in each router and end s$stem
@ OS5 1a$er 9 !Network"
+,-.
@ 0irst public data network
@ ,onnection number used for data transfer of packets
@ data packets contain 9 b$te header and upto ;86 b$tes of data
@ G.8A replaced b$ 0rame -ela$
Frame (ela#
0rame -ela$ is a wa$ of sendin% information oer a WAN b$ di$idin" data into
packets
5t operates at the Ph#sical and !ata Link la$ers of the OS5 reference model
5t relies on upper:la$er protocols such as *CP for error correction
0rame -ela$ is a switched data link:la$er protocol that handles multiple irtual
circuits usin% !D.1," encapsulation
0rame -ela$ interface can be either a carrier:proided public network or a
network of priatel$ owned e=uipment) serin% a sin%le enterprise
Frame (ela# /beneits
(educed internetworkin" costs
Statisticall$ multiple/ed traffic from multiple sources oer priate backbone
networks can reduce the number of circuits and correspondin% cost of bandwidth
1ower E=uipment ,osts
1ower cost than dedicated leased lines
Increased perormance 0 reduced network comple'it#
-educes the amount of processin% !as compared to G.8A"
Efficientl$ utiliEin% hi%h speed di%ital transmission lines) frame rela$ can improe
performance and response times of applications.
Increased interoperabilit# $ia international standards
www.bookspar.com ;A
0rame rela$ can be implemented oer e/istin% technolo%$
Access deices often re=uire onl$ software chan%es or simple hardware
modifications to support the interface standard
E/istin% packet switchin% e=uipment and T;>E; multiple/ers often can be
up%raded to support frame rela$ oer e/istin% backbone networks.
Frame (ela# o$erwiew
Packet %witched
Uses Virtual Circuits 1,onnection Oriented Serice2
1o%ical connection created between two !.TE" deices
across a 0rame -ela$ packet:switched network !3SN"
&thernet
* #dominant& 1AN technolo%$4
* cheap M87 for ;772bsN
* first wilde$ used 1AN technolo%$
* Simpler) cheaper than token 1ANs and AT2
* Hept up with speed race4 ;7) ;77) ;777 2bps
Wireless LAN
wireless 1ANs4 untethered !often mobile" networkin%
5EEE 678.;; standard4
2A, protocol
unlicensed fre=uenc$ spectrum4 I772hE) 8.?+hE
<asic Serice Set !<SS"
contains4
wireless hosts
access point !A3"4 base station
<SSLs combined to form distribution s$stem !.S"
Adanta%es
* 2obilit$
* 0le/ibilit$
* Dard to wire areas
* -educed cost of wireless s$stems
* 5mproed performance of wireless s$stems
Adhoc networks
* Ad hoc network4 5EEE 678.;; stations can d$namicall$ form network without A3
* Applications4
@ #laptop& meetin% in conference room) car
@ interconnection of #personal& deices
@ battlefield
* 5ET0 2ANET !2obile Ad hoc Networks" workin% %roup
LAN "enerations
* 0irst
www.bookspar.com ;C
@ T$pified b$ ,S2A>,. and token rin%
@ 3roided terminal to host and client serer
@ 2oderate data rates
* Second
@ T$pified b$ 0..5
@ Needed for backbone 1ANs
@ Support of hi%h performance workstations
* Third
@ T$pified b$ AT2
@ 3roide the a%%re%ate throu%hput and real time support for multimedia
applications
A*M
* AT2 is a hi%h:speed switchin% network architecture
* AT2 can be used to carr$ data) oice) and ideo
@ separatel$ or simultaneousl$ oer same network path
* AT2 has a robust =ualit$ of serice !OoS"
@ can proide seamless interconnectiit$ between 1ANLs and WANLs
@ supports a wide ran%e of data rates4
* 8A to ;AA 2bps oer copper
* ;77 to C88 2bps and hi%her oer fiber
* common implementation is ;AA:2bps AT2
* AT2 is specified ia a three:la$er reference model4
* 3h$sical la$er !OS5s ph$sical la$er"
* AT2 la$er !%enerall$ OS5s data link la$er"
* AT2 adaptation la$er !AA1" !%enerall$ OS5s hi%her:leel la$ers !transport)
session) and application"
* 3h$sical la$er !8 subla$ers"
@ 3h$sical medium 32 !lower subla$er"
* definition for the medium
* the bit:timin% capabilities.
@ Transmission coner%ence !T," !upper subla$er"
* makes sure that alid cells are bein% created and transmitted
* inoles breakin% off indiidual cells from the data stream of the
hi%her la$er !the AT2 la$er"
* checkin% the cellLs header
* Encodin% the bit alues
* AT2 la$er
@ serice:independent la$er
@ creates cell headers and trailers
@ defines irtual channels and paths and %ies them uni=ue identifiers
@ cells are multiple/ed or demultiple/ed.
@ AT2 la$er creates the cells and uses the ph$sical la$er to transmit them.
* AT2 adaptation la$er !AA1" !8 subla$ers"
@ Se%mentation and reassembl$ SA- !lower subla$er"
www.bookspar.com ;F
* packa%es ariable siEe packets into fi/ed:siEe cells at the
transmittin% end
* repacka%es the cells at the receiin% end
* responsible for findin% and dealin% with cells that are out of order
or lost
@ coner%ence subla$er ,S !upper subla$er"
* proides the interface for the arious serices !e.%. data) oice) and
ideo".
* users connect to ,S throu%h serice access points
* !SA3s".
* AT2 cells are alwa$s A9 b$tes lon%
* partitioned into
@ A b$te header contains addressin% information
@ ?6 b$te pa$load contains user data
* AT2 irtual connections consist of either
@ permanent or switched irtual circuits
@ that lo%icall$ connect source and destination sites
@ Virtual circuits are identified b$ specific irtual channel identifiers !V,5s".
* A collection of irtual channels that all hae the same endpoints is called a irtual
path connection !V3,"
* V3,s are specified b$ irtual path identifiers !V35s"
* Virtual connections established
@ V,5 and V35 assi%nments are made d$namicall$ b$ AT2 end nodes and
switches at the time data are to be transmitted
@ V,5 is not of interest to e.%. public switches the$ would onl$ use the V35
AT2 1AN
* 1ocal area network emulation !1ANE" interface
@ can proide a serice interface for the network la$er that functions e/actl$
as the same as Ethernet>678.9 and token rin%
@ 1ANs with this interface @ Emulated 1ANs !E1AN"
* inole special client>serer processes that enables 2A,:to:AT2
address resolution
* support connectionless nature of local area networks
3uestions:
4, Compare computer networks and distributed s#stems, What are the
applications o computer networks5
-, A s#stem has a n la#er hierarch#, Applications "enerate messa"es o M
b#tes,At each o the la#er a n b#te header is added, What raction o the
network bandwidth is illed with the headers5
6, 7rin" out the desi"n issues o computer networks, !ierentiate between
ser$ices and protocols,
8, &'plain the ollowin" with respect to network sotware9 protocol hierarch#:
protocol la#ers
., Compare the connection oriented and connectionless ser$ices
www.bookspar.com ;6
;, !ierentiate between broadcastin" and multicastin"
<, Wh# does A*M uses cells5
=, &'plain client ser$er model with an e'ample,
LAN Protocols
* &thernet 1I&&& =>-,6 standard2
* *oken 7us 1I&&& =>-,8 LAN standard2
* *oken (in" 1I&&& =>-,. LAN standard2 and F!!I
This chapter deals in detail about the aboe technolo%ies.
LAN structure
* defines the structure of the network
* contains both physical topolo%$) which is the actual la$out of the wire !media"
'bus) star) rin%) e/tended star) hierarchical) mesh( and the logical topolo%$) which
defines how the media is accessed b$ the hosts 'token passin%(
&'amples
The aboe fi%ure shows how the hosts can be connected usin% an$ wirin% media. This is
called the bus topolo%$. The circle depicts the nodes. The$ all share the same media. This
is the simplest of all and eas$ to implement. ,ost is less. Used in 1AN. <ut onl$ one
communication can happen at a time.
This is the rin% topolo%$ the hosts are connected in a rin% fashion and uses a special
packet called token for the communication between the hosts. The rin% maintenance is a
important issue not as simple as bus to implement
www.bookspar.com ;I
The aboe fi%ure shows the star topolo%$. There is a wirin% hub to which the hosts are
connected. The data passes throu%h the hub in the center. This is a er$ popular structure
used in the 1AN. The wirin% hub can be a network deice switch. The e/tended star also
is used. When all the nodes are connected to each other b$ the wirin% media it becomes
the 2ESD topolo%$.
The nodes are connected like a tree structure.
%atellite
@ nodes use an antenna to send and receie data
@ point:to:point from land based antenna to satellite
@ broadcast from the satellite to one or more %round stations
?ardware used in the hosts
N5,s
Adapters to connect deices to a network
3erform4
* framin%
* monitor the medium for transmissions
* capture data from the medium and pass them to their hosts nodes for
processin%
* check errors
* responsible for token passin%
Also perform la$er:; function4 conert bits to ph$sical si%nals
www.bookspar.com 87
* N5, works in two modes4
@ +eneral mode
@ 3romiscuous mode
* 5n %eneral mode) the Ethernet card of the computer will allow followin% t$pes of
packets4
@ 3ackets send to the computer.
@ <roadcast 3acket
@ 2ulticast packet and if computer is part of that multicast %roup.
* 5n promiscuous mode) the Ethernet card of the computer will allow all the packets
that it receies.
Limitations o la#er 4
* ,annot or%aniEe streams of bits.
* ,annot name or identif$ computers.
* ,annot communicate with the upper:leel la$ers.
* ,annot decide which computer will transmit binar$ data.
And hence the la$er 8 proides the followin% functions
* 1a$er 8 uses framing to or%aniEe or %roup the bits.
* 1a$er 8 uses an addressing process to identif$ computers.
* 1a$er 8 uses Logical Link Control !LLC" to communicate with the upper:leel
la$ers.
* 1a$er 8 uses Media Access Control !MAC" to decide which computer will
transmit.
Various LAN standards
www.bookspar.com 8;
5EEE has specified the followin% standards
The 5nstitute of Electrical and Electronic En%ineers.
1AN standards4
=>-,4d: %pannin" tree,
=>-,-: LLC,
=>-,6: MAC @ &thernet,
=>-,.: MAC @ *oken rin",
=>-,44: Wireless LAN,
1o%ical 1ink ,ontrol !11,"4 Transitions up to the network la$er.
2edia Access ,ontrol !2A,"4 Transitions down to media.
* 11, seres to communicate upward to Network la$er) independent of the specific
1AN technolo%$ used and Upper la$er.
* 2A, seres to access and communicate downward to the technolo%$:specific
3h$sical la$er.
11,4 receies a packet from the network la$er and attaches a header it is called the 3.U
protocol data unit and sends to the 2A, throu%h the interface it is called the S.U serice
data unit and throu%h the serice access point SA3. The header will hae .SA3 d stands
for destination and SSA3 s stands for the source.
2A,4 does the framin% and the flow control.
,oncept of la$er 8
;. 1a$er 8 uses framin% to or%aniEe or %roup the data.
www.bookspar.com 88
8. 1a$er 8 uses a flat addressin% conention.
9. 1a$er 8 communicates with the upper:leel la$ers throu%h 11,.
?. 1a$er 8 uses 2A, to choose which computer will transmit binar$ data) from a %roup
in which all computers are tr$in% to transmit at the same time.
MAC Address
* Eer$ computer has a uni=ue wa$ of identif$in% itself 4 2A, address or ph$sical
address.
* The ph$sical address is located on the Network 5nterface ,ard !N5,".
* 2A, addresses hae no structure) and are considered flat address spaces.
5t has ?6 bits the first 8? bits are for the endor and the ne/t 8? bits are uni=ue N5,
number.
* 2A, addresses are sometimes referred to as burned-in addresses !BAs" because
the$ are burned into read:onl$ memor$ !-O2" and are copied into random:access
memor$ !-A2" when the N5, initialiEes.
* 7777.7c;8.9?AC or 77:77:7c:;8:9?:AC
2A, address are used b$ 2A, la$er to identif$ the destination.
LAN s#stems
* <ased on 1AN architecture Just seen
The 5EEE 678 Standards are an inte%ral part of the architecture4
* 1ANLs
* Ethernet !,S2A>,."
* Token -in% and 0..5
* Wireless
* AT2 1ANLs
C%MAAC!
www.bookspar.com 89
* Architecture that combines standards) topolo%ies and protocols.
* ,arriers Sense 2ultiple Access with ,ollision .etection is the most commonl$
used medium access control techni=ue
* .eeloped b$ Gero/ as part of Ethernet
* <asis for 5EEE 678.9
* 2ost popular P F7Q
* With ,S2A) collision occupies medium for duration of transmission
* Stations listen whilst transmittin%
* 5f medium idle) transmit
* 5f bus$) listen for idle) then transmit
* 5f collision detected) Jam) then cease transmission
* After Jam) wait random time then start a%ain
=>-,6 operation parameters
* Slot Time R 8 / pro% dela$ S safet$ mar%in
@ ;72bps coa/ial cable) 8.A Hm it is A;8 bits
* Times between retransmission attempts is a number - / slot time
* 7 to - T 8H) where H R min!N) backoff limit"
C%MAAC! parameters
* 2ini slot time4 time duration that is at least as bi% as two propa%ation dela$
* 2ini slot is basis for contention resolution
* <ackoff al%orithm4 The first retransmission time inoles Eero or one minislot
times) the second inoles 7);)8)9 minislot times and each additional slot
retransmission e/tends the ran%e the ran%e b$ a factor of 8 until the ma/imum
ran%e of ;8;7
* The aera%e number of minislots in a contention period is appro/imatel$ eR8.F;
therefore the fraction
* The aera%e number of minislots in a contention period is appro/imatel$ eR8.F;
therefore the fraction of time that the channel is bus$ transmittin% frames is
1>- R ;
1>-StpropS8etprop ;SC.??a
Where aRtprop ->1
Frame ormat
www.bookspar.com 8?
There are three t$pe of addresses unicast4 permanentl$ assi%ned to N5, multicast address4
identif$ the %roup. <roadcast address4 indicated b$ all ;s ph$sical address. All stations
receie the packet.
0,S uses ,-,!c$clic redundanc$ check " for the error control. 3ad bits are used to add
some bits if the len%th of the data frame is less because Ethernet re=uires minimum A;8
b$tes.
%i"nalin" rate
!2bps"
B 7and B
!<ase or
<road"
Len"th !2eters"
or
Cable *#pe
5EEE 678.9 are desi%nated usin% the format aboe. 0or e/ample ;7<aseT means ;7 is the
si%nallin% rate in 2bps. <ase is the <aseband. T stands for twisted pair.
I&&& =>-,6: 4>Mbps speciication 1&thernet2
4>7aseBF7
Fiber
7ackbone
4>7aseBFL
Fiber Link
4>7aseBFP
Fiber Passi$e
Medium iber iber =.> nm iber
www.bookspar.com 8A
%i"nalin" 7aseband B ManchesterA onBo
*opolo"# PointBtoBpointPointBtoBpoint
or star
%tar
ma'
se"ment
len"th
->>> m ->>> m .>> m
ma', NodesA
se"ment
- - 66
Ma'
!iameter
-.>> m -.>> m -.>> m
The aboe table shows the summar$ of the Ethernet ;72bps
&thernet hub and switch topolo"ies usin" twisted pair cablin"
The aboe fi%ure shows the star topolo%$ and hub is used and it repeats the si%nal. 5f
there is a collision the hub sends the Jam si%nal and the stations e/ecute the backoff
al%orithm. The stations are in the same collision domain.
www.bookspar.com 8C
The aboe fi%ure shows that a switch or an$ other deice connected where input port
buffers incomin% the transmissions. The incomin% frames are e/amined and transferred to
the appropriate output port.
4>7ase*
* 3roides three approaches to operatin% the 1AN
* 0irst:stations are in collision domain
* Second:hub operates as ethernet switch
* Third: stations transmit in full duple/ mode
Fast &thernet
4>>7aseB*+ 4>>7aseBF+ 4>>7aseB*8
2edium Twisted pair fiber UT3
Si%nalin% 21T:9 ?<A<) N-U5 6<CT) N-U
Topolo%$ Star Star Star
ma/
se%ment
len%th
;77 m ?;8 m !half:
duple/"
8 km !full:duple/"
;77 m
network
diameter
877 m ?77 m 877 m
The aboe table summariEes the fast Ethernet technolo%$.
Ci"a bit &thernet
* 4>>>7aseB%+ !short waelen%th fiber"
@ Short waelen%th !FF7:6C7 nm"
@ support duple/ links of
* 887: 8FA m usin% C8.A m multimode fiber
* A77: AA7 m usin% A7 m multimode fiber
* 4>>>7aseBL+ !lon% waelen%th fiber"
@ 1on% waelen%th !;8F7:;9AA nm"
@ support duple/ links of
* AA7 m usin% C8.A m or A7 m multimode fiber
www.bookspar.com 8F
* A777 m usin% I m sin%le:mode fiber
* 4>>>7aseBC+ !short haul copper"
@ supports ;:+bps links within a sin%le room or e=uipment rack
@ uses copper Jumpers ) special shielded twisted pair that spans no more
than 8A m
* 4>>>7aseB*
@ uses ? pairs of cat A UT3
@ support deices oer a ran%e of ;77m
* Encodin% scheme for +i%abit Ethernet is 6<>;7<
Application o ast and "i"abit &thernet
The aboe fi%ure shows the application of the fast and %i%abit Ethernet technolo%$. There
are three departments and has the 1ANS the hosts are connected usin% a hub) the
topolo%$ is star. The link used is ;72bps. The other two 1ans are also implemented in
the same wa$. The three 1ANs are connected to their respectie serer usin% a switch and
;772bps links.
All the three 1ANs are linked to%ether usin% routers and a %i%abit link in the backbone.
www.bookspar.com 86
*oken (in" =>-,.
* 2A, protocol
@ Small frame !token" circulates when idle
@ Station waits for token
@ ,han%es one bit in token to make it SO0 for data frame
@ Append rest of data frame
@ 0rame makes round trip and is absorbed b$ transmittin% station
@ Station then inserts new token when transmission has finished and leadin%
ed%e of returnin% frame arries
@ Under li%ht loads) some inefficienc$
@ Under hea$ loads) round robin
*oken rin" ormat
www.bookspar.com 8I
* Tokens are 9 b$tes in len%th and consists of a start delimiter) an access control
b$te) and an end delimiter.
* The start delimiter alerts each station to the arrial of a token) or data>command
frame. This field also includes si%nals that distin%uish the b$te from the rest of the
frame b$ iolatin% the encodin% scheme used elsewhere in the frame.
* The access control b$te contains the priority and reser!ation field) and a token
and monitor bit. The token bit distin%uishes a token from a data>command frame)
and a monitor bit determines whether a frame is continuousl$ circlin% the rin%.
The bit pattern for access control is 333 T 2 ---
333: indicate priorit$ of token
*B token bit: *D> Bindicates token rame and *D4 indicates data rame
MB monitor bit used b# monitor to remo$e orphan rames,
(((B is used or reser$in" token priorit#
"rame control byte has the pattern 00 UUUUUU to distin%uish between data
frame and control frame
00R 7; indicates data frame
00R77 indicates control frame then UUUUUU indicates t$pe of control frame.
SA and .A are as in 678.9
0,S : frame check se=uence hain% ,-, checksum
#nding delimiter has last two bits to be 5 and E where
E: error bit) this bit is set if an$ station detects an error like line codin% iolation or
frame check se=uence error.
5: intermediate frame bit ) it is set one to indicate last frame in the se=uence of frames
that are transmitted.
"rame status : has the pattern A , GG A , GG and it allows receiin% station to
cone$ the data transfer status to sendin% station.
AR ; indicates destination address was reco%niEed b$ receiin% station.
,R; indicates that the frame was copied to receiers boffer properl$

*oken rin" passin"
www.bookspar.com
Two t$pes of token rin% frames4 .ata>,ommand
and Token
97
* Token:passin% networks moe a small frame) called a token) around the network.
* 3ossession of the token %rants the ri%ht to transmit data.
* 5f a node that receies a token has no information to send) it passes the token to
the ne/t end station.
* Each station can hold the token for a ma/imum period of time) dependin% on the
specific technolo%$ that has been implemented.
* When a token is passed to a host that has information to transmit) the host seiEes
the token and alters ; bit of it. The token becomes a start:of:frame se=uence.
* Ne/t) the station appends the information to transmit to the token and sends this
data to the ne/t station on the rin%. There is no token on the network while the
information frame is circlin% the rin%) unless the rin% supports earl$ token
releases. Other stations on the rin% cannot transmit at this time. The$ must wait
for the token to become aailable.
* $oken %ing networks ha!e no collisions. 5f earl$ token release is supported) a new
token can be released when the frame transmission has been completed.
* The information frame circulates around the rin% until it reaches the intended
destination station) which copies the information for processin%. The information
frame continues around the rin% until it reaches the sendin% station) where it is
remoed. The sendin% station can erif$ whether the frame was receied and
copied b$ the destination.
* Unlike ,S2A>,. networks) such as Ethernet) token:passin% networks are
deterministic. This means that $ou can calculate the ma/imum time that will pass
before an$ end station will be able to transmit.
* This feature) and seeral reliabilit$ features) makes Token -in% networks ideal for
applications where an$ dela$ must be predictable) and robust network operation is
important. 0actor$ automation enironments are e/amples of predictable robust
network operations.
* Token -in% networks use a sophisticated priorit$ s$stem that permits certain user:
desi%nated) hi%h:priorit$ stations to use the network more fre=uentl$. Token -in%
frames hae two fields that control priorit$ : the priorit$ field and the reseration
field.
www.bookspar.com 9;
* Onl$ stations with a priorit$ e=ual to) or hi%her than) the priorit$ alue contained
in a token can seiEe that token.
* Once the token has been seiEed and chan%ed to an information frame) onl$
stations with a priorit$ alue hi%her than that of the transmittin% station can
resere the token for the ne/t network pass.
* The ne/t token %enerated includes the hi%her priorit$ of the reserin% station.
Stations that raise a tokenVs priorit$ leel must reinstate the preious priorit$ when
their transmission has been completed.
* Token -in% networks use seeral mechanisms for detectin% and compensatin% for
network faults.
* One mechanism is to select one station in the Token -in% network to be the acti!e
monitor. This station acts as a centraliEed source of timin% information for other
rin% stations and performs a ariet$ of rin% maintenance functions. The actie
monitor station can potentiall$ be an$ station.
* One of this stationLs functions is to remoe continuousl$ circulatin% frames from
the rin%. When a sendin% deice fails) its frame ma$ continue to circle the rin%
and preent other stations from transmittin% their frames) which can lock up the
network. The actie monitor can detect these frames) remoe them from the rin%)
and %enerate a new token.
* The 5<2 Token -in% networkVs ph$sical star topolo%$ also contributes to oerall
network reliabilit$. Actie 2SAUs !multi:station access units" can see all
information in a Token -in% network enablin% them to check for problems and to
selectiel$ remoe stations when necessar$.
* Beaconing : a Token -in% formula : detects and tries to repair network faults.
When a station detects a serious problem with the network !e.%. a cable break" it
sends a beacon frame. The beacon frame defines a failure domain. A failure
domain includes the station that is reporting the failure, its nearest acti!e
upstream neighbor &'A('), and e!erything in between*
* Beaconing initiates a process called autoreconfi%uration) where nodes within the
failure domain automaticall$ perform dia%nostics. This is an attempt to
reconfi%ure the network around the failed areas.
* 3h$sicall$) 2SAUs can accomplish this throu%h electrical reconfi%uration.
* The ?>;C 2bps Token -in% networks use differential 2anchester encodin%.
* Token -in% uses the differential 2anchester encodin% method to encode clock
and data bit information into bit s$mbols.
Token -in% network stations are directl$ connected to 2SAUs and can be wired to%ether
to form one lar%e rin%.
3atch cables connect 2SAUs to other 2SAUs that are adJacent.
1obe cables connect 2SAUs to stations. 2SAUs include b$pass rela$s for remoin%
stations from the rin%.
F!!I
www.bookspar.com 98
0iber .istributed .ata 5nterface !0..5" came about because s$stem mana%ers became
concerned with network reliabilit$ issues as mission:critical applications were
implemented on hi%h:speed networks.
0..5 is fre=uentl$ used as a backbone technolo%$ and to connect hi%h:speed computers
in a 1AN.
0..5 has four specifications4
2ediaAccess,ontrolW
defineshowthemediumis accessedframe formattoken handlin%addressin% al%orithm for
calculatin% a c$clic redundanc$ check and error:recoer$ mechanisms
3h$sical 1a$er 3rotocolWdefines data encodin%>decodin% procedures
clockin% re=uirements framin%
3h$sical 1a$er 2ediumWdefines the characteristics of the transmission medium fiber
optic link power leels bit error rates optical components connectors
Station 2ana%ementWdefines the 0..5 station confi%uration rin% confi%uration rin%
control features stationinsertion and remoal initialiEation fault isolation and recoer$
-ecoer$ collection of statistics
Unlike ,S2A>,. networks) such as Ethernet) token:passin% networks are
deterministic::$ou can calculate the ma/imum time that will pass before an$ end station
will be able to transmit. 0..5Vs dual rin% makes 0..5 er$ reliable.
0..5 supports real:time allocationof network bandwidth) makin% it ideal for a ariet$ of
different application t$pes. 0..5 proides this support b$ definin% two t$pes of traffic @
s$nchronous and as$nchronous.
* S$nchronous traffic can consume a portion of the ;77 2bps total bandwidth of an
0..5 network) while as$nchronous traffic can consume the rest.
* S$nchronous bandwidth is allocated to those stations re=uirin% continuous
transmission capabilit$. This is useful for transmittin% oice and ideo
information.
* The remainin% bandwidth is used for as$nchronous transmissions.
* The 0..5 S2T specification defines a distributed biddin% scheme to allocate
0..5 bandwidth
* As$nchronous bandwidth is allocated usin% an ei%ht:leel priorit$ scheme. Each
station is assi%ned an as$nchronous priorit$ leel.
* 0..5 also permits e/tended dialo%ues) in which stations ma$ temporaril$ use all
as$nchronous bandwidth.
* The 0..5 priorit$ mechanism can lock out stations that cannot use s$nchronous
bandwidth and that hae too low an as$nchronous priorit$.
www.bookspar.com 99
* 0..5 uses an encodin% scheme called +B,-B. Eer$ ? bits of data are sent as a A
bit code. The si%nal sources in 0..5 transceiers are 1E.s or lasers.
* 0..5 specifies a ;77 2bps) token:passin%) dual:rin% 1AN that uses a fiber:optic
transmission medium.
* 5t defines the physical layer and media access portion of the data link la$er)
which is similar to 5EEE 678.9 and 5EEE 678.A in its relationship to the OS5
2odel.
* Althou%h it operates at faster speeds) 0..5 is similar to Token -in%.
* The two networks share a few features) such as topolo%$ !rin%" and media access
techni=ue !token:passin%". A characteristic of 0..5 is its use of optical fiber as a
transmission medium.
* Optical fiber is e/plodin% in popularit$ as a networkin% medium) bein% installed
at a rate of ?777 miles per da$ in the United States.
* Sin%le:mode fiber is capable of hi%her bandwidth and %reater cable run distances
than multi:mode fiber.
* <ecause of these characteristics) sin%le:mode fiber is often used for interB
buildin" connectiit$ while multi:mode fiber is often used for intraBbuildin"
connectiit$.
* 2ulti:mode fiber uses 1E.s as the li%ht:%eneratin% deices while sin%le:mode
fiber %enerall$ uses lasers.
* 0..5 specifies the use of dual rings for ph$sical connections. Traffic on each rin%
traels in opposite directions.
* 3h$sicall$) the rin%s consist of two or more point:to:point connections between
adJacent stations.
* One of the two 0..5 rin%s is called the primary ringB the other is called the
secondary ring.
* The primar$ rin% is used for data transmissionB the secondar$ rin% is %enerall$
used as a back up.
* ,lass <) or single-attachment stations &.A.), attach to one rin%B ,lass A) or dual
attachment stations &DA.), attach to both rin%s.
* SASs are attached to the primar$ rin% throu%h a concentrator) which proides
connections for multiple SASs. The concentrator ensures that a failure) or power
down) of an$ %ien SAS) does not interrupt the rin%. This is 3articularl$ useful
when 3,s) or similar deices that fre=uentl$ power on and off) connect to the
rin%.
* Each 0..5 .AS has two ports) desi%nated A and <. These ports connect the
station to dual 0..5 rin%B therefore each port proides a connection for both
primar$ and secondar$ rin%s.
E/ample -in% 1atenc$ and Token reinsertion
* 1et there be 2 stations
* b bits dela$ in stations
* The dela$ in interface is 2b bits
* t$picall$ bR8.A
* d total rin% len%th
* additional dela$ is d> or d-> :dela$ in medium
www.bookspar.com 9?
* R8X;76 m>sec
* therefore it is Amicrosec to trael ; kms
* rin% latenc$ is defined as the time that it takes for a bit to trael around rin% is
%ien b$
* TLRd>S2b>- and TL-R d->S2b bits
* E/ample
* 1et -R?2bps 2R87 stations separated b$ ;77m bR8.A
* 1atenc$R 87X;77X?X;7C >8X;76 S87X8.ARI7 bits
* 5EEE 678.A:After the last bit arries the token is inserted
* 5<2 token rin%:after the header bit arries the token is inserted
* 5EEE 678.A and 5<2 token rin% 8C2bps: after last bit transmitted the token is
inserted
* ,onclusion:improes efficienc$ in case of the third case.
www.bookspar.com 9A
F!!I MAC Protocol
* As for 678.A e/cept4
* Station seiEes token b$ abortin% token transmission
* Once token captured) one or more data frames transmitted
* New token released as soon as transmission finished !earl$ token release in 678.A"
* Dandle two t$pe of traffic
* s$nchronous:ti%ht transfer dela$ re=uirement:oice or ideo
* as$nchronous:%reater dela$ tolerance:data
* TT-T:tar%et token rotation time:all stations a%ree to operate
* Eer$ station is allotted time S durin% which it can send the s$nchronous traffic.
* 5f the sum of Si times is smaller than TT-T then token will return to eer$ node
in less than 8 TT-T sec.
* and hence meets the dela$ re=uirement
* Each station maintains T-T:token rotation timer4 measures the time elapsed since
the station last receied the token.
* When a station receies the token it calculates TDT:token hold time4
TDTRTT-TRT-T
* if TDTY7 all s$nchronous and as$nchronous traffic is sent
* if TDTT7 onl$ s$nchronous traffic is allowed
F!!I operation
Wireless 1AN 678.;;
www.bookspar.com 9C
3rotocol stack
0rame structure
2A, protocol
serices
The aboe fi%ure shows the protocol stack of the wireless 1AN
Wh$ not Ethernet Z
Seeral reasons as to wh$ it cannot be used
* difficult to detect collisions
* not controlled as the wired ones
* Didden station problem
The aboe fi%ure shows the hidden station problem
Inrastructure networks
* <asic Serice Set !<SS" contains4
@ wireless hosts
@ access point !A3"4 base station
www.bookspar.com 9F
* <SSLs combined to form distribution s$stem !.S" to form a e/tended serice set
ESS
* ESS proide %atewa$ access for wireless users into wired network. This access is
done throu%h a deice called portal
The fi%ure shows the distributed s$stem.
!ierent ser$ices associated with the wireless lan are
* Association
* .isassociation
* -eassociation
* .istribution
* 5nte%ration
Intracell ser$ices
* Authentication
* .eauthentication
* 3riac$
* .ata .elier$
Adhoc networks
* Ad hoc network4 5EEE 678.;; stations can d$namicall$ form network without A3
* Applications4
@ #laptop& meetin% in conference room) car
@ interconnection of #personal& deices
@ battlefield
www.bookspar.com 96
Frame structure
There are three t$pes of frames
2ana%ement frame:used for station association and dissociation with the A3
timin% and s$nchroniEation and authentication and deauthentication
,ontrol frame:used for handshakin% and for positie ack
.ata frame:for transmission of data
2A, header proides information on frame control) duration) addressin% and
se=uence control
2A, subla$er is responsible for channel access procedures) pdu addressin%
)formattin%) fra%mentation and reassembl$ of 2S.Us
supports securit$ serices throu%h authentication and priac$ mechanisms
mana%ement serices support roamin% within and ESS and assist stations in
power mana%ement.
www.bookspar.com 9I
The fi%ure on the ne/t fi%ure shows the 2A, architecture
5t is defined usin% the coordination functions
.,0 offers the contention serice where the stations hae to contend to use the channel.
Uses ,S2A>,A
The basic operation is as follows
* 678.;; ,S2A4 sender
* : if sense channel idle for !I%F sec.
* then transmit entire frame !no collision detection"
* :if sense channel bus$ then binar$ backoff
* 678.;; ,S2A receier4
* if receied OH
* return A,H after %IF%
www.bookspar.com ?7
* ,S2A>,A4 e/plicit channel reseration
@ sender4 send short -TS4 re=uest to send
@ receier4 repl$ with short ,TS4 clear to send
* ,TS reseres channel for sender) notif$in% !possibl$ hidden" stations
* aoid hidden station collisions
* -TS and ,TS short4
@ collisions less likel$) of shorter duration
@ end result similar to collision detection
* 5EEE 678.;; alows4
@ ,S2A
@ ,S2A>,A4 reserations
@ pollin% from A3
Ph#sical la#er
www.bookspar.com ?;
5t is defined to operate with its 2A, la$er
There are three t$pes of frame format.
0re=uenc$ hoppin% spread spectrum
.irect se=uence spread spectrum
5nfrared frame format
LAN brid"es
Limitations o hubs
* sin%le collision domain results in no increase in ma/ throu%hput
@ multi:tier throu%hput same as sin%le se%ment throu%hput
* indiidual 1AN restrictions pose limits on number of nodes in same collision
domain and on total allowed %eo%raphical coera%e
* cannot connect different Ethernet t$pes !e.%.) ;7<aseT and ;77baseT"
7rid"es
* A network component connectin% 1ANLs to%ether.
* Operates onl$ in the data link la$er) thus is can handle an$ network protocol used.
* 2a$ be used
@ to diide the lar%e e/pensie and hard to mana%e network into smaller
1ANLs.
@ split networks that became loaded oer time.
@ to handle lar%er distances.
www.bookspar.com ?8
@ to block some traffic leakin% outside the network.
1ink 1a$er deices4 operate on Ethernet frames) e/aminin% frame header and selectiel$
forwardin% frame based on its destination
<rid%e isolates collision domains since it buffers frames
When frame is to be forwarded on se%ment) brid%e uses ,S2A>,. to access se%ment
and transmit
* <rid%e adanta%es4
@ 5solates collision domains resultin% in hi%her total ma/ throu%hput) and
does not limit the number of nodes nor %eo%raphical coera%e
@ ,an connect different t$pe Ethernet since it is a store and forward deice
@ Transparent4 no need for an$ chan%e to hosts 1AN adapters
* brid%es filter packets
@ same:1AN :se%ment frames not forwarded onto other 1AN se%ments
* forwardin%4
@ how to know which 1AN se%ment on which to forward frameZ
@ looks like a routin% problem !more shortl$N"
* -easons for brid%es
@ 1imited number of stations on a 1AN se%ment or rin%
@ 1imited distance for e/ecutin% ,S2A > ,. al%orithm or distance one
wants a token traelin% on a rin%
@ 1imited traffic on a sin%le 1AN4 aailable bandwidth must be shared b$
all stations
* 5nterconnectin% networks
@ Networks connected at the ph$sical la$er are connected b$ a repeater
@ Networks connected at the 2A, or link la$er are connected b$ brid"es
@ Networks connected at the network la$er are connected b$ routers
@ Di%her la$er interconnection deices that perhaps e/ecute additional
functions such as protocol conersion are often called "atewa#s
* <rid%es
@ .eices for %luin% to%ether 1ANs so that packets can be forwarded from
one 1AN to the other
A brid"ed LAN
www.bookspar.com ?9
Interconnection b# brid"e
* The no frills brid%e 4 simpl$ transmit all traffic from one 1AN se%ment onto all
the other se%ments
@ Adanta%es4 two stations can be transmittin% at the same time. <rid%e
will buffer a packet until it can transmit on a 1AN
@ .isadanta%es4 total bandwidth still that can be safel$ utiliEed is still the
minimum bandwidth of each 1AN se%ment
* Heepin% a database of all stations on each 1AN se%ment
@ 2anuall$ enter addresses in such a database
@ 3artition addresses into ran%es on each 1AN
* E%. 1AN ; has ;:A7) 1AN 8 has A;:;77) 1AN 9 has ;7;:;A7
@ Dae the 2A, address be hierarchicall$ diided into a 1AN address and a
station address !like the 53 address"
@ None of these solutions are reall$ used
* <etter solution4 the transparent learnin% brid%e
@ 1earn on which se%ment a station resides
www.bookspar.com ??
@ Transmit a packet onl$ onto the correct se%ment
* brid%es learn which hosts can be reached throu%h which interfaces4 maintain
filterin% tables
@ when frame receied) brid%e #learns& location of sender4 incomin% 1AN
se%ment
@ records sender location in filterin% table
* filterin% table entr$4
@ !Node 1AN Address) <rid%e 5nterface) Time Stamp"
@ stale entries in 0ilterin% Table dropped !TT1 can be C7 minutes"
* filterin% procedure4
@ i destination is on 1AN on which frame was receied
* then drop the frame
* else E lookup filterin% table
* i entr$ found for destination
* then forward the frame on interface indicatedB
* else floodB ,/ forward on all but the interface on
which the frame arri!ed/,
* F
*ransparent brid"e
* 2ain idea4 A brid%e should easil$ connect an$ set of 1ANLs to%ether and make
the connection transparent to the stations.
* No maintenance) software up%rade and routin% table upload should be necessar$.
* The brid%e listens to both network at all times.
* An$ frame receied is buffered.
* Ne/t the brid%e should be able to decide if the frame was addressed to a station in
the same network. 5f not) it should select the proper 1AN and broadcast the frame
there.
* <ackward 1earnin%4
* The brid%e keeps a table containin% hashed !address) network" entr$ pairs.
* The brid%e accepts an$ frame) if the destination address is in the table then
the frame is forwarded to the proper network) otherwise the frame is
broadcast onto all networks !e/cept the one its comin% from".
* 0or each incomin% frame the brid%e also read the source address and
updates the hash table b$ insertin% the source address and the network id
into the tables.
* Entries in the table can lie for a certain time) and if there is no packet
traffic from or to that an address the entr$ is remoed from the table.
* 2aintain a forwardin% database or cache of station 2A, addresses and the brid%e
port that the stations are on
* 3romiscuousl$ listen to packets arriin% on an$ port
* 0or each packet arriin% at the brid%e4
* Store the stations source address and arriin% port in the cache !if an entr$
alread$ e/ists for an address update if different"
@ determine if the destination address is in the cache
www.bookspar.com ?A
* 5f entr$ then forward onl$ on the appropriate port unless the port is
the same as the arrial port
* 5f no such entr$ then forward packet on all se%ments e/cept the
one the packet was receied on.
@ A%e each entr$ in the cache and delete after an appropriate time
%pannin" tree brid"e
* for increased reliabilit$) desirable to hae redundant) alternate paths from source
to dest
* with multiple simultaneous paths) c$cles result : brid%es ma$ multipl$ and
forward frame foreer
* solution4 or%aniEe brid%es in a spannin% tree b$ disablin% subset of interfaces
* As the s$stem %rows a comple/ %raph of man$ networks and man$ brid%es
appear.
* 0rames ma$ loop throu%h networksN
* <rid%es communicate to build d$namic spannin% tree %raph) showin% the
topolo%$ of the network.
* Spannin% tree %raphs aoid loops.
* 0irst the brid%e with the smallest serial number becomes the root of the tree.
* Ne/t the tree is constructed. 1ANLs are placed on the nodes) and brid%es are
placed on the ertices.
* 5f a 1AN or brid%e is no lon%er present the tree is updated.
* All networks are on the tree but to preent loops some of the brid%es are left off
the %raph. This makes the %raph a tree
www.bookspar.com
.isabled
?C
* Elect a sin%le brid%e amon% all brid%es as the root brid%e. The al%orithm will
select the root brid%e as the one with the lowest brid%e id.
* Each brid%e !e/cept root" determines the least cost path !shortest path with respect
to some metric) sa$ hops" from itself to the root brid%e throu%h each of its ports.
The port with least cost is the root port for that brid%e. 5n case of ties use the
smallest port id.
* Elect a desi%nated brid%e for each 1AN from the brid%es directl$ connectin% to
that 1AN. The desi%nated bride is the one closest to the root brid%e. 5n case of
ties it is the one with the lowest brid%e id. The port that connects the desi%nated
brid%e and the 1AN is the desi%nated port for that 1AN.
* 3orts in the spannin% tree are all root ports and desi%nated ports. Other ports are
in the blockin% state.
* .ata traffic is forwarded to and receied from ports in the spannin% tree onl$.
&'ample
%ample topolo"#
usin" spannin" tree
www.bookspar.com ?F
?ow al"orithm works
* <rid%es e/chan%e brid%e protocol data units !<3.Us". These hae confi%uration
messa%es consistin% of4
@ -oot 5.) brid%e assumed b$ sendin% brid%e to be the root
@ Transmittin% brid%e 5.
@ ,ost of least cost path to the root of which the transmittin% brid%e is aware
* When a brid%e receies a confi%uration messa%e from a nei%hbor brid%e) it
compares this with what it would transmit oer that port. Note that it will add the
cost to the receied messa%e before comparison. 5t saes the best confi%uration
messa%e receied for each port. 5f the saed confi%uration is better than what it
would transmit it stops transmittin% <3.Us oer that
* All brid%es start b$ transmittin% on all ports4
@ -oot id is own id
@ Transmittin% id is own id
@ ,ost is 7
@ !3ort id of port"
@ Which is a better messa%eZ
0irst compare root 5.) lower is better
5f tie) ne/t compare costs) lower is better
5f tie) ne/t compare transmittin% 5.) lower is better
5f still tie) port id is tie breaker
Eentuall$ onl$ the root brid%e is transmittin%.
%ource routin" brid"es
* ,S2A>,. communit$ preferred to use transparent brid%es due to their simplicit$.
* The Token -in% communit$) howeer) preferred source routin% brid%es.
www.bookspar.com ?6
* 5n source routin%) the sendin% station knows whether the destination is on the
same network. 5f it is not) the sender sets the hi%her destination address bit to ;
and includes the e/act path to the frame header.
* The path is a se=uence of alternatin% brid%e and 1AN addresses !?bits>;8bits".
* This re=uires that each machine know the topolo%$ and can construct a path to
an$ receier.
* 5nstead) the sender first broadcasts a disco$er# frame askin% the receier to si%nal
himself. 5n the return trip brid%es record their addresses in the frame header and
the path is formed.
* 3roblem4 Too man$ frame loose in the network.

Frame ormat
The routin% information field is inserted onl$ if the stations are on different 1ANs
if this field is present) then 5>+ bit in src addr field is ; otherwise it is 7
The routin% control field defines4 t$pe of frame) len%th of routin% information
field and direction of the route desi%nator field!1 to - or - to 1"
(oute disco$er#
0irst the src stn. Transmits the sin%le route broadcast frame on its 1AN without
the route desi%nator field.
this frame should appear e/actl$ once and hence selected brid%es form spannin%
tree
Once the selected brid%e at the first hop receies this frame
inserts an incomin% 1AN number
brid%e number
out%oin% 1AN number in the routin% information field
Then forwards on out%oin% 1AN
At the other hop when a selected brid%e receies this frame inserts brid%e number
and out%oin% 1AN number and forwards on out%oin% 1AN
Non selected brid%e simpl$ i%nore this frame
www.bookspar.com ?I
Once the receier %ets this frame it broadcasts all routes broadcast frame with no
route desi%nator fields
This frame %enerates all possible routes back to the src stn
After collectin% all routes the source station selects the best route and saes it
To preent all routes broad cast frames from circulatin% in the network) the brid%e
first checks whether the out%oin% 1AN number is alread$ recorded) if so it does
not forward the frame
&'ample
Assume that <;)<9)<? and <C are part of spannin% tree
S; wants to send a frame to S9
The ne/t slide shows the routes followed b$ sin%le route broadcast frame and all
routes broadcast frames
%in"le rame
www.bookspar.com A7
ALL route broad cast rame
&'ample
www.bookspar.com A;
* Suppose , sends frame to . and . replies back with frame to ,
* , sends frame) brid%e has no info about .) so floods to both 1ANs
@ brid%e notes that , is on port ;
@ frame i%nored on upper 1AN
@ frame receied b$ .
@ . %enerates repl$ to ,) sends
@ brid%e sees frame from .
@ brid%e notes that . is on interface 8
@ brid%e knows , on interface ;) so selecti!ely forwards frame out ia
interface
Mi'ed media brid"es
5nterconnect 1ANs of different t$pes
E/ample ethernet and token rin%
These differ in frame format) opeartion and speed and these issues to be taken
care of
Since the frame formats are different reformattin% is done and new 0,S is used.
<ut adds processin% oerhead.
Since the data rate is different the brid%e should hae sufficient bufferin% capacit$
Two approaches used are 4 translational brid%in%
source route transparent brid%in%
%witch
www.bookspar.com A8
* used to concentrate connectiit$
* combine the connectiit$ of a hub with the traffic re%ulation of a brid%e
* switch frames from incomin% ports to out%oin% ports proidin% each port with full
bandwidth
* proide separate data paths
switch unctions
@ Address learnin%
@ 0orward>filter decision
@ 1oop aoidance
VLANs
* 5n a t$pical shared 1AN...
@ Users are %rouped ph$sicall$ based on the hub the$ are plu%%ed into
@ -outers se%ment the 1AN and proide broadcast firewalls
* 5n V1ANs...
@ $ou can %roup users lo%icall$ b$ function) department or application in use
@ confi%uration is done throu%h proprietar$ software
@ V1ANs can lo%icall$ se%ment users into different subnets !broadcast
domains"
@ <roadcast frames are onl$ switched between ports on the switch or
switches with the same V1AN 5..
@ Users can be lo%icall$ %roup ia software based on4
* port number
* 2A, address
* protocol bein% used
* application bein% used
www.bookspar.com A9
The aboe fi%ure shows the difference between a 1AN and a V1AN
* V1ANs...
@ work at 1a$er 8 [ 9
@ control network broadcasts
@ allow users to be assi%ned b$ net admin.
@ proide ti%hter network securit$
The fi%ure shows the formation of a V1AN
* A router proides connection between different V1ANs
* 0or e/ample) $ou hae V1AN; and V1AN8.
www.bookspar.com A?
@ Within the switch) users on separate V1ANs cannot talk to each other
!benefit of a V1ANN"
@ Doweer) users on V1AN; can email users on V1AN8 but the$ need a
router to do it.
* Switches make filterin% and forwardin% decisions based on data in the frame.
* There are two techni=ues used.
@ 0rame 0ilterin%::e/amines particular information about each frame !2A,
address or la$er 9 protocol t$pe"
@ 0rame Ta%%in%::places a uni=ue identifier in the header of each frame as it
is forwarded throu%hout the network backbone.
* Three methods for implementin% V1ANs
@ 3ort:,entric
@ Static
@ .$namic
* Each switched port can be assi%ned to a V1AN. This...
@ ensures ports that do not share the same V1AN do not share broadcasts.
@ ensures ports that do share the same V1AN will share broadcasts.
VLAN beneits
* Traelin% Users
@ 87Q to ?7Q of work force moes eer$ $ear
* net adminLs bi%%est headache
* lar%est e/pense in mana%in% networks. 2oes ma$ re=uire...
@ recablin%
@ readdressin% and reconfi%uration
@ V1ANs proide a wa$ to control these costs. As lon% as the user still
belon%s to the same V1AN...
* simpl$ confi%ure the new switch port to that V1AN
* router confi%uration remains intact
@ -outers proide an effectie firewall a%ainst broadcasts
@ Addin% V1ANs can e/tend a routerLs firewall capabilities to the #switch
fabric&
@ The smaller the V1AN) the smaller the number of users that are effected
b$ broadcasts
@ Shared 1ANs are eas$ to penetrate...simpl$ plu% into the shared hub.
@ V1ANs increase securit$ b$ ...
* restrictin% number of users in a V1AN
* preentin% user access without authoriEation
* confi%urin% all unused ports to the #.isabled& settin%
* control access b$
@ addresses
@ application t$pes
@ protocol t$pes
* Dub -eplacement [ Se%mentation
@ The ports on a non:intelli%ent hub can onl$ be assi%ned one V1AN.
www.bookspar.com AA
@ -eplacin% hubs with switches is relatiel$ cheap compared to the benefit
%ained.
@ 5n the %raphic) replacin% the core hub in an e/tended star topolo%$ with a
V1AN capable switch effectiel$ microse%ments one shared 1AN into
si/.
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
www.bookspar.com AC
4: An end s#stem sends .> packets per second usin" U!P o$er a ull duple' 4>>
Mbps ethernet LAN connection, &ach packet consists o 4.>> b#tes o ethernet
rame pa#load data, What is the throu"hput when measured at U!P la#er5
Answer:
The frame siEe is ;A77 b$tes
The total header in each packet R53 headerSU.3 header
R87S6 b$tes
Total U.3 pa$loadR;A77:86R;?F8 b$tes
Total bits sent per second isR;?F8X6XA7RA66677bps or A66Hbps
-:*he ollowin" rame transition dia"ram shows an e'chan"e o ethernet rames
between two computers A and 7 connected $ia a 4> 7* hub, &ach rame sent b#
computer A contains 4.>>b#tes o ethernet pa#load data and the one sent b# 7 has
8> b#tes o ethernet pa#load data, Calculate the a$era"e utiliGation o the media
durin" e'chan"e,
1reer presentation or dia"ram2
Answer:H
Number of frames from A is 6
Ethernet 2A, frame pa$load from A R;A77b$tes
These 2A, frame includes 53 header 87 b$tes
Total frame siEe at AR6 b$tes preambleS;? b$tes 2A,S;A77 b$tes 2A, pa$loadS?
b$tes ,-,98
R 6S;?S;A77S?
R ;A8Cb$tes sin%le 2A, frame or ;8876bits
Number of frames from < is ?
Ethernet 2A, frame pa$load from < R?7b$tes
These 2A, frame includes 53 header 87 b$tes
Total frame siEe at <R6 b$tes preambleS;? b$tes 2A,S;A77 b$tes 2A, pa$loadS?
b$tes ,-,98SC b$te 3A.
R 6S;?S?7S?SC
R F8b$tes sin%le 2A, frame or AFCbits
5%norin% the interframe %ap
Total utiliEed bandwidth is
Number of frames from ASnumber of frames from <
R ;8876X6SAFCX?
RIIIC6 bits
UtiliEationR;.FQ
6:Wh# do we ha$e la#ers in the )%I model and protocols in "eneral5
Answer:
So the main idea here is A<ST-A,T5ON. This helps in puttin% arious functions in
separate modules and at the same time hidin% the details of what the$ do and how the$ do
it from other la$ers. This wa$ we could improe the performance of one function or een
chan%e it all to%ether) without hain% to chan%e the whole protocol stack.
www.bookspar.com AF
8:What are the dierences between the circuit switched and packet switched
networks5 Ci$e e'amples o each,
Answer:
,ircuit switched4 The resources needed alon% a path are resered for the duration of the
session. 5t is one fi/ed ph$sical path from source to destination. !E/4 Telephone
networks".
3acket switched4 The resources are not resered) such that a messa%e !or packet" ma$
hae to wait !=ueue" to use resources on a communication link) and each packet ma$ take
a different route. Toda$Zs 5nternet
.:What is the dierence between hubs: switches: brid"es: routers: repeaters and
ampliiers5
Answer:
Dubs4 3h$sical la$er !la$er:;" deices that simpl$ broadcasts the bit on all other
interfaces) so it operates on bits rather than frames.
<rid%es4 Are la$er:8 deices that operate on frames) and are used to connect different
1ANs to%ether while filterin% data link la$er packets from one network to the other.
Switches4 Are er$ similar to brid%es) e/cept that the$ usuall$ hae man$ more
interfaces) operate in full duple/ mode) and could be used to connect one 1AN or man$
to%ether. The$ are also considered la$er 8 deices.
-outers4 These are la$er:9 deices that operate on the network la$er) and route packets or
forward them based on the 53 address.
-epeaters4 The$ are deices that take in a si%nal) interprets it and reconstructs a fresh new
si%nal e/actl$ like the first but without all the noise and distortion that the ori%inal si%nal
ma$ hae suffered. !la$er:; deice) used to make si%nals propa%ate oer lon% distances"
Amplifiers4 Similar to repeaters) e/cept that the$ simpl$ boost the incomin% si%nal the
same wa$ it is. 5n other words) it will also boost an$ noise or problems that mi%ht be
present in the si%nal.
;:What is the minimum and ma'imum len"th or an &thernet rame5 Wh# do we
ha$e those minimum and ma'imum len"ths5
Answer:
2in len%th is4 C? b$tes. -eason4 So that collisions can be detected.
2a/ len%th is4 ;A;6 b$tes. -eason4 2ainl$ fairness !so that one node would not
monopoliEe the channel") and also for easier error detection !checksummin%".
<:(ank the ollowin" LANs rom most secure to least secure: %witched LAN:
Wireless LAN and %hared LAN, &'plain #our reasonin",
Answer:
The se=uence would be4 Switched 1AN !most secure" then Shared 1AN then Wireless
1AN !least secure".
-eason4 5n the switched 1AN) the frames take a path from the source to the destination
directl$ without hain% to broadcast it on all the ports) so no other machine could tap or
listen to the medium since nothin% is bein% sent to those machines in the first place.
Shared 1AN is less secure because of its broadcastin% propert$) so all the machines on
the 1AN could sniff the packets and see what is bein% sent een if it werenZt addressed to
www.bookspar.com A6
them. 0inall$) the wireless is the least secure) because $ou are not onl$ broadcastin% the
frames to all the machines) $ou are actuall$ doin% that all oer the medium) so een other
machines that do not or should not belon% to the 1AN ma$ sniff the frames.
=:Assume each packet has t#pical *CP and IP headers each ->b#tes lon", I we ha$e
three computers: A: 7 and C, *he link between A and 7 has an M*U o 6>>> b#tes:
while the link between 7 and C has an M*U o 4>>> b#tes, Consider the case where
a packet needs to be sent rom A to C that has a siGe o 6>>> b#tes 1includin"
headers2, ?ow man# ra"ments will we ha$e rom 7 to C: and how much data will
be in each ra"ment 1i,e, e'cludin" headers25 1all connections are assumed to be
&thernet2
Answer:
The packet>frame of siEe 9777 b$tes will hae4
9777 Z 87 !53 header" Z 87 !T,3 header" R 8IC7 b$tes of data.
Since the 2TU is ;777 b$tes !includin% headers") so the ma/ amount of data from 53Zs
point of iew ! includin% the T,3 header if needed" that could be sent is4 ;777 Z 87 !53
header"Z R I67 b$tes.
<ut since fra%ments hae to be diided into offsets that are diisible b$ 6 !because the
offset field are multiples of 6b$tes") then the ma/ data that can be transferred from 53Zs
point of iew is R IFCb$tes.
So we will hae 0our fra%ments from A to ,
So the first packet will include IFC Z 87!T,3 header" R IAC b$tes of data.
The second packet will hae IFC b$tes.
The third packet will hae IFC b$tes.
And the fourth packet will hae4 8IC7 Z !IAC S IFCX8" R A8 b$tes.
I:Assume the web ser$er www,slashdot,or" has IP address ;;,6.,-.>,4.4, A client at
address 46.,--,44,4= downloads a ile rom the slashdot web site, Assumin" the
client has an
arbitrar# port number J 4>-8: what is the socket pair comprisin" this
connection5
Answer:
There are seeral possible answers to this =uestion. 1etLs assume the client is assi%ned the
port number 8;?877?) the socket pair of this connection is CC.9A.8A7.;A;>67 and
;9A.88.;;.;6>8;?877?.
4>:*he ser$er de$eloper,apple,com pro$ides a public tp ser$er, *he client 1at
address 46.,--,44,4=2 wants to download a ile rom the tp ser$er usin" a passi$e
connection, Assumin" both the client and ser$er assi"n arbitrar# port numbers
number J 4>-8: what is a possible socket pair comprisin" this connection5
Answer:
1etLs a%ain assume the client will be%in at port number 8;?877?. The serer will be%in at
port ?III. The control channel will consist of the socket pair deeloper.apple.com>8; and
;9A.88.;;.;6>8;?877?. Once this is established) the data channel will consist of the
socket pair deeloper.apple.com>?III and ;9A.88.;;.;6>8;?877A.
www.bookspar.com AI
44:Consider sendin" $oice rom ?ost A to ?ost 7 o$er a packetBswitched network,
?ost A con$erts analo" $oice to a di"ital ;8 kbps bit stream on the l#, ?ost A then
"roups the bits into 8=Bb#te packets, *here is one link between ?ost A and 79 its
transmission rate is 4 Mbps and its propa"ation dela# is - msec, As soon as ?ost A
"athers a packet: it sends it to ?ost 7, As soon as ?ost 7 recei$es an entire packet: it
con$erts the packetKs bits to an analo" si"nal, ?ow much time elapses rom the time
a bit is created 1rom the ori"inal analo" si"nal at ?ost A2 until the bit is decoded 1as
part o an analo" si"nal at ?ost 72,
,onsider the first bit in a packet. <efore this bit can be transmitted) all of the bits in the
packet must be %enerated. This re=uires
!?6b$tesX 6bits>b$te ">!C? X;79bits > sec"R C msec.
The time re=uired to transmit the packet is
!?6b$tesX 6bits >b$te">!;X;7Cbits>sec"R 96?]sec.
3ropa%ation dela$ R 8 msec.
The dela$ until decodin% is
Cmsec S ] 96? sec S 8msec R 6.96?msec
A similar anal$sis shows that all bits e/perience a dela$ of 6.96? msec.
4-:%uppose there is a router between A and 7 as shown in the Fi"ure below, I the
link (7 has the ma'imum capacit# o sendin" 8 packets per round trip time while
the capacit# o
the link A( is = packets per round trip time, *he router ( has the Lueue that can
support at most 6 packets in waitin": not countin" the one that is transmittin",
Answer
A starts a T,3 connection to <) and the packets has se=uence number 7) ;) 8) ^ N.
Whatwill be the first lost packetZ After4 ;st -TT4 '7( pass throu%h -
8nd -TT4 ';('8( pass throu%h -
9rd -TT4 '9('?('A( 'C( pass thou%h -
?th -TT4 'F( pass throu%h -) '6('I(';7( in =ueue
'6( passin% throu%h -) 'I(';7(';;(';8( in =ueue
<ecause the routerLs =ueue onl$ holds 9 packets) packet 4- is lost
Suppose it takes ;7 seconds for T,3 to send a file of siEe ;7)777 packets. What is the
aera%e packet loss rateZ
46:A C%MAAC! LAN is 4 km in len"th: and has a bandwidth o .> Mbps, *here are
no repeaters, !ata rames are .4- bits lon": includin" 6- bits used or header: C(C
etc, *he irst bit slot ollowin" a successul data transmission is reser$ed or use b#
the recei$er to send back a 6- bit acknowled"ment rame, What is the ma'imum
eecti$e
data rate this channel can achie$e: assumin" no collisions5 1Assume a
transmission speed o ->> mAMsec,2
www.bookspar.com C7
48:An IP packet consists o -> b#tes o header and 4.>> b#tes o pa#load, Now
suppose that the packet is mapped into A*M cells that ha$e . b#tes o header and 8=
b#tes o pa#load, ?ow much o the resultin" cell stream is header o$erhead5
Answer:
Total pa$load for AT24 ;A87 b$tes
This implies 98 AT2 frames4;A87>?6
Total AT2 header b$tes4 ;C7498XA
Total Deader b$tes4 ;674;C7S87
Total b$tes transmitted4 ;CIC498XA9
Deader oerhead R ;67 > ;CIC R ;7.C;Q
4.:%uppose that $irtual paths are set up between e$er# pair o nodes in an A*M
network, &'plain wh# connection set up can be "reatl# simpliied in this case,
Answer:
When two nodes need to communicate) each switch in the path does not hae to be
inoled in the connection set up. 5nstead the switches at the ends of the V3 assi%n an
end:to:end V,5 to each
connection.
www.bookspar.com C;
Internet Protocols
* 5nternet transport serices4
* reliable) in:order unicast delier$ !T,3"
con%estion
flow control
connection setup
* unreliable !#best:effort&") unordered unicast or multicast delier$4 U.3
serices not aailable4
real:time
bandwidth %uarantees
reliable multicast
U!P
* #no frills)& #bare bones& 5nternet transport protocol
* #best effort& serice) U.3 se%ments ma$ be4
@ lost
@ deliered out of order to applications
* connectionless:
@ no handshakin% between U.3 sender) receier
@ each U.3 se%ment handled independentl$ of others
Wh# is there a U!P5
* no connection establishment !which can add dela$"
* simple4 no connection state at sender) receier
* small se%ment header
* no con%estion control4 U.3 can blast awa$ as fast as desired
U!P header
?eader details
* Source and destination port numbers
* The source and destination processes
* 1en%th R len%th of header S data
* ,hecksum coers header and data
* Optional in U.3 but mandator$ in T,3
U!P Checksum
Sender4
* treat se%ment contents as se=uence of ;C:bit inte%ers
* checksum4 addition !;Ls complement sum" of se%ment contents
www.bookspar.com C8
Length Checksum
Source Port Destination Port
0 16 31 Bit:
8

O
c
t
e
t
s
* sender puts checksum alue into U.3 checksum field
-eceier4
* compute checksum of receied se%ment
* check if computed checksum e=uals checksum field alue4
@ NO : error detected
@ _ES : no error detected
Uses o U!P
* 5nward and Outward data collection>dissemination
@ %NMP or network mana"ement
@ (IP routin" table updates
@ NF% remote ile ser$er
* -e=uest:-esponse
@ E%. .NS uses U.3 for name translation
* -eal time application
@ Streamin% multimedia and internet telephon$
@ Video conferencin%
*he ollowin" are the port numbers o some applications commonl# used
* <oth T,3 and U.3 use port &or socket) numbers to pass information to the upper
la$ers.
* 3ort numbers are used to keep track of different conersations that cross the
network at the same time.
* Application software deelopers hae a%reed to use the well:known port numbers
that are defined in -0,;F77.
* The ran%e of numbers are below 8AA for T,3 and U.3 appilcations.
Applications o U!P
(emote Procedure Call
www.bookspar.com C9
Mechanisms
* ,lient process calls the client stub
* 2arshallin%:packin% the parameters
* Hernel receies from client stub and sends to serer machine
* Hernel on serer OS passes the messa%e to serer stub
* The serer stub processes it and the repl$ follows the same path in the other
direction
3roblems ma$ occur in -3,
* 3assin% pointer parameters from client place to serer space
* weakl$ t$ped lan%ua%e: , ma$ not be suitable
* T$pe conersion
* Use of %lobal ariables @since two different space inoled
Still U.3 is commonl$ used in -3,
Another application o U!P a protocol uses U!P
1a2 *he position o (*P in the protocol stack,
1b2 Packet nestin",
www.bookspar.com C?
(*P (eal time transport protocol
* U.3 is used with real time multimedia applications
* the applications are4 internet radio) internet telephon$) music on demand) ideo
on demand) ideo conferencin%
* -T3 is used for different formats like +S2) 239 for sound and 23E+ and
D.8C9 for ideo
* The basic function of -T3 is to multiple/ seeral real time data stream onto
sin%le stream of U.3 packets. The U.3 stream can be sent to sin%le destination
!unicast" and multiple destination !multicast"
(*P ?eader details
* 3 padded bit
* G e/tension header present or not
* ,, contributin% sources
* 2 marker bit
* Version field
* 3a$load t$pe
* Se= no
* Time stamp
* S$nchroniEation and contributin% source identifier
(*P ?eader
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
*ransport Protocol *CP
www.bookspar.com CA
Speciall$ desi%ned to proide a reliable end to end b$te stream oer a unreliable network
The inter network differs from a sin%le network in terms of topolo%$ and bandwidth
dela$ packet siEe. T,3 adapts to properties of such network. Each machine supportin%
T,3 has T,3 entit$. 53 la$er proide no %uarantee that the data%rams will be deliered so
the T,3 has to proide the reliabilit$
*CP
* point:to:point4
@ one sender) one receier
* reliable) in:order byte steam:
@ no #messa%e boundaries&
* pipelined4
@ T,3 con%estion and flow control set window siEe at the time of
connection setup
* send [ receie buffers the buffer siEe ne%otiated
* full duple/ data4
@ bi:directional data flow in same connection
@ 2SS4 ma/imum se%ment siEe
* connection:oriented4
@ handshakin% !e/chan%e of control ms%s" initLs sender) receier state before
data e/chan%e
* flow controlled4
@ sender will not oerwhelm receier
*CP ?eader
www.bookspar.com CC
s o c k e t
d o o r
T C P
s e n d b u f f e r
T C P
r e c e i v e b u f f e r
s o c k e t
d o o r
s e g m e n t
a p p l i c a t i o n
w r i t e s d a t a
a p p l i c a t i o n
r e a d s d a t a
*CP se"ment structure
Se=. numbers4
@ b$te stream #number& of first b$te in se%mentLs data
A,Hs4
@ se= numbers of ne/t b$te e/pected from other side
@ cumulatie A,H
O4 how receier handles out:of:order se%ments
@ A4 T,3 spec doesnLt sa$) : up to implementor
Eer$ se%ment of T,3 has a se=uence number so it is eas$ to reassemble and also take
care of the loss of packet and retransmission is done
The se%ment details are shown below
The S_N bit used for connection setup and the 05N bit for the release
Ur%ent data means it has to be deliered faster which indicate b$ the pointer
The ,hecksum uses ,-,
www.bookspar.com CF
*CP connection establishment
T,3 sender) receier establish #connection& before e/chan%in% data se%ments
* initialiEe T,3 ariables4
@ se=. nubers
@ buffers) flow control info !e.%. -cWindow"
* client: connection initiator
Socket clientSocket R new Socket!KhostnameK)Kport numberK"B
* ser!er: contacted b$ client
Socket connectionSocket R welcomeSocket.accept!"B
*hree wa# handshake
Step ;4 client end s$stem sends T,3 S_N control se%ment to serer
@ specifies initial se= number
Step 84 serer end s$stem receies S_N) replies with S_NA,H control se%ment
@ A,Hs receied S_N
@ allocates buffers
@ specifies serer:Y receier initial se=. number
Step 94 client sends the re=uest and the ack for the serer se= number
www.bookspar.com
source port
#
dest port
#
32 bits
application
data
(variable length)
sequence number
acknowledgement number
rcvr window size
ptr urgent data checksum
F S R ! "
head
len
not
used
#ptions (variable
length)
"R$% urgent data
(generall& not used)
!'(% !'( #
valid
S)% push data now
(generall& not used)
RS*+ S,-+ F.-%
connection estab
(setup+ teardown
commands)
# b&tes
rcvr willing
to accept
counting
b& b&tes
o/ data
(not segments0)
.nternet
checksum
(as in "1)
C6
The three wa$ handshake is oer
Connection (elease
client closes socket4 clientSocket.close!"B
Step ;4 client end s$stem sends T,3 05N control se%ment to serer
Step 84 serer receies 05N) replies with A,H. ,loses connection) sends 05N
Step 94 client receies 05N) replies with A,H.
@ Enters #timed wait& : will respond with A,H to receied 05Ns
Step ?4 serer) receies A,H. ,onnection closed.
Note4 with small modification) can handle simultaneous 05Ns.
*he connection mana"ement client side can be shown in a low dia"ram
*he connection mana"ement ser$er side can be shown in a low dia"ram

www.bookspar.com CI
Connection mana"ement
The two fi%ures
!a" T,3 connection establishment in the normal case.
!b" ,all collision.
*he states used in the *CP connection mana"ement inite state machine,
www.bookspar.com F7
www.bookspar.com F;
* T,3 connection mana%ement finite state machine.
* The hea$ solid line is the normal path for a client.
* The hea$ dashed line is the normal path for a serer.
* The li%ht lines are unusual eents.
* Each transition is labeled b$ the eent causin% it and the action resultin% from it)
separated b$ a slash.
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
www.bookspar.com F8
*CP connection mana"ement
* Serer waits b$ e/ecutin% 15STEN and A,,E3T primties
* ,lient e/ecutes a ,ONNE,T primitie specif$in% 53 and 3O-T no) ma/ T,3
se%ment siEe and user data
* ,ONNE,T sends T,3 se%ment with S_N bit ON and A,H off
* Serer can either accept or reJect connection
* 5n call collision onl$ one connection is established
* ,onnection released usin% 05N bit
* One 05N and one A,H in each direction
* possible to combine first A,H and second 05N in the same se%ment
Finite state machine
* 2ana%ement on client side
* When client issue ,ONNE,T) T,3 entit$ sends S_N se%ment
* Separate state for each connection
* When A,H arries the final A,H sent and switches to new state
* .ata transfer
* when no data issue ,1OSE primitie sends 05N se%ment
* One side %oes to WA5T and waits for the 05N from other side
* 3acket life time taken care too
* 2ana%ement on serer side
* When serer issue 15STEN and waits for incomin% re=uest
* When S_N comes the serer responds with A,H
* When three wa$ handshake complete then serer %oes to new state
* 05N is sent when serer want to close
*CP transmission polic#
* Sender [ receier ne%otiate on window siEe
* 5n the fi%ure below the sender sends 8H data and the initial se= no
* The receier sends the ack for the ne/t se= no it is e/pectin% and also adertises
the widow siEe
* Suppose the window is Eero then sender waits and then sends a probe and then
sends the ne/t set of data
* The dia%ram shows how the two sides communicate
* Suppose there is onl$ one b$te to be sent the ?; b$te packet to be sent instead
Na%le al%orithm su%%est that when the first b$te comes it is sent and the other
buffered till the ack receied and then send the rest and wait for the ack and like
this a sufficient no of b$tes %o in one se%ment
www.bookspar.com F9
%ill# window s#ndrome
At the receier side een if a b$te aailable at its buffer it adertised and the sender sends
the buffer is full the sender waits a%ain and probes to %et the window siEe so this will
continue and a loop formed to aoid this the receier is forced to wait till %ood amount of
buffer space aailabilit$ and then adertises and aoids the loop.
*CP Con"estion control
www.bookspar.com F?
,on%estion4
* informall$4 #too man$ sources sendin% too much data too fast for network to
handle&
* different from flow controlN
* manifestations4
@ lost packets !buffer oerflow at routers"
@ lon% dela$s !=ueuein% in router buffers"
Problems when con"estion happens
www.bookspar.com
two senders) two
receiers
one router) infinite
buffers
no retransmission
lar%e dela$s when
con%ested
ma/imum achieable
throu%hput
FA
www.bookspar.com
one router) finite buffers
sender retransmission of lost packet
in
Q what happens as
and increase !
in
FC
* four senders
* multihop paths
* timeout>retransmit
www.bookspar.com
Another #cost& of con%estion4
when packet dropped) an$ #upstream transmission capacit$
used for that packet was wastedN
FF
*CP Con"estion control
* Dow T,3 preents con%estion
* when connection established) window siEe chosen
* -eceier specifies seein% its buffer siEe
* Still con%estion occurs
* The two problems are Network ,apacit$ and -eceier ,apacit$
* SolutionZ
* %olution
* Sender maintains two windows4 one the receier %ranted
* the other ,on%estion Window
* at the connection establishment: the con%estion window is set to the siEe of the
ma/imum se%ment in use on the connection
* Each burst acknowled%ed doubles the con%estion window
* ,on%estion window %row e/ponentiall$
* This is called the Slow Start al%orithm
* Another SolutionZ
* Solution
* Uses threshold
* initiall$ some alue in addition to the receier and con%estion window
* When timeout threshold is set to half of the current con%estion window
* ,on%estion window is set to one ma/ se%ment
* Slow start is used to find what the network can handle
www.bookspar.com
initialiEe4 ,on%win R ;
for !each se%ment A,Hed"
,on%winSS
until !loss eent O-
,on%Win Y threshold"
Slowstart al%orithm
)ost !
one segment
R
*
*
)ost 2
time
two segments
four segments
F6
* E/ponential %rowth stops when threshold hit
* 0rom that point con%estion window %row linearl$
* E/ample
* Se%ment siEeR;H
* ,on%winRC?H<
* when timeout thresholdR9?H<
* ,on%winR;H<
* the con%stion window %rows e/ponentiall$ until it hits threshold and then linearl$
*CP timer mana"ement
(ound trip time (**
how to set T,3 timeout alueZ
* lon%er than -TT
@ note4 -TT will ar$
* too short4 premature timeout
@ unnecessar$ retransmissions
* too lon%4 slow reaction to se%ment loss
* The al%orithm is based on continuous measurements of network performance
* `acobson al%orithm is one used for calculatin% -TT
* 0or each connection a alue -TT is maintained
* -TT updated usin% the formula
* -TTRa-TTS!;: a"2
* Where 2 is time taken for A,H
* And a is the smoothin% factor
* And aRF>6
*CP (**
www.bookspar.com
"# slowstart is oer X>
>X ,on%win Y threshold X>
Until !loss eent" b
eer$ w se%ments A,Hed4
,on%winSS
c
threshold R ,on%win>8
,on%win R ;
perform slowstart
,on%estion aoidance
;
FI
* `acobson al%orithm
* Another smoothed alue . deiation it is the difference between the e/pected and
obsered alue |-TT:2|
* .R a .S!;: a "|-TT:2|
* Timeout interal R-TTS?X.
* The problem with retransmission answered b$ HarnLs al%orithm
* -TT not updated for retransmitted se%ment timeout is doubled on each failure till
the se%ment %ets throu%h first time
* There is another timer called the persistence timer: it is used when the sender is
made to wait due to lack of buffer space at the receier. Once this timer %oes off
the sender sends the probe to find about the receier buffer space otherwise a
deadlock occurs so this timer is used to resole the same
* The third timer is the keepalie timer: it is used for the connections which are
idle for a lon% time suppose this timer %oes off then the connection is closed
Wireless *CP
* 5ndirect T,3 to split the T,3 connection into two separate connections
* first one from sender to base station the second from base station to receier
* the adanta%e is both connections are homo%eneous
* The disadanta%e is that it breaks the semantics of T,3
* There is another solution for keepin% the semantics of T,3 is the Transactional
T,3
*ransactional *CP
www.bookspar.com 67
The aboe fi%ure !a" shows the normal -3, call where nine messa%es are e/chan%ed
between the client and the serer
0i%ure !b" shows the one with Transactional T,3 T>T,3 where re=uest and S_N and also
05N are sent to%ether thus reducin% the messa%es and proidin% faster serice
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
www.bookspar.com 6;
!ierent perormance issues in network
* 3erformance 3roblems in ,omputer Networks
* Network 3erformance 2easurement
* S$stem .esi%n for <etter 3erformance
* 0ast T3.U 3rocessin%
* 3rotocols for +i%abit Networks
Perormance problems in computer networks
* Oerloads E/ample ;4 T3.U containin% the bad parameter when broadcast ma$
clo% the n>w results in broadcast storm due to error messa%e
* s$nchronous oerload due to power failure:.D,3 contacted for bootin%
* Apart from this problems due to insufficient memor$ T3.Us lost
* Not settin% the timeout correctl$ the T3.Us lost
* +i%abit n>w pose new problems
* The ne/t fi%ure e/plains this here the transmission line used onl$ for .Amsec
%reatl$ reducin% the efficienc$
* The useful =uantit$ is the <andwidth:.ela$ product
* The product is the capacit$ of the pipe from sender to receier and back to sender
in bits
* 5n the aboe e/ample it is ?7 million bits but the actual utilisation is onl$ ;.8A
percent of the pipe capacit$
* therefore for %ood performance the receier window must be at least as lar%e as
the <andwidth:.ela$ product
* Another performance problem could be Jitter to aoid a small standard deiation
is used
www.bookspar.com 68
*he basic loop or impro$in" network perormance,
* 2easure releant network parameters) performance.
* Tr$ to understand what is %oin% on.
* ,han%e one parameter
3recautions taken while measurin%
* Sample siEe should be lar%e enou%h
* Samples should be representatie
* To be careful while usin% coarse %rained clock
* Nothin% une/pected %oin% on while tests are conducted
* ,achin% problem
* Understandin% the measurements
* E/trapolation of the result
%#stem !esi"n or 7etter Perormance
(ules:
* ,3U speed is more important than network speed.
* -educe packet count to reduce software oerhead.
* 2inimiEe conte/t switches.
* 2inimiEe cop$in%.
* _ou can bu$ more bandwidth but not lower dela$.
* Aoidin% con%estion is better than recoerin% from it.
* Aoid timeouts.
Fast *P!U Processin"
* T3.U processin% oerhead has two components
* one @oerhead per T3.U
* other @ oerhead per b$te
* E/ample take the sendin% side
* first the sendin% side traps to kernel to SEN.
* if it is a normal case then the state is ESTA<15SDE. and t$picall$ this path is
taken !fast path" shown in the fi%ure below
www.bookspar.com 69
The fast path from sender to receier is shown with a hea$ line.
The processin% steps on this path are shaded.
Another e'ample
* 5n the T,3 header the fields that are same between consecutie T3.Us on a one
wa$ flow are shaded
* All sendin% T,3 entit$ has to cop$ from the protot$pe header into the output
buffer
* 5t handoers the header and data to the special 53 procedure for sendin% a re%ular
ma/ T3.U
* 53 then copies its protot$pe header and makes the packet read$
the aboe fi%ure
!a" T,3 header. !b" 53 header. 5n both cases) the shaded fields are taken from the
protot$pe without chan%e.
Fast path processin" at recei$er side
* step ;4 locatin% the connection record for the incomin% T3.U
* The T3.U checked to see if it is normal case
* 5f all checks are met then a fast procedure is called
* 2an$ T,3 implementations use Deader 3rediction
www.bookspar.com 6?
* The other two areas where maJor performance %ain are possible are
<uffer mana%ement
Timer 2ana%ement
* The timer mana%ement done b$ the timin% wheel
* There are some problems and the possible solution posed b$ the +i%abit protocols
* 3roblems
Se=uence Numbers
,ommunication Speeds
+o back n protocol and its poor performance
%i%abit lines are bandwidth limited
-esults of new application
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
www.bookspar.com 6A
;4 .efine the followin% terms4
!a" Slow start
Answer
The phase in T,3 con%estion control when the window siEe starts at one se%ment and
increases b$ one se%ment for eer$ A,H receied !that is) it sends first one se%ment) the
two) the four) then ei%ht) and so on) as A,Hs arrie for the se%ments transmitted.
!b" Three:wa$ handshake
Answer
The mechanism used to set up a connection and a%ree upon the initial se=uence numbers
for that connection. 5n the normal case) host ; will send a connection re=uestion and
se=uence number to host 8. Dost 8 will acknowled%e the re=uest) and make a
correspondin% re=uest to host ; with its own choice of se=uence number. Dost ; will
acknowled%e the re=uest from host 8. The connection is now established.
84 What is the difference between
flow control and con%estion controlZ
Answer
0low control preents a fast sender from oerwhelmin% a slow receier.
,on%estion control preents man$ senders from oerwhelmin% the network.
94 When doin% a connection setup in T,3 both parties are re=uired to pick a random
number for the initial se=uence number.
!a" 5%norin% securit$ concerns) wh$ do the$ not Just pick 7 or ;Z
Answer
This would substantiall$ increase the likelihood of a #lost& se%ment from a preious
connection re:appearin% and mess%in% up an e/istin% connection.
!b" Wh$ do the$ not Just increment the last used se=uence number for the particular
source>destination pair !assumin% that we could readil$ keep track of this information"Z
Answer
5t allows a third part$ to fake a connection.
?4 When T,3 receies a se%ment that it has alread$ receied and acknowled%ed) it will
repl$ with an acknowled%ement.
!a" Wh$ is this acknowled%ment necessar$Z
Answer
The preious acknowled%ement ma$ hae been lost.
A4The se=uence number of the se%ment receied is ;89?) and the len%th of the se%ment is
;7 b$tes.
!a" .o we know what the acknowled%ement number will be that T,3 will repl$ withZ
5f so) what is itZ 5f not) wh$ notZ What can we sa$ about the acknowled%ement number
that T,3 will repl$ withZ
www.bookspar.com 6C
A4Answer
No. We do not. 5f this is the %reatest conti%uous se%ment currentl$ receied) then the
A,H will be ;8??. Doweer) if a prior se%ment has been lost) then the acknowled%ement
number will be less than ;89?. 1ikewise) if this is a retransmission of se%ment ;89?) and
a subse=uent se%ment has been receied) the acknowled%ement ma$ be %reater than ;8??.
We do know that it will be either less than ;89? or %reater than or e=ual to ;8??.
C4 5f T,3 retransmits a se%ment) what impact) if an$) does this hae on the -TT
calculationZ
Answer
This transmission>retransmission cannot be included in the estimate) as we cannot
distin%uish where the acknowled%ement came from4 the first se%ment) and it was dela$ed)
or the second se%ment.

F4 Wh$ does T,3 re=uire an -TT estimateZ
Answer
To determine if a se%ment has been lost or not. A se%ment is deemed lost if the A,H for it
is not receied within the timeout period which is deried from that -TT.
64 A network has a ma/imum packet siEe of ;86 b$tes) a ma/imum packet life time as ;7
sec and a 6bit se=uence number. 0ind the ma/imum data rate per connection
Answer
+ien 6 bit se=uence numbers 8!pow"6R8AC packets sent in ;7 sec
5n ;7 sec ;86X6X8AAR8C;;87 bits can be sent
2a/ data rate per connectionR8C;;87>;7 seconds
R8C;;8 bits>sec
I4 A T,3 machine is sendin% full windows CAA9A b$tes oer a ;+bps channel that has a
;7msec dela$ one wa$. What is the ma/imum throu%hput achieableZ What is the line
efficienc$Z
Answer
+ien -TTR;7S;7R87msecR;>87X;7!pow":9
R A7bits>sec
2a/ throu%hputR!CAA9AX6"bitsXA7bits>sec
R8C.8;?2bps
1ine efficienc$R2a/ throu%hput><andwidth
R !8C.8;?2bps>;+bps"X;77 R 8.C8Q
;74 What is meant b$ upward and downward multiple/in%Z
Answer
5n upward the multiple connections are multiple/ed on to a sin%le connection
5n downward a sin%le connection is split and distributed amon% multiple connection
;;4 .escribe con%estion control in T,3
Answer
www.bookspar.com 6F
Slow start
;84 E/plain U.3. When it can be usedZ
Answer
,onnectionless unreliable internet protocol
Applications
-3,
-eal time applications
;94What is meant b$ nestin% of T3.UsZ 5llustrate with the dia%ram the connection
establishment between a client and a serer usin% T3.Us
;?4 5llustrate the sill$ window s$ndrome in T,3
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
www.bookspar.com 66
Wh# A*M5
*All di%ital telephone network
*Need for data applications like computer communications and facsimile
*Nonoice applications like ideoconferencin% need to be included in the future networks
*,ircuit switchin% not suitable but packet switchin% would accommodate this
*5S.N were the first effort to address this
5%!N )$er$iew
*There are man$ t$pes of WAN technolo%ies that can be used to sole the problems of
users who need network access from remote locations.
*5S.N has been specificall$ desi%ned to sole the low bandwidth problems that small
offices or dial:in users hae with traditional telephone dial:in serices.
*Telephone companies deeloped 5S.N with the intention of creatin% a totall$ di"ital
network whilst makin% use of the e'istin" telephone wirin" s$stem.
*5S.N works er$ much like a telephone : When $ou make a data call with 5S.N) the
WAN link is brou%ht up for the duration of the call and is taken down when the call is
completed
*5S.N allows di"ital si"nals to be transmitted oer e/istin% telephone wirin%.
*
*This became possible when the telephone compan$ switches were up%raded to handle
di%ital si%nals.
*
*5S.N is %enerall$ iewed as an alternati$e to leased lines) which can be used for
telecommutin% and networkin% small and remote offices into 1ANs.
*5S.NVs abilit$ to brin% di%ital connectiit$ to local sites has man$ benefits) includin% the
followin%4
*
*5S.N can carr$ a $ariet# of user traic si%nals includin%4
@di%ital $ideo: packet:switched data) and telephone network serices.
*5S.N offers much aster call setup than modem connections because it uses out:of:
band !.) or delta) channel" si%nalin%.
@0or e/ample) some 5S.N calls can be setup in less than one second.
*5S.N proides a aster data transer rate than modems b$ usin% the bearer channel !<
channel of C?kbps".
@With multiple < channels) 5S.N offers users more bandwidth on WANs than some
leased lines.
@0or e/ample) if $ou were to use two < channels) the bandwidth capabilit$ is ;86Hbps
because each < channel handles C?Hbps.
@
*5S.N can proide a clear data path oer which to ne%otiate PPP links.
7(I 17asic (ate Interace2
,onnection from the 5S.N office to the user location proides for access to three
channels. The channels are two ;8Nb 7Bchannels and one 4;Nb !Bchannel
www.bookspar.com 6I
The <:channels and the .:channel proide the user with access to the circuit switched
network
P(I 1Primar# (ate Interace2
5S.N 3rimar$ -ate 5nterface serice proides di%ital access ia a T; line. A T; line
proides a ;.A?? bandwidth. This bandwidth is diided into 8? C?Hb channels. The 5S.N
3-5 serice uses -6 7 channel access and uses the -8th 1!2 channel or si"nalin"
purposes
7%!N (eerence Model
*There are three planes
*User 3lane
*,ontrol 3lane
*2ana%ement 3lane
User 3lane
*AT2 is specified ia a three:la$er reference model4
*3h$sical la$er !OS5s ph$sical la$er"
*AT2 la$er !%enerall$ OS5s data link la$er"
*AT2 adaptation la$er !AA1" !%enerall$ OS5s hi%her:leel la$ers !transport) session) and
application"
As#nchronous *ranser Mode 1A*M2
To proide the new <:5S.N serices) use of a technolo%$ called as#nchronous transer
mode 1A*M2 is specified b$ 5TU. AT2 is a connection:oriented techni=ue based on the
use of fi/ed siEe packets termed cells. These cells are A9 octets in siEe) with A octets used
for the cell header) and the remainin% ?6 octets for data

Fi"ure: An AT2 cell
The term as#nchronous transer mode needs some e/planation. The words transer
mode sa$ that this technolo%$ is specific wa$ of transmittin% and switchin% throu%h the
network. The term as#nchronous refers to the fact that the packets are transmitted usin%
as$nchronous techni=ues) and the two end:points need not hae s$nchronised clocks.
Also) the use and allocation of cells and their subse=uent multiple/in% and transmission
throu%h the network is determined in an as$nchronous fashion) e.%. on demand) and is
independent of the user. AT2 will support both circuit switched and packet switched
!sometimes referred to as circuit mode and packet mode) respectiel$" serices.
www.bookspar.com I7

Fi"ure: The principle of s$nchronous transfer mode

Fi"ure: The principle of as$nchronous transfer mode
There is much to know about AT2) howeer) here we will consider onl$ the transmission
aspects) b$ lookin% at the 3h$sical la$er and the AT2 la$er.
There are seeral t$pes of cells to consider) some are passed all the wa$ throu%h to the
AT2 la$er) while others neer proceed be$ond the 3h$sical la$er4
Assi"ned Cell, !AT2 1a$er" A cell which is used to proide the serice to the
hi%her la$ers. This is the cell t$pe that is used in transportin% the hi%her leel
3.U.
Unassi"ned cell, !AT2 1a$er" An AT2 la$er cell which is not an assi%ned cell.
Valid cell, !3h$sical la$er" An$ cell that does not contain header errors) either
throu%h successful transmission or after bein% corrected b$ the ph$sical la$er.
In$alid cell, !3h$sical la$er" A cell with an error in its header that can not be
corrected. 5t will be discarded b$ the ph$sical la$er.
Idle cell, !3h$sical la$er" A cell that is inserted>e/tracted b$ the ph$sical la$er for
the purposes of pa$load capacit$ adaptation.
As e/plained earlier) there are two interfaces to the <:5S.N to consider :: the user:to:
network interface !UN5" and the network:to:network interface !NN5". 0or these two
interfaces the internal structure of the AT2 cell header is sli%htl$ different) as shown in
0i%ure
The arious parts of the cell header are4
Ceneric low control 1CFC2, !? bits" .efault alue 7777. The e/act use of this
field is) as $et) not full$ defined. This is used onl$ in assi%ned or unassi%ned !i.e.
AT2 la$er cells".
Virtual path identiier 1VPI2, !6 or ;8 bits" This is used for ph$sical la$er
routin%) to%ether with theB
Virtual circuit identiier 1VCI2, !;C bits" This is used in conJunction with the
V35 field to proide ph$sical leel routin%. 2an$ cells with different V,5s ma$
hae the same V35. Some V,5>V35 alues are pre:assi%ned for special purposes
Pa#load t#pe 1P*2, !9 bits" Some 3T alues :: P* identiiers 1P*Is2 :: are pre:
assi%ned for special purposes.
www.bookspar.com I;
Cell loss priorit# 1CLP2, !; bit" 0la% statin% whether or not this cell can be
dropped in the prescence of network con%estion or other network difficulties. A
alue of 7 means that this cell has hi%h priorit$ and should not be discarded.
?eader error control 1?&C2, !6 bits" This is used b$ the ph$sical la$er for
detectin% and correctin% errors in the cell header.

Fi"ure: AT2 cell header for UN5

Fi"ure: AT2 cell header for NN5

*able: 3re:assi%ned V,5>V35 alues for AT2 cells
www.bookspar.com I8

*able: 3re:assi%ned 3T5 alues for AT2 cells
Ph#sical La#er9 %)N&* and %!?
0or <:5S.N) two transmission rates are currentl$ specifiedB ;AA2b>s and C882b>s)
althou%h it is hi%hl$ likel$ that other hi%her rates will be standardised

*able: SONET and S.D data rates and pa$load rates
To achiee these rates) the ph$sical la$er uses a structurin% called s#nchronous di"ital
hierarch# 1%!?2. This is a 5TU standard based heail$ on earlier work b$ ANS5 called
s#nchronous optical network 1%)N&*2. 0or our interests the two are practicall$
identical) and so further) onl$ reference to S.D will be made) with specific differences in
SONET bein% hi%hli%hted where necessar$. S.D specifies a hierarch$ of si%nals that are
multiples of ;AA.A82b>s to achiee hi%her data rates. 0or instance) the ;AA2b>s rate)
S.D uses a I 8F7 octet frame. This frame is repeated with a fre=uenc$ of 6HDE) so
achiein% a rate of ;AA2b>s !0i%ure ". The frame consists of 6; octets of section
o$erhead 1%)?2 and the rest of the frame) which we will call the pa#load) is filled with
AT2 cells. The capacit$ aailable to the network user is then the pa#load rate. The path
o$erhead 1P)?2 are special control octets. The AU:? pointer %ie the location of the
V,:? container which holds the AT2 cells. There ma$ not be an inte%ral number of cells
in the V,:?.
The C882b>s rate can be achieed simpl$ e/tendin% the ;AA2b>s S.D frame b$
increasin% the field siEes
www.bookspar.com I9

Fi"ure: 0rame structure for ;AA.A872b>s S.D:based interface

Fi"ure: 0rame structure for C88.7672b>s S.D:based interface
Some of the 3h$sical la$er specifications for the optical transmission of the si%nal are
%ien in Table

*able: Optical interface characteristics for S.D
www.bookspar.com I?
A*M Adaptation La#er
The purpose of the AT2 Adaptation 1a$er !AA1" is to adapt the 3.Us passed down
from the hi%her la$er onto AT2 cells. As the hi%her leel 3.Us ma$ in %eneral be of an
arbitrar$ siEe) so one of the two subla$ers in the AA1 is responsible for se"mentation
and reassembl# 1%A(2 of the hi%her la$er 3.Us. The other subla$er) the con$er"ence
subla#er 1C%2) is responsible for packa%in% the hi%her la$er 3.U with an$ additional
information re=uired for the adaptation necessar$ and offerin% an interface to the <:5S.N
user. As mentioned preiousl$) there are man$ and aried re=uirements for applications
usin% the <:5S.N and as there are seeral AA1 protocols defined. The classification of
these protocols was %uided b$ considerin% the followin% parameters4
*imin" relationship, The !non:"re=uirement for s$nchronisation between the
receier and sender.
7it rate, ,onstant or ariable.
Connection mode, ,onnection oriented or connectionless.
A summar$ of the !sensible" combinations of these parameters is %ien in 0i%ure . Each
of these classes ma$ be loosele$ associated with the the AT2 0orum classes described
preiousl$4 ,lass A) ,<-B ,lass <) V<-B ,lass ,) A<-!ish"B ,lass .) U<-. This
mappin% also %ie e/ample use of the arious classes. The arious AA1 classes are
proided b$ seeral AA1 protocols identified b$ a t$pe number. The use of a particular
AA1 t$pe for the proision of a particular serice is not whol$ well defined.

Fi"ure: AA1 serice classification
AAL *#pe >, This is effectiel$ a NU11 AA1. 5t is not reall$ an official AA1 t$pe but is
mentioned for completeness.
AAL *#pe 4, This AA1 t$pe is normall$ used b$ ,lass A !,<-" serices. The function
performed b$ this AA1 are4
Se%mentation and reassembl$ of user information.
Dandlin% of cell dela$ ariation !Jitter".
Dandlin% of cell reassembl$ ariation.
Dandlin% of lost and misinserted cells.
Source clock fre=uenc$ recoer$ at receier.
Source data structure recoer$ at receier.
2onitorin% and handlin% of AA1:3,5 bit errors.
2onitorin% and !possibl$" correctin% the bit errors in the user information field.
0or circuit emulation) monitorin% and maintenance of end:to:end OoS.
www.bookspar.com IA
AAL *#pe -, This AA1 t$pe would be used with ,lass < !V<-". This t$pe is not well
defined and it seems possible that the it ma$ be mer%ed with AA1 T$pe ; in the future.
Some of its functions are similar to A11 T$pe ;4
Se%mentation and reassembl$ of user information.
Dandlin% of cell dela$ ariation !Jitter".
Dandlin% of lost and misinserted cells.
Source clock fre=uenc$ recoer$ at receier.
2onitorin% and handlin% of AA1:3,5 bit errors.
2onitorin% and !possibl$" correctin% the bit errors in the user information field.
5t also has the additional functions4
Dandle S.Us from a ariable bit rate source.
Transfer timin% information between source and destination.
Notif$ the hi%her la$ers of uncorrectable errors in AA1.
AAL *#pe 6A8, There was once separate T$pe 9 and T$pe ? AA1s) but the$ hae now
been mer%ed. This AA1 is now intended to support both ,lass , !A<-" and ,lass .
!U<-" serices.
5n this AA1) the coner%ence subla$er is split into two !0i%ure ") the ser$ice speciic
con$er"ence subsla#er 1%%C%2 and the common part con$er"ence subla#er 1CPC%2.
The SS,S is application dependent) i.e. it could be for a V<- ideo application. The
,3,S is responsible for constructin% 3.Us that can be sent to the other end user. There
are two modes of operation of A11 T$pe 9>?B messa"e mode and streamin" mode.

Fi"ure: AA1 T$pe 9>? sub:la$erin%
The messa%e mode is intended for use framed data where the AA1:S.U is a lo%ical unit
of data with respect to the <:5S.N user !0i%ure ". 5t allows the the transport of a sin%le
AA1:S.U in one or !optionall$" more than one ,S:3.U. The ,S:3.U ma$ be then
further spilt into seeral SA-:3.Us. The AA1:S.U can be of an arbitrar$ siEe.
www.bookspar.com IC

Fi"ure: AA1 T$pe 9>? messa%e mode serice
5n streamin% mode) the AA1:S.Us are of fi/ed siEe and one or more of them ma$ be
transported in a sin%le ,S:3.U !0i%ure ". Each AA1:S.U is deliered in a separate
SA-:3.U.

Fi"ure: AA1 T$pe 9>? streamin% mode serice
5n both cases) the SA- subla$er proides error detection and both these modes can offer
the followin% operational procedures4
Assured operation, 0low control and retransmission of missin% or erroneous
AA1:S.Us. 0low control restricted to point:to:point connections at the AT2
la$er and point:to:multipoint flow control possible.
NonBassured operation, No retransmission of missin% or erroneous SA-:3.Us.
Optionall$ delier erroneous 3.Us to user. Allow flow control for point:to:point
connections but not point:to:multipoint.
This AA1 t$pe also proides multiple/in% at the SA- subla$er.
AAL *#pe .,
This AA1 t$pe proides similar serices as AA1 T$pe 9>?) but has a reduced oerhead
when compared to AA1 T$pe 9>?. 5t is intended for use b$ V<- sources with timin%
relationship between source and destination. 5t has identical modes and operational
procedures as AA1 T$pe 9>?. The difference is that this AA1 does not proide the AA1
T$pe 9>? multiple/in% capabilit$. The SA- subla$er accepts onl$ AA1:S.Us that are an
inte%er multiple of ?6 octets. So) it would be possible for this AA1 to offer an efficient
cell based interface to the <:5S.N user.
AA1 T$pes ; and T$pe 8 are not used much.
www.bookspar.com IF
AA1 T$pe 9>? has been chosen for the proision of the <ellcore switched multiBme"abit
data ser$ice 1%M!%2) the European ersion of which is the connectionless broadband
data ser$ice 1C7!%2.
AA1 T$pe A has been selected b$ the 5ET0 to proide 53 serices oer AT2.
www.bookspar.com I6
4: !escribe 7BI%!N model 1model 3P =marks2
Answer:
,ontains three planes
User plane:concerned with transfer of data) flow control and error recoer$
,ontrol plane:deals with the si%nalin% re=uired to setup mana%e and release connections
2ana%ement plane:deals with mana%ement of n>w resources and coordination of other
planes
User plane has three la$ers 3h$sical:8 subla$ers
AT2 la$er:se=uenced transfer adds A b$te header
AA1 la$er:has different t$pes
AT2 proides Oos parameters
-: *ake an# two 3os parameters under the A*M standard and describe, 1Au"ust
->>. ; marks2
Answer:
There are C the first three not ne%otiated but the ne/t three ma$ be ne%otiated
,ell error ratio:,E-:ratio of number of cells deliered with one or more bit error to the
total no of cells. ,E- depends on 32
,ell misinsertion rate:,2-:aera%e no of cells>sec that are deliered b$ mistake to
wron% connection
Seerel$ errored cell block ratio:SE,<-:it is the ratio of errored to the total no of cells
determined b$ the error mechanism
The ne/t three are
,ell loss ratio:,1-:ratio of the lost cells to the total no of cells transmitted can be
specified or not. .epends on buffer allocation strate%$
,ell transfer dela$:,T.:is the time that elapses from the instant when a cell enters the
network at the source UN5 to the instant when it e/its at the destination UN5.,T.
includes propa%ation dela$s) processin% dela$s and =ueuin% dela$s in mu/ and switches.
,ell dela$ ariation:,.V: measures the ariabilit$ of the total dela$ encountered b$ cells
in a connection.
6: !raw the dia"ram o the A*M cell header ormat and "i$e the brie description o
the dierent ields 1Au"ust ->>. = marks2
Answer: !raw the i"ure
+0,:proide flow control has si%nificance for UN5 currentl$ not specified
V35:6 bit lon% 8AC irtual path in a %ien UN5 link.
V,5:;C bit lon% allows CAA9C irtual channels per irtual path
3T:ei%ht t$pe pa$load can be specified !refer table in book"
,13:two leels of priorit$:,13R7 hi%her priorit$ used durin% con%estion
DE,:6 bit checksum uses ,-, recomputed at eer$ switch since V35>V,5 chan%es at
eer$ hop !since the$ are local identifiers"
8: !escribe the unction o A*M adaptation la#er 1Au"ust ->>. ; marks2
Answer:
www.bookspar.com II
AT2 Adaptation La#er !AA1"4 #adapts& upper la$ers !53 or natie AT2 applications"
to AT2 la$er below
* AA1 present onl# in end s#stems) not in switches
* AA1 la$er se%ment !header>trailer fields) data" fra%mented across multiple AT2
cells
@ analo%$4 T,3 se%ment in man$ 53 packets
* .ifferent ersions of AA1 la$ers) dependin% on AT2 serice class4
* AA1;4 for ,<- !,onstant <it -ate" serices) e.%. circuit emulation
* AA184 for V<- !Variable <it -ate" serices) e.%.) 23E+ ideo
* AA19>?4for the burst$ data e.%) multiple users
* AA1A4 for data !e%) 53 data%rams"
* AA1 is diided into two subla$ers
* Se%mentation and reassembl$:SA-
* ,oner%ence subla$er:,S
* ,S subdiided into ,ommon part:,3,S
* Serice specific part:SS,S
.: &'plain how the notion o la#erin" and internetworkin" make the rapid "rowth
o applications such as the World Wide Web possible5
Answer:
5nternetworkin% allows man$ component networks each with different underl$in%
technolo%$ and operation to work to%ether and form one lar%e network. This proides the
ubi=uitous connectiit$ for applications like WWW.
The la$erin% concept hides the specific underl$in% network technolo%$ from the upper
la$ers and proides a common networkin% platform. Usin% the communication serice
proided b$ the la$ers below) new applications can be introduced independentl$ and at a
rapid rate.
;: Can a connectionBoriented: reliable messa"e transer ser$ice be pro$ided across a
connectionless packet network5 &'plain,
Answer:
_es. To proide connection:oriented serice) the transport la$er can establish a lo%ical
connection across the connectionless packet network b$ settin% up state information !for
e/ample) packet se=uence number" at the end s$stems. .urin% the connection setup) the
messa%e is broken into separate packets) and each packet is assi%ned a se=uence number.
Usin% the se=uence numbers) the end:s$stem transport:la$er entities can acknowled%e
receied packets) determine and retransmit lost packets) delete duplicate packets)
and rearran%e out:of:order packets. 5n so doin%) the connectionless packet network is
implementin% reliable packet transfer. Once all packets hae arried at the receiin% end)
the$ are reassembled into the ori%inal messa%e. 0or e/ample) T,3 proides a connection:
oriented reliable transfer serice oer 53) a connectionless packet transfer serice.
<:%uppose an application la#er entit# wants to send an LBb#te messa"e to its peer
process: usin" an e'istin" *CP connection, *he *CP se"ment consists o the messa"e
plus -> b#tes o header, *he se"ment is encapsulated into an IP packet that has an
additional -> b#tes o header, *he IP packet in turn "oes inside an &thernet rame
www.bookspar.com ;77
that has 4= b#tes o header and trailer, What percenta"e o the transmitted bits in
the ph#sical la#er correspond to messa"e inormation: i L D 4>> b#tes: .>> b#tes:
4>>> b#tes5
Answer:
T,3>53 oer Ethernet allows data frames with a pa$load siEe up to ;?C7 b$tes. Therefore)
L R ;77)
A77 and ;777 b$tes are within this limit.
The messa%e oerhead includes4
d T,34 87 b$tes of header
d 534 87 b$tes of header
d Ethernet4 total ;6 b$tes of header and trailer.
Therefore
L R ;77 b$tes) ;77>;A6 R C9Q efficienc$.
L R A77 b$tes) A77>AA6 R I7Q efficienc$.
L R ;777 b$tes) ;777>;7A6 R IAQ efficienc$.
=:%uppose that the *CP entit# recei$es a 4,. me"ab#te ile rom the application la#er
and that the IP la#er is willin" to carr# blocks o ma'imum siGe 4.>> b#tes,
Calculate the amount o o$erhead incurred rom se"mentin" the ile into packetB
siGed units,
Answer:
;A77 : 87 :87 R ;?C7 b$tes
;.A 2b$te > ;?C7 b$te R ;78F.?) therefore ;786 blocks are needed to transfer the file.
Oerhead R !!;786 / ;A77 : ;.A2">;.A2" / ;77 R 8.6Q
I:%uppose we need a communication ser$ice to transmit realBtime $oice o$er the
Internet, What eatures o *CP and what eatures o U!P are appropriate5
Answer:
T,3 is desirable in that it proides a connection for the transfer of a stream of
information) which characteriEes a di%ital oice stream. Doweer) to proide reliable
serice T,3 uses acknowled%ments and retransmissions that result in packet dela$ that
can not be tolerated b$ real:time traffic.
U.3 proides connectionless serice and deliers packets =uickl$. 5n case of packet loss)
U.3 does not proide retransmission) but some de%ree of packet loss can be tolerated b$
oice.
4>: Use I&&& =>-,6 and I&&& =>-,44 to discuss three dierences between wired and
wireless LANs,
Answer:
#rror rate: Unlike wired 1ANs) wireless 1ANs hae hi%h error rate due to interference
and noise. Wireless 1ANs needs to implement A-O and error correction to increase the
reliabilit$
of the communication channel.
.tation mobility: Unlike wired 1ANs where stations connected to the 1ANs are static) in
wireless 1ANs) the stations can be mobile and portable. Wireless 1AN protocols ma$
www.bookspar.com ;7;
hae to implement d$namic traffic routin% and serice handoff when the station moes
from one serice area to another.
Collision detection: ,ollision detection is not possible in wireless 1ANs due to ph$sical
limitations. So the sender must wait for e/plicit acknowled%ment !e.%. -TS>,TS" from
the receier to know whether or not a collision has occurred. The wireless 1AN protocol
implements a collision aoidance al%orithm rather than the collision detection in wired
1AN) and the dela$ in the contention period is lon%er the round:trip dela$ of 8tprop of
wired 1AN because of waitin% for the receierLs acknowled%ment.
Other differences4
.ecurity: 5n wired 1AN) the transmission medium is ph$sicall$ secured. 5n wireless
1AN) an$ deice within the %eo%raphic transmission area can intercept the transmissions.
To proide
data securit$) wireless 1AN need to implement encr$ption at the e/pense of hi%her cost
and reduced performance.
0ower consumption: 3ortable and mobile deices are usuall$ batter$ powered) and thus
hae
limited power capacit$. The wireless 1AN protocol must be desi%ned to be power
efficient.
All these issues are addressed in the 5EEE 678.;; wireless 1AN protocol.
www.bookspar.com ;78

CN1 Notes Compiled by Anita Kanavalli

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

CN1 Notes Compiled by Anita Kanavalli

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

www.bookspar.

com | Website for students | VTU NOTES

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi