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L.,
c:i
-
f-
a:
cr
1:
a:
w
f-
U1
"-
...J
a
f-
z
w
...J
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a
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L.I
tJ.T = steam/zone temperature - original
formation temperature, of
u = integration variable
VI = bulk volume of steam zone, cu ft
Vs = volume of water having a mass equal
to that of injected steam, cu ft
V
pD
= pore volume of steam injection =
V
s
/43,560Az
n
1>, dimensionless
Zn = net thickness of reservoir, ft
Zt = gross thickness of reservoir, ft
Yo = specific gravity of oil, dimensionless
1> = porosity, dimensionless
Pl,2 = bulk density of formation, lb/cu ft
Pw = density of water = 62.4, lb/cu ft
O. 5
O. 4
O. 3
O. 2
0.1
0.0
0
0.5
O. 4
O. 3
O. 2
01
8. 0
00
500
PRESSURE. (pslgl
1.0
CUMULAT I VE
STEAM INJECTED IVpOI
1000
2.0
>
"-
Acknowledgments
We wish to express our appreciation to Shell Develop-
ment Co. and Shell Oil Co. for permission to publish this
paper. We also acknowledge the contribution of P. van
Meurs and C. W. Volek, who developed scaling rules
and supervised the laboratory experimental work.
References
I. Blevins, T. R., Aseltine, R. J., and Kirk, R. S.: "Analysis ofa
Steam Drive Project, Inglewood Field, California," 1. Pet. Tech.
(Sept. 1969) 1141-1150. . .
2. Hearn, C. L.: "The EI Dorado Steam Drive - A Pilot Tertiary
0.5
0.5
..
: O. 4
0
0.4
>
"-
L.,0
0
I-
a: 0.3
a:
1:
a:
w
I-
(JJ
O. 2
"-
-'
a
I-
z
01
w
...J
a:
>
:;
a
0.0
w
0.0
- 0.5
>
"-
ID
.. 0.4
l.J..
0
c:i
I-
0:
0.3
a:
1:
0:
W
I-
(JJ
0.2
"-
-'
;;
I-
Z
0.1
w
-'
0:
>
=>
a
0.0 w
0
0.5
STEAM QUALITY
1000
I NJECT I ON RATE. (BID I \JELl!
0.3
O. 2
0.1
0.0
1.0
2000
0
0
>
-
..
0
l.J..
0
I-
0:
a:
1:
0:
w
I-
(JJ
"-
...J
;;
Fig. 13-Effect of steam parameters on equivalent oil/steam
ratio.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
Recovery Test," l. Pet. Tech. (Nov. 1972) 1377-1384.
3. Smith, R. V., Bertuzzi, A. F., Templeton, E. E., and Clampitt,
R. L.: "Recovery of Oil by Steam Injection in the Smackover
Field, Arkansas," l. Pet. Tech. (Aug. 1973) 883-889.
4. Afoeju, B.I.: "Conversion of Steam Injection to Waterflood, East
Coalinga Field," l. Pet. Tech. (Nov. 1974) 1227-1232.
5. Bursell, C. G. :"Steam Displacement - Kern River Field."
l. Pet. Tech. (Oct. 1970) 1225-1231.
6. de Haan, H. J. and Schenk, L.: "Performance Analysis ofa Major
Steam Drive Project in the Tia Juana Field, Western Venezuela,"
l.Pet. Tech. (Jan. 1969) 111-119; Trans., AIME,246.
7. French, M. S. and Howard, R. L.: "The Steamflood Job, Hefner
Sho-Vel-Tum," Oil andGasl. (July 17, 1967) No. 29, 65, 64.
8. Hall, A. L. and Bowman, R. W.: "Operation and Performance of
the Slocum Thermal Recovery Project," l. Pet. Tech. (April 1973)
402-408.
9. van Dijk, C.: "Steam-Drive Project in the Schoonebeek Field, The
Netherlands," l. Pet. Tech. (March 1968) 295-302; Trans.,
AIME,243.
10. Volek, C. W. and Pryor, J. A.: "Steam Distillation Drive - Brea
Field, California," l. Pet. Tech. (Aug. 1972) 899-906.
II. Harmsen, G. J.: "Oil Recovery by Hot Water and Steam Injec-
tion," Proc., Eighth World Pet. Cong., Moscow (1971) 3,
243-251.
12. Niko, H. and Troost, P.J.P.M.: "Experimental Investigation of
Steam Soaking in a Depletion-Type Reservoir," l. Pet. Tech.
(Aug. 1971) 1006-1014; Trans., AIME, 251.
13. Mandl, G. and Volek, C. W.: "Heat and Mass Transport in
Steam-Drive Processes," Soc. Pet. Eng. l. (March 1969) 59-79;
Trans., AIME, 246.
14. Prats, M.: "The Heat Efficiency of Thermal Recovery Pro-
cesses," l. Pet. Tech. (March 1969) 323-332; Trans., AIME,
246.
15. Walsh, J. W.: Unpublished correspondence, Shell Development
Co., Houston.
16. Prats, M. and Vogiatzis, J. P.: Personal communication, Shell
Development Co., Houston.
17. Zaba, J. and Doherty, W. T.: Practical Petroleum Engineers
Handbook, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (1951) 55.
18. Keenan, J. H. and Keyes, F. G.: Thermodynamic Properties of
Steam, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., London (1936).
19. Ramey, H. J.: "How to Calculate Heat Transmission in Hot
Fluid," Pet. Eng. (Nov. 1964) 110.
APPENDIX
Thermal Efficiency Function
The thennal efficiency of a steam-injection process in a
reservoir is defined as the ratio of heat remaining in the
steam zone to the total heat injected.
E
hs
= VIMILlT ....................... (A-I)
Qt
Combining Eq. A-I and Eqs. 53 and 54 of Mandl and
Volek
l3
results in an expression for the thennal efficiency
of the steam zone before the critical time, teD' at which
heat begins to pass through the condensation front.
E
hs
= _1_ fetD erfc Vt;; + 2 - 1), ... (A-2)
tD \: 7T"
where
tD = 4kh2M2t . . ..................... (A-3)
zlMI2
For times greater than the critical time (tCD) , an approx-
imate solution for average steam-zone thermal efficiency
has been given,13 using the arithmetic average of two
thermal efficiencies representing the upper and lower
bounds of steam-zone growth. The upper bound is calcu-
lated by assuming no heat flow across the condensation
front, which is the solution given in Eq. A-2. The lower
bound is calculated by assuming heat flow across the
FEBRUARY, 1978
condensation front, but no preheating of the cap and base
rock (see Ref. 13, Eq. 56). Because Mandl and Volek's
solution neglected higher-order tenns, a slight inaccu-
racy was introduced. Prats and Vogiatzis
l6
have included
these tenns and obtained the more exact solution for the
lower bound,
E
- 1 2' r-
t
_(2VtD - tCD
lower bound - ~ ~ ~ V tD
V-:;t
D
1 + hD
I
tcD
eU erfcVu dU), ... (A-4)
o Vt
D
- U
where
__ 1_ = etcD erfc' ~ (A 5)
1 +hD VlcD, ..... .......... -
and
hD = fSdLV .................... (A-6)
CwLlT
(Note that the denominator in Eq. A-6 presumes a con-
stant value for the heat capacity of water, C
w
, over the
temperature range. For a more precise calculation, the
differences in enthalpies of liquids at steam and at the
reference temperature should be used.) Prats and Vogiat-
zis also suggested a new weighting factor for the average
steam-zone thermal efficiency:
- _ ( 1 )
Ehs-Eupperbound- I+hD LlE, ...... (A-7)
where Eupper bound is E
hs
from Eq. A-2 and
LlE = Eupper bound - Elower bound' ..... (A-8)
These relationshigs, shown in Figs. 7 and 8, fulfill the
requirement that E
hs
approach zero as the steam quality
becomes small. Although this formulation is arbitrary, it
is expected to give reasonable estimates of steam-zone
thermal efficiency for steam qualities greater than about
0.2. Calculation of oil/steam ratio for low-quality steam
processes, however, is not recommended because the
model described in the next section does not account for
the hot-water drive that would predominate in a low-
quality steam drive.
Oil/Steam Ratio Function
The maximum oil/steam ratio (Fos) is defined as the ratio
of volume of oil displaced from the steam zone to the
volume of water having a mass equal to that of the
injected steam. The volume of oil displaced is
Np = AsZncPLlS . ....................... (A-9)
The volume of steam required can be calculated from the
heat in the steam zone, the heat efficiency, and the heat
content of the steam:
VI = MIAsztLlT(l/Ehs) , ............ (A-lO)
Pw(CwLlT + fSdLV)
since
Fos = Np/VI'
(A-ll)
Fos = PwCw .(1 + h ). (t h ).
cPLlS(zn/Zt) MID hs D, D
............................. (A-I2)
If the ratio of heat capacities of water and the bulk steam
181
zone are constant, the oil/steam ratio divided by the
dimensionless petrophysical properties is a function of
only tD and h
D
.
Equivalent Oil/Steam Ratio
To standardize oil/steam ratio to an equivalent 1,000-
Btu/lb steam at boiler outlet, the following correction
is required.
Fose = 1,000 Fos . ......... (A-13)
Cw(Tl - T
b
) + ISbLv
Over-All Energy Balance
The equivalent oil/steam ratio can be modified to define
the ratio of energy recovered from the process to energy
required to generate steam.
E = oil heating value/volume oil
D heat requirement/volume oil '
ED = YoH(;;SO'Eb ................... (A-14)
A simple relationship between specific gravity and heat-
ing value of the oip7 is
Ho = 13,100 + 5,600/yo, .............. (A-15)
which further simplifies Eq. 14 to
ED = (l3.1yo +5.6)EbFos
e
. .......... (A-16)
Example Calculation
Yorba Linda "F" Sand Drive
Given the parameters listed in Table 3 and values from
standard steam tables,18
Lv = 837.4 Btu/lb(at 215 psia, 387.9F)
CwTs = 361.91 Btu/lb (at 215 psia, 387.9F)
CwTr = 77.94 Btu/lb (at 110F)
CwTb = 38 Btu/lb (at 70F)
C = CwD.T = 361.91 - 77.94
w ---;yr- 387.9 - 110
1.022,
Isb = 0.8.
1. Calculatet
D
from Eq. A-3.
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroteum Engineers office Sept. 12.1975.
Paper accepted for publication Feb. 2, 1976. Revised manuscript received Dec. 1,
1977. Paper (SPE 5572) was presented althe SPE-AIME 50th Annual Fall Meeting,
held in Dallas, Sept. 28-Oct. 1, 1975.
182
tD =
35,040kh2M2tyrs , ............. (A-17)
Z?(M12)
35,040( 1.2)(42)(4.5)
(32)2(35)2
= 6.33.
Alternatively, tD can be calculated from steam-injection
rate and pore volume of steam injected:
744,750M
2
k
h2
(Zn/Zt) cpAVpD
t D = _---'-__ = - c ~ . . . . : . : : . . . . . . . . : . . : . . . . - - - - - - - - - - = - -
(Mlf Ztis
............................. (A-18)
2. Calculate hD from Eq. A-6 (or read approximately
from Fig. 9). Bottom-hole steam quality, Isd, can be
estimated by subtracting surface-line and injection-well
heat losses1
9
from boiler-exit quality. In this example,
fsd ;;; 0.7.
h = (0.7)(837.4) - 2.064
D (361.91 - 77.94)
3. Using tD andh
D
, determineE
hs
from Eqs. A-2, A-4,
andA-7(orFig.7).
E
hs
= 0.313.
4. CalculateFos fromEq. A-12.
Fos = (0.3)(0.31)(1.0) (1.022' 6is
4
)
(l + 2.064)(0.313)
= 0.162.
(Alternatively, Fos could have been obtained using values
of tD and hD in Fig. 10).
5. Calculate Fose from Eq. A-13.
F = 1,000(0.162)
ose (361.91 - 38) + 0.8(837.4)
= 0.163.
6. Calculate ED from Eq. A-16, assuming Yo = 0.94
andE
b
= 0.8.
E
D
= [13.1(0.94) + 5.6](0.8)(0.163)
= 2.3.
That is, even for this case of a fairly low oil/steam ratio,
the oil-heating value equal to 2.3 times the injected heat is
displaced from the steam zone. JPT
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY