Electromagnetic waves and antenna basics

- an overview, summary, tutorial about the basics of electromagnetic waves

and the way in which they affect RF antenna and RF antenna design.
IN THIS SECTION
E/M waves & antenna operation
Antenna polarisation
Antenna feed impedance
Antenna resonance & bandwidth
Antenna directivity & gain
Radio signals are a form of electromagnetic wave, and as they are the way in which radio signals
travel, they have a major bearing on RF antennas themselves and RF antenna design.
Electromagnetic waves are the same type of radiation as light, ultra-violet and infra red rays,
differing from them in their wavelength and frequency. Electromagnetic waves have both electric
and magnetic components that are inseparable. The planes of these fields are at right angles to
one another and to the direction of motion of the wave.

An electromagnetic wave
The electric field results from the voltage changes occurring in the RF antenna which is radiating
the signal, and the magnetic changes result from the current flow. It is also found that the lines of
force in the electric field run along the same axis as the RF antenna, but spreading out as they
move away from it. This electric field is measured in terms of the change of potential over a given
distance, e.g. volts per metre, and this is known as the field strength. Similarly when an RF
antenna receives a signal the magnetic changes cause a current flow, and the electric field
changes cause the voltage changes on the antenna.
There are a number of properties of a wave. The first is its wavelength. This is the distance
between a point on one wave to the identical point on the next. One of the most obvious points to
choose is the peak as this can be easily identified although any point is acceptable.

Wavelength of an electromagnetic wave


The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave
The second property of the electromagnetic wave is its frequency. This is the number of times a
particular point on the wave moves up and down in a given time (normally a second). The unit of
frequency is the Hertz and it is equal to one cycle per second. This unit is named after the
German scientist who discovered radio waves. The frequencies used in radio are usually very
high. Accordingly the prefixes kilo, Mega, and Giga are often seen. 1 kHz is 1000 Hz, 1 MHz is a
million Hertz, and 1 GHz is a thousand million Hertz i.e. 1000 MHz. Originally the unit of
frequency was not given a name and cycles per second (c/s) were used. Some older books may
show these units together with their prefixes: kc/s; Mc/s etc. for higher frequencies.
The third major property of the wave is its velocity. Radio waves travel at the same speed as
light. For most practical purposes the speed is taken to be 300 000 000 metres per second
although a more exact value is 299 792 500 metres per second.


Frequency to Wavelength Conversion
Although wavelength was used as a measure for signals, frequencies are used exclusively today.
It is very easy to relate the frequency and wavelength as they are linked by the speed of light as
shown:
lambda = c / f
where lambda = the wavelength in metres
f = frequency in Hertz
c = speed of radio waves (light) taken as 300 000 000 metres per second for all practical
purposes.

Field measurements
It is also interesting to note that close to the RF antenna there is also an inductive field the same
as that in a transformer. This is not part of the electromagnetic wave, but it can distort
measurements close to the antenna. It can also mean that transmitting antennas are more likely
to cause interference when they are close to other antennas or wiring that might have the signal
induced into it. For receiving antennas they are more susceptible to interference if they are close
to house wiring and the like. Fortunately this inductive field falls away fairly rapidly and it is barely
detectable at distances beyond about two or three wavelengths from the RF antenna.
By Ian Poole
Antenna polarisation or polarization
- overview, summary, tutorial about RF antenna or aerial polarisation and
the effect polarization has on RF antennas and radio communications.
IN THIS SECTION
E/M waves & antenna operation
Antenna polarisation
Antenna feed impedance
Antenna resonance & bandwidth
Antenna directivity & gain
Polarisation is an important factor for RF antennas and radio communications in general. Both
RF antennas and electromagnetic waves are said to have a polarization.
For the electromagnetic wave the polarization is effectively the plane in which the electric wave
vibrates. This is important when looking at antennas because they are sensitive to polarisation,
and generally only receive or transmit a signal with a particular polarization.
For most antennas it is very easy to determine the polarization. It is simply in the same plane as
the elements of the antenna. So a vertical antenna (i.e. one with vertical elements) will receive
vertically polarised signals best and similarly a horizontal antenna will receive horizontally
polarised signals.

An electromagnetic wave
It is important to match the polarization of the RF antenna to that of the incoming signal. In this
way the maximum signal is obtained. If the RF antenna polarization does not match that of the
signal there is a corresponding decrease in the level of the signal. It is reduced by a factor of
cosine of the angle between the polarisation of the RF antenna and the signal.
Accordingly the polarisation of the antennas located in free space is very important, and
obviously they should be in exactly the same plane to provide the optimum signal. If they were at
right angles to one another (i.e. cross-polarised) then in theory no signal would be received.
For terrestrial radio communications applications it is found that once a signal has been
transmitted then its polarisation will remain broadly the same. However reflections from objects in
the path can change the polarisation. As the received signal is the sum of the direct signal plus a
number of reflected signals the overall polarisation of the signal can change slightly although it
remains broadly the same.


Polarisation catagories
Vertical and horizontal are the simplest forms of antenna polarization and they both fall into a
category known as linear polarisation. However it is also possible to use circular polarisation.
This has a number of benefits for areas such as satellite applications where it helps overcome
the effects of propagation anomalies, ground reflections and the effects of the spin that occur on
many satellites. Circular polarisation is a little more difficult to visualise than linear polarisation.
However it can be imagined by visualising a signal propagating from an RF antenna that is
rotating. The tip of the electric field vector will then be seen to trace out a helix or corkscrew as it
travels away from the antenna. Circular polarisation can be seen to be either right or left handed
dependent upon the direction of rotation as seen from the transmitter.
Another form of polarisation is known as elliptical polarisation. It occurs when there is a mix of
linear and circular polarisation. This can be visualised as before by the tip of the electric field
vector tracing out an elliptically shaped corkscrew.
However it is possible for linearly polarised antennas to receive circularly polarised signals and
vice versa. The strength will be equal whether the linearly polarised antenna is mounted
vertically, horizontally or in any other plane but directed towards the arriving signal. There will be
some degradation because the signal level will be 3 dB less than if a circularly polarised antenna
of the same sense was used. The same situation exists when a circularly polarised antenna
receives a linearly polarised signal.


Applications of antenna polarization
Different types of polarisation are used in different applications to enable their advantages to be
used. Linear polarization is by far the most widely used for most radio communications
applications. Vertical polarisation is often used for mobile radio communications. This is because
many vertically polarized antenna designs have an omni-directional radiation pattern and it
means that the antennas do not have to be re-orientated as positions as always happens for
mobile radio communications as the vehicle moves. For other radio communications applications
the polarisation is often determined by the RF antenna considerations. Some large multi-element
antenna arrays can be mounted in a horizontal plane more easily than in the vertical plane. This
is because the RF antenna elements are at right angles to the vertical tower of pole on which
they are mounted and therefore by using an antenna with horizontal elements there is less
physical and electrical interference between the two. This determines the standard polarisation in
many cases.
In some applications there are performance differences between horizontal and vertical
polarization. For example medium wave broadcast stations generally use vertical polarisation
because ground wave propagation over the earth is considerably better using vertical
polarization, whereas horizontal polarization shows a marginal improvement for long distance
communications using the ionosphere. Circular polarisation is sometimes used for satellite radio
communications as there are some advantages in terms of propagation and in overcoming the
fading caused if the satellite is changing its orientation.
By Ian Poole
Antenna feed impedance
- overview, summary, tutorial about RF antenna or aerial feed impedance
and the importance of matching RF andtennas to feeders. Radiation
resistance, loss resistance, and efficiency are also detailed.
IN THIS SECTION
E/M waves & antenna operation
Antenna polarisation
Antenna feed impedance
Antenna resonance & bandwidth
Antenna directivity & gain
When a signal source is applied to an RF antenna at its feed point, it is found that it presents a
load impedance to the source. This is known as the antenna "feed impedance" and it is a
complex impedance made up from resistance, capacitance and inductance. In order to ensure
the optimum efficiency for any RF antenna design it is necessary to maximise the transfer of
energy by matching the feed impedance of the RF antenna design to the load. This requires
some understanding of the operation of antenna design in this respect.
The feed impedance of the antenna results from a number of factors including the size and
shape of the RF antenna, the frequency of operation and its environment. The impedance seen
is normally complex, i.e. consisting of resistive elements as well as reactive ones.


Antenna feed impedance resistive elements
The resistive elements are made up from two constituents. These add together to form the sum
of the total resistive elements.
Loss resistance: The loss resistance arises from the actual resistance of the elements
in the aRF ntenna, and power dissipated in this manner is lost as heat. Although it may
appear that the "DC" resistance is low, at higher frequencies the skin effect is in evidence
and only the surface areas of the conductor are used. As a result the effective resistance
is higher than would be measured at DC. It is proportional to the circumference of the
conductor and to the square root of the frequency.

The resistance can become particularly significant in high current sections of an RF
antenna where the effective resistance is low. Accordingly to reduce the effect of the loss
resistance it is necessary to ensure the use of very low resistance conductors.
Radiation resistance: The other resistive element of the impedance is the "radiation
resistance". This can be thought of as virtual resistor. It arises from the fact that power is
"dissipated" when it is radiated from the RF antenna. The aim is to "dissipate" as much
power in this way as possible. The actual value for the radiation resistance varies from
one type of antenna to another, and from one design to another. It is dependent upon a
variety of factors. However a typical half wave dipole operating in free space has a
radiation resistance of around 73 Ohms.
Antenna reactive elements
There are also reactive elements to the feed impedance. These arise from the fact that the
antenna elements act as tuned circuits that possess inductance and capacitance. At resonance
where most antennas are operated the inductance and capacitance cancel one another out to
leave only the resistance of the combined radiation resistance and loss resistance. However
either side of resonance the feed impedance quickly becomes either inductive (if operated above
the resonant frequency) or capacitive (if operated below the resonant frequency).


Efficiency
It is naturally important to ensure that the proportion of the power dissipated in the loss
resistance is as low as possible, leaving the highest proportion to be dissipated in the radiation
resistance as a radiated signal. The proportion of the power dissipated in the radiation resistance
divided by the power applied to the antenna is the efficiency.
A variety of means can be employed to ensure that the efficiency remains as high as possible.
These include the use of optimum materials for the conductors to ensure low values of
resistance, large circumference conductors to ensure large surface area to overcome the skin
effect, and not using designs where very high currents and low feed impedance values are
present. Other constraints may require that not all these requirements can be met, but by using
engineering judgement it is normally possible to obtain a suitable compromise.
It can be seen that the antenna feed impedance is particularly important when considering any
RF antenna design. However by maximising the energy transfer by matching the feeder to the
antenna feed impedance the antenna design can be optimised and the best performance
obtained.
By Ian Poole
Antenna Resonance & Bandwidth
- overview, summary, tutorial about antenna or aerial resonance and
bandwidth and the impact of RF antenna resonance and bandwidth on
radio communications systems.
IN THIS SECTION
E/M waves & antenna operation
Antenna polarisation
Antenna feed impedance
Antenna resonance & bandwidth
Antenna directivity & gain
Two major factors associated with radio antenna design are the antenna resonant point or centre
operating frequency and the antenna bandwidth or the frequency range over which the antenna
design can operate. These two factors are naturally very important features of any antenna
design and as such they are mentioned in specifications for particular RF ntennas. Whether the
RF antenna is used for broadcasting, WLAN, cellular telecommunications, PMR or any other
application, the performance of the RF antenna is paramount, and the antenna resonant
frequency and the antenna bandwidth are of great importance.


Antenna resonance
An RF antenna is a form of tuned circuit consisting of inductance and capacitance, and as a
result it has a resonant frequency. This is the frequency where the capacitive and inductive
reactances cancel each other out. At this point the RF antenna appears purely resistive, the
resistance being a combination of the loss resistance and the radiation resistance.

Impedance of an RF antenna with frequency
The capacitance and inductance of an RF antenna are determined by its physical properties and
the environment where it is located. The major feature of the RF antenna design is its
dimensions. It is found that the larger the antenna or more strictly the antenna elements, the
lower the resonant frequency. For example antennas for UHF terrestrial television have relatively
small elements, while those for VHF broadcast sound FM have larger elements indicating a lower
frequency. Antennas for short wave applications are larger still.


Antenna bandwidth
Most RF antenna designs are operated around the resonant point. This means that there is only
a limited bandwidth over which an RF antenna design can operate efficiently. Outside this the
levels of reactance rise to levels that may be too high for satisfactory operation. Other
characteristics of the antenna may also be impaired away from the centre operating frequency.
The antenna bandwidth is particularly important where radio transmitters are concerned as
damage may ccur to the transmitter if the antenna is operated outside its operating range and the
radio transmitter is not adequately protected. In addition to this the signal radiated by the RF
antenna may be less for a number of reasons.
For receiving purposes the performance of the antenna is less critical in some respects. It can be
operated outside its normal bandwidth without any fear of damage to the set. Even a random
length of wire will pick up signals, and it may be possible to receive several distant stations.
However for the best reception it is necessary to ensure that the performance of the RF antenna
design is optimum.


Impedance bandwidth
One major feature of an RF antenna that does change with frequency is its impedance. This in
turn can cause the amount of reflected power to increase. If the antenna is used for transmitting
it may be that beyond a given level of reflected power damage may be caused to either the
transmitter or the feeder, and this is quite likely to be a factor which limits the operating
bandwidth of an antenna. Today most transmitters have some form of SWR protection circuit that
prevents damage by reducing the output power to an acceptable level as the levels of reflected
power increase. This in turn means that the efficiency of the station is reduced outside a given
bandwidth. As far as receiving is concerned the impedance changes of the antenna are not as
critical as they will mean that the signal transfer from the antenna itself to the feeder is reduced
and in turn the efficiency will fall. For amateur operation the frequencies below which a maximum
SWR figure of 1.5:1 is produced is often taken as the acceptable bandwidth.
In order to increase the bandwidth of an antenna there are a number of measures that can be
taken. One is the use of thicker conductors. Another is the actual type of antenna used. For
example a folded dipole which is described fully in Chapter 3 has a wider bandwidth than a non-
folded one. In fact looking at a standard television antenna it is possible to see both of these
features included.


Radiation pattern
Another feature of an antenna that changes with frequency is its radiation pattern. In the case of
a beam it is particularly noticeable. In particular the front to back ratio will fall off rapidly outside a
given bandwidth, and so will the gain. In an antenna such as a Yagi this is caused by a reduction
in the currents in the parasitic elements as the frequency of operation is moved away from
resonance. For beam antennas such as the Yagi the radiation pattern bandwidth is defined as
the frequency range over which the gain of the main lobe is within 1 dB of its maximum.
For many beam antennas, especially high gain ones it will be found that the impedance
bandwidth is wider than the radiation pattern bandwidth, although the two parameters are inter-
related in many respects.
By Ian Poole
Antenna directivity and gain
- an overview, summary, tutorial about the basics of RF antenna directivity
(aerial directivity) and gain including isotropic radiators, polar diagrams and
antenna dBi figures and antenna dBd figures.
IN THIS SECTION
E/M waves & antenna operation
Antenna polarisation
Antenna feed impedance
Antenna resonance & bandwidth
Antenna directivity & gain
RF antennas or aerials do not radiate equally in all directions. It is found that any realisable RF
antenna design will radiate more in some directions than others. The actual pattern is dependent
upon the type of antenna design, its size, the environment and a variety of other factors. This
directional pattern can be used to ensure that the power radiated is focussed in the desired
directions.
It is normal to refer to the directional patterns and gain in terms of the transmitted signal. It is
often easier to visualise the RF antenna is terms of its radiated power, however the antenna
performs in an exactly equivalent manner for reception, having identical figures and
specifications.
In order to visualise the way in which an antenna radiates a diagram known as a polar diagram is
used. This is normally a two dimensional plot around an antenna showing the intensity of the
radiation at each point for a particular plane. Normally the scale that is used is logarithmic so that
the differences can be conveniently seen on the plot. Although the radiation pattern of the
antenna varies in three dimensions, it is normal to make a plot in a particular plane, normally
either horizontal or vertical as these are the two that are most used, and it simplifies the
measurements and presentation. An example for a simple dipole antenna is shown below.

Polar diagram of a half wave dipole in free space
Antenna designs are often categorised by the type of polar diagram they exhibit. For example an
omni-directional antenna design is one which radiates equally (or approximately equally) in all
directions in the plane of interest. An antenna design that radiates equally in all directions in all
planes is called an isotropic antenna. As already mentioned it is not possible to produce one of
these in reality, but it is useful as a theoretical reference for some measurements. Other RF
antennas exhibit highly directional patterns and these may be utilised in a number of
applications. The Yagi antenna is an example of a directive antenna and possibly it is most
widely used for television reception.

Polar diagram for a yagi antenna


RF antenna beamwidth
There are a number of key features that can be seen from this polar diagram. The first is that
there is a main beam or lobe and a number of minor lobes. It is often useful to define the beam-
width of an RF antenna. This is taken to be angle between the two points where the power falls
to half its maximum level, and as a result it is sometimes called the half power beam-width.


Antenna gain
An RF antenna radiates a given amount of power. This is the power dissipated in the radiation
resistance of the RF antenna. An isotropic radiator will distribute this equally in all directions. For
an antenna with a directional pattern, less power will be radiated in some directions and more in
others. The fact that more power is radiated in given directions implies that it can be considered
to have a gain.
The gain can be defined as a ratio of the signal transmitted in the "maximum" direction to that of
a standard or reference antenna. This may sometimes be called the "forward gain". The figure
that is obtained is then normally expressed in decibels (dB). In theory the standard antenna could
be almost anything but two types are generally used. The most common type is a simple dipole
as it is easily available and it is the basis of many other types of antenna. In this case the gain is
often expressed as dBd i.e. gain expressed in decibels over a dipole. However a dipole does not
radiated equally in all directions in all planes and so an isotropic source is sometimes used. In
this case the gain may be specified in dBi i.e. gain in decibels over an isotropic source. The main
drawback with using an isotropic source (antenna dBi) as a reference is that it is not possible to
realise them in practice and so that figures using it can only be theoretical. However it is possible
to relate the two gains as a dipole has a gain of 2.1 dB over an isotropic source i.e. 2.1 dBi. In
other words, figures expressed as gain over an isotropic source will be 2.1 dB higher than those
relative to a dipole. When choosing an antenna and looking at the gain specifications, be sure to
check whether the gain is relative to a dipole or an isotropic source, i.e. the antenna dBi figure of
the antenna dBd figure.
Apart from the forward gain of an antenna another parameter which is important is the front to
back ratio. This is expressed in decibels and as the name implies it is the ratio of the maximum
signal in the forward direction to the signal in the opposite direction. This figure is normally
expressed in decibels. It is found that the design of an antenna can be adjusted to give either
maximum forward gain of the optimum front to back ratio as the two do not normally coincide
exactly. For most VHF and UHF operation the design is normally optimised for the optimum
forward gain as this gives the maximum radiated signal in the required direction.


RF antenna gain / beamwidth balance
It may appear that maximising the gain of an antenna will optimise its performance in a system.
This may not always be the case. By the very nature of gain and beamwidth, increasing the gain
will result in a reduction in the beamwidth. This will make setting the direction of the antenna
more critical. This may be quite acceptable in many applications, but not in others. This balance
should be considered when designing and setting up a radio link.
By Ian Poole