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Gear failures provide valuable data that may help prevent future failures. The specific approach can vary depending on when and where the inspection is made. Shut down a failing gearbox as soon as possible to limit damage.
Gear failures provide valuable data that may help prevent future failures. The specific approach can vary depending on when and where the inspection is made. Shut down a failing gearbox as soon as possible to limit damage.
Gear failures provide valuable data that may help prevent future failures. The specific approach can vary depending on when and where the inspection is made. Shut down a failing gearbox as soon as possible to limit damage.
8 Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(6) December 2002
(continued) How To Analyze Gear Failures
How To Analyze Gear Failures Failure Conditions When gears fail, there may be in- centive to repair or replace failed components quickly and return the gear system to service. However, because gear failures provide valuable data that may help prevent future failures, a systematic inspection pro- cedure should be followed before repair or replacement begins. The failure investigation should be planned carefully to preserve evi- dence. The specific approach can vary depending on when and where the inspection is made, the nature of the failure, and time constraints. When and Where Ideally, the analyst should visit the site and inspect failed components as soon after failure as possible. If an early inspection is not possible, some- one at the site must preserve the evidence based on instructions from the analyst. Getting Started The failure conditions can deter- mine when and how to conduct an analysis. It is best to shut down a failing gearbox as soon as possible to limit damage. To preserve evidence, carefully plan the failure investigation and conduct in-situ inspections and plan to become involved in gearbox removal, transport, storage, and disassembly. If the gears are damaged but still functional, the company may decide to continue operation and monitor damage progression. In this case, be certain to become involved in establishing the gear system moni- toring process. In most applications, inspection and monitoring include visual inspection and temperature, sound, and vibration measurements. Additionally, for critical applications, nondestructive inspection of the gears (e.g., magnetic particle inspection) should ensure the absence of cracks before operation is continued. Before the system is restarted, be certain to collect samples of lubricant for analy- sis, drain and flush lubricant reser- voirs, and replace the lubricant. Examine the oil filter for wear debris and contaminants, and inspect mag- netic plugs for wear debris. Time Constraints The high cost of shutdown freq- uently limits time available for in- spection. Such cases call for careful planning. Dividing tasks between two or more analysts may reduce time required and provide varied insight into the failure analysis task. In most T
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L by Robert Errichello Excerpted from Gear Failure Analysis: A Textbook for the Gear Failure Analyst, used in the GEARTECH seminar Gear Failure Analysis and Troubleshooting. Photographs reprinted from Gear Failure Atlas
(GEARTECH, 1999). Text and photographs used with permission from GEARTECH. Class/Mode: Overload/brittle fracture Definition: Fracture by rapid crack propagation without appreciable plastic deformation Morphology: Bright, flat, granular surface. Scanning electron microscopy shows cleavage facets or intergranular facets. Cause: Stress intensity (tensile stress and flaw size) exceeds fracture toughness. Remedy: Increase toughness. Avoid flaws and shock loads. Reduce tensile stress. Class/Mode: Overload/ductile fracture Definition: Fracture by tearing of metal with appreciable plastic deformation Morphology: Gray, fibrous surface with shear lips. Scanning electron microscopy shows shear dimples. Cause: High load, low yield strength, or both. Remedy: Reduce load. Increase yield strength. Class/Mode: Overload/mixed-mode fracture Definition: Fracture by both cleavage and microvoid coalescence. Morphology: Surface exhibits both ductile and brittle characteristics. Cause: High load, low yield strength, or low fracture toughness. Remedy: Reduce load. Increase yield strength. Increase fracture toughness. Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/high-cycle/tooth end cracks Definition: High cycle fatigue with cracks at end of teeth Morphology: Crack origin at end of teeth Cause: Misalignment. Stress concentration, flaws, or low fatigue strength at ends of teeth Remedy: Improve alignment. Avoid stress concentration and flaws. Increase fatigue strength. 9 Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(6) December 2002 cases the old saying time is money is worth remembering. Prepare for Inspection Before visiting the failure site, the analyst should interview a contact person and explain the failure analysis process and outline specific needs. Work to develop a good relationship with the contact person, avoid any perception that you might be attempting to place blame, and em- phasize the need to inspect the gear- box, interview personnel, examine equipment, and assess working con- ditions. A skilled technician should be re- quested to disassemble the equip- ment under the direction of the analyst. However, if safety permits, it is best if no work is done on the gearbox until the analyst arrives. This means no disassembly, cleaning, or draining oil . Other wise, a wel l -meaning techni cian coul d i nadvertentl y destroy evidence. Emphasize that failure investigation is different from a gearbox rebuil d, and the dis- assembly process may reveal signi- ficant facts to a trained observer. Verify that gearbox drawings, dis- assembly tools, and adequate facilities are available. Inform the contact per- son that privacy is required to conduct the investigation, and access to all available information is necessary. Ask for as much background infor- mation as possible, including speci- fications of the manufacturer, service history, load data, and lubricant anal- yses. Send a questionnaire to the con- tact person to help expedite infor- mation gathering. Inspect In Situ Before starting the inspection, review background information and ser vice histor y with the contact person. Try to interview those in- volved in design, installation, startup, operation and maintenance, and anyone present when failure of the gearbox occurred or was discovered. Encourage the interviewees to share ever ything they know about the gearbox and associated systems even if they feel it is not important. External Examination Before removing and disassembling the gearbox, take photographs and thoroughly inspect the exterior. Use an inspection form to ensure that important data (data that may be lost once disassembly begins) is recorded. For example, the condition of seals and keyways should be recorded before disassembly or it may be im- possible to determine when these parts were damaged. Before cleaning the exterior of the gear housing, inspect for signs of over- heating, corrosion, contamination, oil leaks, and damage, and photograph the areas of interest. Photographic documentation is frequently a key to any good failure analysis, including a gear failure analysis. Gear Tooth Contact Patterns To observe the condition of the gears, shafts, and bearings, clean the inspection port cover and the imme- diate area around it, and then remove the cover. Be careful not to contam- inate the gearbox during cleaning or during the removal of the port cover. The way gear teeth contact indi- cates how they are aligned. Record tooth contact patterns under loaded or unloaded conditions. No-load patterns are not as reliable as loaded patterns for detecting misalignment, because marking compound is rela- tively thick and no-load tests do not include misalignment caused by load, speed, or temperature. Therefore, fol- Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/cold flow Definition: Plastic deformation at temperature lower than the recrystallization temperature Morphology: Permanently deformed gear teeth Cause: High load, low yield strength, or inadequate lubrication Remedy: Reduce load. Increase yield strength. Improve lubrication. Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/hot flow Definition: Plastic deformation at temperature higher than the recrystallization temperature Morphology: Permanently deformed gear teeth covered with black ferrous oxide Cause: Overheating. Lubrication starvation Remedy: Reduce heat input. Improve cooling. Increase flow of lubricant. Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/ indentation Definition: Local plastic deformation of active tooth surface due to subsurface yielding Morphology: Shallow scattered dents or shallow grooves along lines of contact Cause: Foreign material trapped between gear teeth. High stress due to tooth impact Remedy: Remove foreign material. Avoid tooth impact. Avoid vibration resonance. 10 Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(6) December 2002 (continued) How To Analyze Gear Failures low no-load tests with loaded tests whenever possible. See ANSI/AGMA 2000 Appendix D for information regarding contact pattern tests. No-Load Contact Patterns For no-load tests, paint the teeth of one gear with soft marking com- pound and roll the teeth through mesh so compound transfers to the unpainted gear. Turn the pinion by hand while applying a light load to the gear shaft by hand or brake. Lift transferred patterns from the gear with clear tape and mount the tapes on white paper to form a permanent record. The compound PT-650 Tooth Marking Grease (available from Products/Techniques, Inc., Rialto, CA; tel: 909/877-3951) works best. Scotch No. 845 Book Tape (2 in. wide) works well for lifting contact patterns. Loaded Contact Patterns For loaded tests, paint several teeth on one or both gears with machinists layout lacquer (DYKEM, ITW Dy- kem Dymon, Olathe, KS; 800/443- 9536). Thoroughly clean teeth with solvent and acetone, and brush paint with a thin coat of lacquer. Run the gears under load for sufficient time to wear off the lacquer and establish the contact patterns. Photograph patterns to obtain a permanent record. Record loaded contact patterns under several loads, for example, 25, 50, 75, and 100% l oad. Inspect patterns after running approximately 1 h at each load to monitor how patterns change with load. Ideally, the patterns should not change much with load. Optimum contact patterns cover nearly 100% of the active face of gear teeth under full load, except Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/ rolling Definition: Plastic deformation and displace- ment of tooth surface material Morphology: Groove at pitchline and burrs at tips and roots of driver. Ridge at pitchline of driver Cause: High contact stress. Inadequate lubrication Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase yield strength. Improve lubrication. Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/ ridging Definition: Deformation on active tooth surface in the form of peaks and valleys Morphology: Pronounced ridges and grooves on active tooth surface in direction of sliding Cause: Scuffing followed by polishing Remedy: Use high viscosity antiscuff oil. Improve cooling. Reduce load. Class/Mode: Wear/erosion Definition: Removal of surface material due to repeated impact of small, solid particles Morphology: Smooth, longitudinal craters near ends of teeth Cause: Relative motion between tooth surface and a fluid containing hard particles Remedy: Remove abrasives. Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/subcase fatigue Definition: Cracking in case-hardened gears in transition zone between case and core Morphology: Fine longitudinal cracks. Longitudinal craters with sharp, perpendicular edges Cause: Contact stress exceeds subsurface fatigue strength. Inclusions near case/core Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase case hardness, case depth, and core hardness. Class/Mode: Wear/adhesion Definition: Material transfer between mating tooth surfaces due to microwelding and tearing Morphology: Teeth appear undamaged. Scanning electron microscopy shows smooth microplateaus between furrows. Cause: Normal wear on asperities during run-in Remedy: Use smooth surfaces. Run-in new gears. Drain, flush, and replace oil after run-in. Class/Mode: Wear/abrasion Definition: Removal and displacement of surface material by hard particles or hard asperities Morphology: Scratches or gouges in direction of sliding. Scanning electron microscopy shows smooth, clean, furrows. Cause: Contamination by hard, sharp particles (3-body). Hard asperities on mate (2-body) Remedy: Remove abrasives. Use surface- hardened teeth and smooth surfaces. 11 Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(6) December 2002 at extremes of teeth along tips, roots, and ends, where contact is lighter as evidenced by traces of lacquer. Endplay and Backlash Inspect endplay and radial move- ment of the input and output shafts and gear backlash. Remove Gearbox Mounting Alignment Measure alignment of shaft coupl- ings before removing the gearbox. Note the condition and loosening torque of al l fasteners including coupling and mounting bolts. To check for possible twist of the gear housing, measure movement of the mounting feet as mounting bolts are loosened. Install four dial indicators, one at each corner of the gearbox. Each indicator will record the same vertical movement if there is no twist. If not, calculate the twist from rela- tive movements. Transport Gearbox Fretting corrosion is a common problem that may occur during ship- ping. Ship the gearbox on an air-ride truck, and support the gearbox on vibration isolators to help avoid fretting corrosion. If possible, ship the gearbox with oil. To minimize contamination, remove the breather and seal the opening, seal labyrinth seals with silicone rubber, and cover the gearbox with a tarpaulin. Store Gearbox It is best to inspect the gearbox as soon as possible. However, if the gearbox must be stored, store it in- doors in a dry, temperature-controlled environment. Disassemble Gearbox Explain analysis objectives to the attending technician. Review the Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/root fillet yielding Definition: Permanent bending of teeth due to yielding in root fillets Morphology: Initial yielding may not be visible. Large yielding causes tip-to-root interference. Cause: Bending stress exceeds yield strength. Remedy: Reduce bending stress. Increase yield strength. Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/tip- to-root interference Definition: Interference between tips of one gear and roots of mate Morphology: Plastic deformation, adhesion, or abrasion on tips of one gear and roots of mate Cause: Geometric errors. Inadequate tip/root relief. Short center distance Remedy: Improve geometry. Improve accuracy. Increase center distance. Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/low-cycle Definition: Fatigue dominated by plastic strain with failure in less than 10,000 cycles Morphology: Rough fracture surface Cause: High bending stress. Low toughness Remedy: Reduce bending stress. Increase toughness. Use proper microstructure. Class/Mode: Cracking/hardening cracks Definition: Cracking in gears during or after heat treating Morphology: Intergranular cracks running from surface toward center of mass Cause: Thermal stresses due to nonuniform heating or cooling Remedy: Use proper heat treatment. Avoid stress concentrations. Class/Mode: Cracking/grinding cracks Definition: Cracking of tooth surfaces during or after grinding Morphology: Fine shallow cracks in parallel or crazed mesh pattern Cause: Excessive heat or stress due to grinding. Sensitive microstructure. Remedy: Use proper grinding technique. Use proper microstructure. Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropitting Definition: Cracking and detachment of surface fragments due to cyclic Hertzian stresses Morphology: Pits on active tooth surface. Cracks at boundaries of pits. Beach marks in craters Cause: High contact stress. Low fatigue strength. Inadequate specific film thickness Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue strength. Increase specific film thickness. 12 Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(6) December 2002 (continued) How To Analyze Gear Failures gearbox assembly drawings with the technician, checking for potential disassembly problems. Verify that the work will be done in a clean, well- lighted area, protected from the ele- ments, and that all necessary tools are available. If working conditions are not suitable, find an alternate location for gearbox disassembly. Because technicians usually are trained to work quickly, it is wise to remind him or her that disassembly must be done slowly and carefully. After the external examination, thoroughly clean the exterior of the gearbox to avoid contaminating the gearbox when opening it. Disassem- ble the gearbox and inspect all com- ponents, both failed and undamaged. Inspect Components Inspect Before Cleaning Mark rel ati ve positions of al l components before removing them. Do not throw away or clean any parts until they are examined thoroughly. If there are broken components, do not touch fracture surfaces or fit broken pieces together. If fractures cannot be examined immediately, coat them with oil and store the parts so fracture surfaces are not damaged. Examine functional surfaces of gear teeth and bearings and record their condition. Before cleaning the parts, look for signs of corrosion, contami- nation, and overheating. Inspect After Cleaning After the initial inspection, wash the components with solvents and re- examine them. This examination should be as thorough as possible because it is often the most important phase of the investigation and may yield valuable clues. A low-power magni- fying glass and 30 pocket microscope are helpful tools for this examination. It is important to inspect bearings because they often provide clues to the cause of gear failure. For example: Bearing wear can cause excessive radial clearance or endplay that misaligns gears. Bearing damage may i ndicate corrosion, contamination, electrical discharge, or lack of lubrication. Plastic deformation between rollers and raceways may indicate over- loads. Gear failure often follows bearing failure. Document Observations Identify and mark each component (including gear teeth and bearing components) so it is clearly identified in written descriptions, sketches, and photographs. It is especially impor- tant to mark all bearings, including inboard and outboard sides, so their locations and positions in the gearbox are identified. Describe components consistently. For example, always start with the Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/high-cycle Definition: Fatigue dominated by elastic strain with failure in more than 10,000 cycles Morphology: Smooth fracture surface with beach or ratchet marks. Scanning electron microscopy may show striations. Cause: High bending stress. Low fatigue strength Remedy: Reduce bending stress. Increase fatigue strength. Use proper microstructure. Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/high-cycle/root fillet cracks Definition: High-cycle fatigue with cracks in root fillets Morphology: Crack across base of tooth. Origin on root fillet at point of max bending stress Cause: High bending stress. Low fatigue strength Remedy: Reduce bending stress. Increase fatigue strength. Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/high-cycle/profile cracks Definition: High cycle fatigue with cracks on active surface of teeth Morphology: Crack on active profile. Origin at stress concentration or flaw Cause: Stress concentration due to macropits, material flaws, or preexisting cracks Remedy: Avoid stress concentration. Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue strength. Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropittting/ nonprogressive Definition: Macropits that arrest after high asperities are removed and load is more uniform Morphology: Localized pits less than 1 mm diam. Cause: Load concentration on high asperities Remedy: Self limiting. To avoid, improve accuracy and reduce surface roughness. 13 Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(6) December 2002 same part of a bearing and progress through the parts in the same se- quence. This helps to avoid over- looking any evidence. Describe important observations in writing using sketches and photo- graphs where needed. The following guidelines help maximize the chances for obtaining meaningful evidence: Concentrate on collecting evidence, not on determining cause of failure. Regardless of how obvious the cause may appear, do not form conclusions until all evidence is considered. Document what is visible. List all obser vations even if some seem insignificant or if the failure mode is not easily recognizable. Remem- ber there is a reason for everything, and some details may become im- portant later when all the evidence is considered. Document what is not visible. This step is helpful to eliminate certain failure modes and causes. For ex- ample, if there is no scuffing, it can be concluded that gear tooth contact temperature was less than the scuff- ing temperature of the lubricant. Search the bottom of the gearbox. Often, this is where the best- preserved evidence is found, such as when a tooth fractures and falls free without secondary damage. Use time efficiently. Be prepared for the inspection. Plan work carefully to obtain as much evidence as possible. Do not be distracted by anyone. Control the investigation. Watch every step of the disassembly. Do not let the technician proceed too quickly. Disassembly should stop while the analyst inspects and documents the condition of a com- ponent; then move on to the next component. Insist on privacy. Do not let anyone distract attention from the investi- gation. If asked about conclusions, answer that conclusions are not formed until the investigation is complete. Gather Gear Geometry The load capacity of the gears should be calculated. For this purpose, obtain the following geometry data from the gears and housing or drawings: Number of teeth Outside diameter Face width Gear housing center distance Whole depth of teeth Tooth thickness (both span and topland thickness) Specimens for Laboratory Tests During inspection, the analyst will begin to formulate hypotheses regard- ing the cause of failure. With these hypotheses in mind, select specimens for laboratory testing. Take broken parts for laboratory evaluation or, if this is not possible, preserve them for later analysis. Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/ rippling Definition: Periodic, wavelike deformation on active tooth surface Morphology: Fish-scale appearance. Peaks of waves perpendicular to direction of sliding Cause: Subsurface yielding due to high contact stress and boundary lubrication Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase yield strength. Increase specific film thickness. Class/Mode: Cracking/rim and web cracks Definition: Cracking in rim or web of gear body Morphology: Radial cracks through gear rim or in web. Usually start at stress concentration Cause: Rim or web too thin. Stress concentra- tion. Resonance of gear body Remedy: Use proper rim and web thickness. Avoid stress concentration. Avoid resonance. Class/Mode: Scuffing Definition: Severe adhesion and transfer of metal between teeth due to welding and tearing Morphology: Rough, matte streaks along direction of sliding in addenda, dedenda, or both Cause: Tooth contact temperature exceeds scuffing temperature of lubricant. Remedy: Reduce contact temperature. Use high- viscosity antiscuff oil. Improve cooling. Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropitting/ progressive Definition: Macropits that grow in size and number with operation Morphology: Pits larger than one mm covering a significant area of active tooth surface Cause: High contact stress. Low fatigue strength. Inadequate specific film thickness Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue strength. Increase specific film thickness. 14 Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(6) December 2002 (continued) How To Analyze Gear Failures Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropitting/ spall Definition: Progressive macropitting with pits that coalesce Morphology: Irregular craters covering a significant area of active tooth surface Cause: High contact stress. Low fatigue strength. Inadequate specific film thickness Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue strength. Increase specific film thickness. Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropitting/ flake Definition: Progressive macropitting causing thin flakes of material to break out Morphology: Large, shallow pits. Fan-shaped cracks grow from origin and separate thin flakes. Cause: High contact stress. Low fatigue strength. Inadequate specific film thickness Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue strength. Increase specific film thickness. Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/micropitting Definition: Cracking and detachment of surface asperities Morphology: Frosted, matte or gray-stained active tooth surface. Scanning electron microscopy shows pits <20 mm deep. Cause: Inadequate specific film thickness. Oil with inadequate micropitting resistance Remedy: Increase specific film thickness. Use oil with high micropitting resistance. Class/Mode: Cracking/case-core separation Definition: Internal cracks that cause corners, edges, or tips of teeth to separate Morphology: Fracture surfaces exhibit characteristics of brittle fracture. Cause: High residual tensile stress at case-core interface due to excessive case depth Remedy: Use proper case depth. Temper immediately after quenching. Avoid sharp edges. After the inspection is completed, be sure all parts are coated with oil and stored properly so that corrosion or damage will not occur. Oil samples can be very helpful. However, an effective analysis depends on how well the sample represents the operating lubricant. To take samples from the gearbox drain valve, first discard stagnant oil from the valve. Then, take a sample at the start, mid- dle, and end of the drain to avoid stratification. To sample from the storage drum or reservoir, draw sam- ples from the top, middle, and near Class/Mode: Wear/cavitation Definition: Deformation and detachment of surface fragments due to collapsing vapor bubbles Morphology: Pitted as if sandblasted. Scanning electron microscopy shows deep, rough, clean, honeycomb craters. Cause: Nucleation and implosion of gas-filled bubbles within lubricant Remedy: Reduce speed. Avoid vibration. Class/Mode: Wear/electric discharge Definition: Damage due to electric arc discharge across oil film between active tooth surfaces Morphology: Pitted surface. Scanning electron microscopy shows small hemispherical craters and melted metal spheres. Cause: Electric current through the gear mesh Remedy: Use electrical insulation or grounding. Avoid welding near gears. the bottom. These samples can un- cover problems such as excessive water in the oil due to improper storage. Ask whether there are new, unused components. These parts are helpful to compare with failed parts. Simi- larl y, compare a sample of fresh lubricant to used lubricant. Do You Have It All? Before leaving the site, be sure that all necessary itemscompleted in- spection forms, written descriptions and sketches, photos, and test speci- menshave been collected. It is best to devote two days mini- mum for the failure inspection. This affords time after the first-day in- spection to review the inspection and analyze collected data. Often, the initial inspection discloses a need for other data, which can be gathered on the second day. Determine Failure Mode Now it is time to examine all infor- mation and determine how the gears failed. 15 Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(6) December 2002 Class/Mode: Wear/corrosion Definition: Chemical or electrochemical reaction between a gear and its environment Morphology: Stained or rusty surfaces with reddish-brown deposits. Scanning electron microscopy shows etch pits. Cause: Contamination by acid or water. Overly reactive antiscuff additives Remedy: Remove contaminants. Drain, flush, and replace oil. Class/Mode: Wearing/fretting corrosion Definition: Deterioration of active tooth surface caused by minute vibratory motion Morphology: Ruts along lines of contact. Reddish-brown wear debris. X-ray diffraction shows a -Fe 2 O 3 . Cause: Vibration during non-rotation Remedy: Avoid vibration or rotate gears. Class/Mode: Wear/polishing Definition: Fine-scale abrasion promoted by chemically reactive antiscuff additives Morphology: Mirrorlike finish. Smooth or wavy surface. Scanning electron microscopy shows fine scratches. Cause: Formation of additive films and removal of films by fine abrasives Remedy: Use less chemically active additives. Remove abrasives. Modes of Failure Several failure modes may be pres- ent, and the primary mode and secon- dary modes (modes that are conse- quences of the primary mode, and which may or may not have contri- buted to the failure) must be iden- tified. Six general classes of gear failure modes are: Overload Bending fatigue Hertzian fatigue Wear Scuffing Cracking An understanding of these modes will enable identification of the cause of failure. Tests and Calculations In many cases, failed parts and in- spection data do not yield enough infor- mation to determine the cause of fail- ure. When this happens, gear design calculations and laboratory tests are necessary to develop and confirm a hypothesis for the probable cause. Gear Design Calculations Gear geometry data aids in esti- mating tooth contact stress, bending stress, lubricant film thickness, and gear tooth contact temperature based on transmitted loads. Calculate values according to American Gear Manu- facturers Association (AGMA) stan- dards such as ANSI/AGMA 2001. Compare calcul ated values with AGMA allowable values to help determine risks of micropitting, macropitting, bending fatigue, and scuffing. Laboratory Examination and Tests Microscopic examination may con- firm the failure mode or find the origin of a fatigue crack. Light micro- scopes and scanning electron micro- scopes (SEM) are useful for this pur- pose. A SEM with energy-dispersive x- ray is especially useful for identifying corrosion, contamination, or inclusions. If the primary failure mode is like- ly to be influenced by gear geometry or metallurgical properties, check for any geometric or metallurgical defects that may have contributed to the failure. For example, if tooth contact patterns indicate misalignment or interference, inspect the gear for accuracy on gear inspection machines. Conversely, where contact patterns indicate good alignment and loads are within rated gear capacity, check teeth for metallurgical defects. Conduct nondestructive tests be- fore any destructive tests. These non- destructive tests, which aid in detect- ing material or manufacturing defects and provide rating information, include: Surface hardness and roughness Magnetic particle inspection Acid etch inspection Gear tooth accuracy inspection Then, conduct destructive tests to evaluate material and heat treatment. These tests include: Microhardness survey Microstructural determination using acid etches Determination of grain size Determinati on of nonmetall ic inclusions Scanning electron microscopy to study fracture surfaces Form and Test Conclusions When all calculations and tests are completed, the analyst should form one or more hypotheses for the probable cause of failure, then deter- 16 Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(6) December 2002 (continued) How To Analyze Gear Failures mine whether the evidence supports or disproves the hypotheses. Evaluate all evidence that was gathered, including: Documentary evidence and service history Statements from witnesses Written descriptions, sketches, and photos Gear geometry and contact patterns Gear design calculations Laboratory data for materials and lubricant Results of this evaluation may make it necessary to modify or abandon initial hypotheses or pursue new lines of investigation. Robert Errichello, GEARTECH, 100 Bushbuck Road, Townsend, MT 59644. Contact e-mail: RLEgears@ aol.com. Finally, after thoroughly testing the hypotheses against the evidence, a con- clusion will be reached regarding the most probable cause of failure. In addition, secondary factors that con- tributed to the failure may be identified. Report Results The failure analysis report should describe al l relevant facts found during analysis, inspections and tests, weighing of evidence, conclusions, and recommendations. Present data suc- cinctly, preferably in tables or figures. Good photos are especially helpful for portraying failure characteristics. If possible, include recommendations for repairing equipment or making changes in equipment design, manu- facturing, or operation to prevent future failures. Selected References R. Errichello and J. Muller: How to Analyze Gear Failures, Power Trans- mission Design, March 1994, 36(3), pp. 35- 40. R. Errichello: Analysis Techniques End Gear Damage, Power Transmission Design, March 1995, 37(3), pp. 23-26. ASM Handbook of Case Histories in Failure Analysis, Vol. 1 and Vol. 2 Learn how others have solved common and uncommon failures in various industries such as automotive, aerospace, utilities, oil and gas, petrochemical, biomedical, ground transportation, off-highway vehicles, and more. Each case history adheres to a standard format that guides you step-by-step through the failure investigation. Volume 1 1992 504 pages ISBN: 0-87170-453-6 Contains 115 never-before-published case studies conducted by experts worldwide. Order #06340G-RPADPFAJ Price: $174.00 ASM Member $140.00 Volume 2 1993 583 pages ISBN: 0-87170-495-1 Presents more than 120 case histories. Order #06410G-RPADPFAJ Price: $174.00 ASM Member $140.00 SET SALE Order #06391G-RPADPFAJ 2-Volume Set $307.00 ASM Member $246.00 Ordering Information: Call ASM Customer Service Center, toll-free 800/336-5152, ext. 5900 OR 440/338-5151, ext. 5900. Fax: ASM International, Attn: Customer Service Center: 440/338-4634. Online: Visit the ASM website at: www.asminternational.org. Edited by Khlefa A. Esaklul ASM Publication
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