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Heat transfer and efficiency

Heat can be transferred from place to place by conduction
[conduction: The transfer of heat energy through a material - without
the material itself moving. ], convection [convection: The transfer of
heat energy through a moving liquid or gas. ] and radiation [infrared
radiation: Electromagnetic radiation emitted from a hot object. ]. Dark
matt surfaces are better at absorbing heat energy than light shiny
surfaces. Heat energy can be lost from homes in many different
ways and there are ways of reducing these heat losses.
There are several different types of energy, and these can be
transferred from one type to another. Energy transfer diagrams
show the energy transfers in a process. More efficient devices
transfer the energy supplied to them into a greater proportion of
useful energy than less efficient devices do.
Heat transfer by conduction and convection
Heat is thermal energy. It can be transferred from one place to another
by conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction and convection
involve particles, but radiation involves electromagnetic waves.
Conduction

Thermogram of a pan being heated on a stove
Heat energy can move through a substance by conduction. Metals are
good conductors of heat, but non-metals and gases are usually poor
conductors of heat. Poor conductors of heat are called insulators. Heat
energy is conducted from the hot end of an object to the cold end.
The electrons in piece of metal can leave their atoms and move about in
the metal as free electrons. The parts of the metal atoms left behind are
now charged metal ions. The ions are packed closely together and they
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vibrate continually. The hotter the metal, the more kinetic energy these
vibrations have. This kinetic energy is transferred from hot parts of the
metal to cooler parts by the free electrons. These move through the
structure of the metal, colliding with ions as they go.
Heat transfer by conduction



Heat transfer by conduction



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Heat transfer by conduction


Convection
Liquids and gases are fluids. The particles in these fluids can move from
place to place. Convection occurs when particles with a lot of heat
energy in a liquid or gas move and take the place of particles with less
heat energy. Heat energy is transferred from hot places to cooler places
by convection.
Liquids and gases expand when they are heated. This is because the
particles in liquids and gases move faster when they are heated than
they do when they are cold. As a result, the particles take up more
volume. This is because the gap between particles widens, while the
particles themselves stay the same size.
The liquid or gas in hot areas is less dense than the liquid or gas in cold
areas, so it rises into the cold areas. The denser cold liquid or gas falls
into the warm areas. In this way, convection currents that transfer heat
from place to place are set up.
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Heat transfer by radiation
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Radiation
All objects give out and take in thermal radiation, which is also called
infrared radiation. The hotter an object is, the more infrared radiation it
emits.

Light from the sun reaching earth
Infrared radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation that involves
waves. No particles are involved, unlike in the processes of conduction
and convection, so radiation can even work through the vacuum of
space. This is why we can still feel the heat of the Sun, although it is 150
million km away from the Earth.
Some surfaces are better than others at reflecting and absorbing infrared
radiation.
Comparison of surfaces abilities to reflect and absorb radiation
colour finish ability to emit thermal
radiation
ability to absorb thermal
radiation
dark dull or
matt
good good
light shiny poor poor
If two objects made from the same material have identical volumes, a
thin, flat object will radiate heat energy faster than a fat object. This is
one reason why domestic radiators are thin and flat. Radiators are often
painted with white gloss paint. They would be better at radiating heat if
they were painted with black matt paint, but in fact, despite their name,
radiators transfer most of their heat to a room by convection.
Reducing heat loss
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You should be able to describe how heat energy is lost from buildings
and to explain how these losses can be reduced.
Heat escape routes
Take a look at this image showing heat loss from a house.

Most household heat is lost through the windows and roof
Heat is lost:
through the roof
through windows
through gaps around the door
through the walls
through the floor
Heat energy is transferred from homes by conduction [conduction: The
transfer of heat energy through a material - without the material itself
moving. ] through the walls, floor, roof and windows. It is also transferred
from homes by convection [convection: The transfer of heat energy
through a moving liquid or gas. ]. For example, cold air can enter the
house through gaps in doors and windows, and convection currents can
transfer heat energy in the loft to the roof tiles. Heat energy also leaves
the house by radiation through the walls, roof and windows.
Ways to reduce heat loss
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There are some simple ways to reduce heat loss, including fitting
carpets, curtains and draught excluders.
Heat loss through windows can be reduced using double glazing. The
gap between the two panes of glass is filled with air. Heat loss through
conduction is reduced, as air is a poor conductor of heat. Heat transfer
by convection currents is also reduced by making the gap is very narrow.
Watch
You may wish to view this BBC News item from 2006 about energy
efficiency in homes.
Watch
Heat loss through walls can be reduced using cavity wall insulation. This
involves blowing insulating material into the gap between the brick and
the inside wall, which reduces the heat loss by conduction. The material
also prevents air circulating inside the cavity, therefore reducing heat
loss by convection.
Heat loss through the roof can be reduced by laying loft insulation. This
works in a similar way to cavity wall insulation.
Forms of energy
You should be able to recognise the main types of energy. One way to
remember the different types of energy is to learn this sentence:
Most Kids Hate Learning GCSE Energy Names
Each capital letter is the first letter in the name of a type of energy.
Types of energy
Type of energy Description
Magnetic Energy in magnets and electromagnets
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Type of energy Description

Magnet
Kinetic

A bullet cutting a playing card
The energy in moving objects. Also called movement
energy.
Heat

Also called thermal energy
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Type of energy Description
Burning match
Light

Sunlight
Also called radiant energy
Gravitational potential

Sky divers
Stored energy in raised objects
Chemical Stored energy in fuel, foods and batteries
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Type of energy Description

Organic food
Sound

Guitar
Energy released by vibrating objects
Electrical

Energy in moving or static electric charges
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Type of energy Description
Lightning
Elastic potential

Catapult
Stored energy in stretched or squashed objects
Nuclear

Nuclear fuel assembly
Stored in the nuclei of atoms
Energy transfer
You should recall from your Key Stage 3 studies how to draw and
interpret an energy transfer diagram.
Different types of energy can be transferred from one type to another.
Energy transfer diagrams show each type of energy, whether it is stored
or not, and the processes taking place as it is transferred. Sankey
diagrams also show the relative amounts of each type of energy.
Energy transfer diagrams
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This energy transfer diagram shows the useful energy transfer in a car
engine. You can see that a car engine transfers chemical energy, which
is stored in the fuel, into kinetic energy in the engine and wheels.

Process of using chemical energy
This diagram shows the energy transfer diagram for the useful energy
transfer in an electric lamp. You can see that the electric lamp transfers
or converts electrical energy into light energy.

Process of using electrical energy
Notice that these energy transfer diagrams only show the useful energy
transfers. However, car engines are also noisy and hot, and electric
lamps also give out heat energy.
Sankey diagrams
Sankey diagrams summarise all the energy transfers taking place in a
process. The thicker the line or arrow, the greater the amount of energy
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involved. The Sankey diagram for an electric lamp below shows that
most of the electrical energy is transferred as heat rather than light.

Sankey diagram for a filament lamp
Efficiency
You should know that energy can be 'wasted' during energy transfers,
and you should be able to calculate the efficiencyefficiency: The fraction
of the energy supplied to a device which is transferred in a useful form.
of a device.
'Wasted' energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be transferred from
one form to another or moved. Energy that is 'wasted', like the heat
energy from an electric lamp, does not disappear. Instead, it is
transferred into the surroundings and spreads out so much that it
becomes very difficult to do anything useful with it.
Electric lamps
Ordinary electric lamps contain a thin metal filament that glows when
electricity passes through it. However, most of the electrical energy is
transferred as heat energy instead of light energy. This is the Sankey
diagram for a typical filament lamp.
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Sankey diagram for a filament lamp
Modern energy-saving lamps work in a different way. They transfer a
greater proportion of electrical energy as light energy. This is the Sankey
diagram for a typical energy-saving lamp.

Sankey diagram for a typical energy-saving lamp
From the diagram, you can see that much less electrical energy is
transferred, or 'wasted', as heat energy.
Calculating efficiency
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The efficiency of a device such as a lamp can be calculated using this
equation:
efficiency = ( useful energy transferred energy supplied ) 100
The efficiency of the filament lamp is (10 100) 100 = 10%.
This means that 10% of the electrical energy supplied is transferred as
light energy (90% is transferred as heat energy).
The efficiency of the energy-saving lamp is (75 100) 100 = 75%. This
means that 75% of the electrical energy supplied is transferred as light
energy (25% is transferred as heat energy).
Note that the efficiency of a device will always be less than 100%.

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Thermal Insulation Prevents Heat From
Escaping
by Ron Kurtus (revised 29 April 2006)
Thermal insulation is the method of preventing heat from escaping a container or from
entering the container.
In other words, thermal insulation can keep an enclosed area such as a building warm, or it
can keep the inside of a container cold. Heat is transferred by from one material to another
by conduction, convection and/or radiation. Insulators are used to minimize that transfer of
heat energy. In home insulation, the R-value is an indication of how well a material
insulates.
Questions you may have include:
Where is thermal insulation used?
How does insulation work?
What is the R-value?
This lesson will answer those questions. Useful tool: Units Conversion


Where thermal insulation is used
If you have an object or area that is at a certain temperature, you may want to prevent that
material from becoming the same temperature as neighboring materials. This is usually
done by employing a thermal insulation barrier.
For example:
If the air outside is cold, you may want to protect your skin by wearing clothes that
keep the cold out and the body warmth in.
If your house has cool air inside during the summer, you may want to prevent the
temperature from becoming the same as the hot air outside by having the house well
insulated.
If you have a hot drink, you may want to prevent it from becoming room
temperature by putting it in a thermos bottle.
In any location where there are materials of two drastically different temperatures, you may
want to provide an insulating barrier to prevent one from becoming the same temperature
as the other. In such situations, the effort is to minimize the transfer of heat from one area
to another.
How insulation works
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Insulation is a barrier that minimizes the transfer of heat energy from one material to
another by reducing the conduction, convection and/or radiation effects.
Insulating materials
Most insulation is used to prevent the conduction of heat. In some cases radiation is a
factor. A good insulator is obviously a poor conductor.
Less dense materials are better insulators. The denser the material, the closer its atoms are
together. That means the transfer of energy of one atom to the next is more effective.
Thus, gases insulate better than liquids, which in turn insulate better than solids.
An interesting fact is that poor conductors of electricity are also poor heat conductors. Wood
is a much better insulator than copper. The reason is that metals that conduct electricity
allow free electrons to roam through the material. This enhances the transfer of energy
from one area to another in the metal. Without this ability, the material--like wood--does
not conduct heat well.
Insulation from conduction
Conduction occurs when materialsespecially solidsare in direct contact with each other.
High kinetic energy atoms and molecules bump into their neighbors, increasing the
neighbor's energy. This increase in energy can flow through materials and from one material
to another.
Solid to solid
To slow down the transfer of heat by conduction from one solid to another, materials that
are poor conductors are placed in between the solids. Examples include:
Fiberglass is not a good conductor nor is air. That is why bundles of loosely packed
fiberglass strands are often used as insulation between the outer and inner walls of a
house.
Conductive heat cannot travel though a vacuum. That is why a thermos bottle has an
evacuated lining. This type of heat cannot be transferred from one layer to the other
through the thermos bottle vacuum.
Gas to solid
To slow down the heat transfer between air and a solid, a poor conductor of heat is placed
in between.
A good example of this is placing a layer of clothing between you and the cold outside air in
the winter. If the cold air was in contact with your skin, it would lower the skin's
temperature. The clothing slows down that heat loss. Also, the clothing prevents body heat
from leaving and being lost to the cold air.
Liquid to solid
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Likewise, when you swim in water, cold water can lower your body temperature through
conduction. That is why some swimmers wear rubber wet suits to insulate them from the
cold water.
Insulation from convection
Convection is transfer of heat when a fluid is in motion. Since air and water do not readily
conduct heat, they often transfer heat (or cold) through their motion. A fan-driven furnace
is an example of this.
Insulation from heat transfer by convection is usually done by either preventing the motion
of the fluid or protecting from the convection. Wearing protective clothing on a cold, windy
day will inhibit the loss of heat due to convection.
Insulation from radiation
Hot and even warm objects radiate infra-red electromagnetic waves, which can heat up
objects at a distance, as well as lose energy themselves. Insulation against heat transfer by
radiation is usually done by using reflective materials.
A thermos bottle not only has an evacuated lining to prevent heat transfer by conduction,
but it also is made of shiny material to prevent radiation heat transfer. Radiation from warm
food inside the thermos bottle is reflected back to itself. Radiation from warm outside
material is reflected to prevent heating cold liquids inside the bottle.
R-value
The R-value of a material is its resistance to heat flow and is an indication of its ability to
insulate. It is used as a standard way of telling how good a material will insulate.The higher
the R-value, the better the insulation.
Definition
The R-value is the reciprocal of the amount of heat energy per area of material per degree
difference between the outside and inside. Its units of measurement for R-value are:
(square feet x hour x degree F)/BTU in the English system and
(square meters x degrees C)/watts in the metric system
Table
Insulation for the home has R-values usually in the range of R-10 up to R-30.
The following is a listing of different materials with the English measurement of R-value:
Material R-value
Hardwood siding (1 in. thick) 0.91
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Wood shingles (lapped) 0.87
Brick (4 in. thick) 4.00
Concrete block (filled cores) 1.93
Fiberglass batting (3.5 in. thick) 10.90
Fiberglass batting (6 in. thick) 18.80
Fiberglass board (1 in. thick) 4.35
Cellulose fiber (1 in. thick) 3.70
Flat glass (0.125 in thick) 0.89
Insulating glass (0.25 in space) 1.54
Air space (3.5 in. thick) 1.01
Free stagnant air layer 0.17
Drywall (0.5 in. thick) 0.45
Sheathing (0.5 in. thick) 1.32
Reference Hyperphysics Georgia State University
The R-value is proportional to the thickness of the material. For example, if you doubled the
thickness, the R-value doubles.
Summary
Thermal insulation is used minimize the heat transfer in many everyday situations. It is
done by reducing conduction, convection and/or radiation effects. The R-value is a standard
of measurement of this insulation.