Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
i
Synopsis
Background
As of October 2009 the UK reached 4 GW of installed wind capacity. By 2012 it is expected
that there will be “12GW of wind schemes either operational, being built or already with
planning permission” [1].
Any future large installed capacity of wind power will need to provide essential system
ancillary services of which frequency response is one such service. Unlike conventional
synchronous based generating plant, modern wind turbines due to the nature of their power
electronic based interface do not, by default, provide inertial support during the initial stage of
a system frequency event.
Research Question
This PhD project focuses on the following two areas :
“What is the best method of implementing primary frequency response from the
planned future capacity of wind power ?”
“What are the effects on the wind turbine when providing this frequency response ?”
Planned Work
To address this question the planned work encompasses :
This report provides an overview of the initial work conducted in the first year which includes
a literature review, basic simulation and test rig construction.
Project Methodology
Desired system response
In order to ascertain what response is required from wind turbines it is necessary to review the
response which is provided by existing synchronous based generation plant. It seems reason-
able to assume that wind turbines will be required to emulate a response similar to the existing
response characteristic of synchronous plant. The current method of how frequency response
performance is maintained was reviewed.
A review of the UK grid connection code was undertaken. Existing intermittent generation
such as wind farms, classified as ‘Power Park Modules’ by National Grid Company, are not
required to provide frequency response although the capability must be present. It is noted
that sustained secondary frequency response would only be possible by operating a power
park at a sustained lower output during normal operation with an associated lower energy rev-
enue generation.
ii
Implementation of response
The report includes a review of the basic functioning of power electronic converter schemes
and common control methods for FPC and DFIG machines. These were found to be based
around vector and/or load angle control of generator-side and grid-side Voltage Source
Converters.
A simple scheme for primary frequency response by restoration of inertial response was
simulated. This was achieved by adding the negative rate of change of system frequency
processed via a 1st order delay, to the turbine torque setpoint. This method showed a
successful contribution to primary response by extraction of turbine kinetic energy.
Paper review discovered another author presenting an alternative method of implementing a
modified inertial response which maximised extracted kinetic energy.
The simulation undertaken used a high wind penetration scenario of 20GW of wind, operating
alongside 40GW of synchronous plant. All loads and generating plant used single lumped
equivalent models. Exploration of how a dispersed resource of wind farm capacity can best
provide primary frequency response will be investigated to include partitioning the wind tur-
bine capacity into a multi-machine model.
• Torque effects/oscillation
• Aerodynamic effects – may explore the possibility of using ‘GH BLADED’
• Converter ratings
Pendulum machine disturbance - Initial problems with unexplained shutdown of the DC Pen-
dulum machine controller were seen to disappear when the mains supply was fitted with a
smoothing reactor. However a small disturbance did once again occur (Nov 09) even with the
reactor fitted although this was not as severe are previously (machine continued to run).
AVR slew rate - The AVR component of the controller appears to have a slew rate limited in-
put which may cause problems in providing accurate voltage regulation of a synchronous gen-
erator when connected.
iii
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my supervisors Professor Nick Jenkins and Dr. Janaka Ekanayake for
their assistance, direction and encouragement.
Also I would like to acknowledge Dr.Nolan Caliao and Ajith Tennakoon for their work in
initial testing and commissioning of the wind turbine test rig.
Additionally thanks are due to Denley Slade and the staff in the Electronics Workshop for
their skills and efforts constructing the test rig and assistance in design.
iv
Contents
1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................2
1.1 Project Overview...............................................................................................................2
1.2 Motivation.........................................................................................................................2
1.2.1 Frequency Response Services....................................................................................3
1.2.2 Frequency Response from Wind Turbines.................................................................3
1.3 Objectives..........................................................................................................................4
2 Wind Turbine Generator Systems............................................................................................5
2.1 Energy Extraction.............................................................................................................5
2.2 Modes of Operation..........................................................................................................7
2.3 WT design features..........................................................................................................8
2.3.1 Fixed speed versus variable speed.............................................................................8
2.3.2 Power Control............................................................................................................8
2.3.3 Electro-mechanical coupling......................................................................................9
2.3.4 Mechanical Coupling.................................................................................................9
2.3.5 Other design features.................................................................................................9
2.4 Generator Types................................................................................................................9
2.4.1 Induction Generator...................................................................................................9
2.4.2 Doubly Fed Induction Generator.............................................................................10
2.4.3 Full Power Converter...............................................................................................11
2.5 Power Electronic Converter Fundamentals.....................................................................12
2.5.1 Converter Classification...........................................................................................12
2.5.2 Bridge Configurations..............................................................................................12
2.5.3 Square-wave Switching Scheme..............................................................................13
2.5.4 Pulse Width Modulation Switching Schemes..........................................................16
2.5.5 Back to Back Frequency Converter.........................................................................16
2.6 Electrical Machine Control............................................................................................18
2.6.1 Load Angle Control Theory.....................................................................................18
2.6.2 Vector Control..........................................................................................................19
2.7 Wind Turbine Generator Control Schemes.....................................................................22
2.7.1 Full Power Converters.............................................................................................22
2.7.1.1 Generator Side Control...................................................................................22
2.7.1.2 Grid Side Control............................................................................................25
2.7.2 Doubly Fed Induction Machines..............................................................................27
2.7.2.1 DFIG Control Scheme ...................................................................................27
2.7.2.2 Other DFIG Control Schemes.........................................................................28
3 Connection Requirements & Response Capability................................................................29
3.1 UK Requirements for grid connection............................................................................29
3.1.1 General.....................................................................................................................29
3.1.2 Steady State Reactive Power and Voltage Control..................................................30
3.1.3 Fault Ride Through Capability................................................................................31
3.1.4 Power System Stabiliser and Black Start Capability...............................................32
3.1.5 Frequency Response................................................................................................32
3.1.6 Reserve.....................................................................................................................34
3.2 Desired Response............................................................................................................35
3.2.1 NGC Benchmarking of Plant FR capability............................................................35
3.2.2 Performance of Synchronous Plant..........................................................................35
3.2.3 System Requirements for FR...................................................................................36
3.3 Primary Response Capability from WTs........................................................................37
v
3.3.1 Primary Frequency Response Schemes...................................................................37
3.3.2 Machine Effects & Converter Current Limits..........................................................41
3.4 Secondary Response Capability from WTs....................................................................43
3.4.1 Wind Farm Control Scheme....................................................................................43
3.4.2 Frequency Controller...............................................................................................44
4 Modelling...............................................................................................................................45
4.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................45
4.1.1 Equations of Motion.................................................................................................45
4.2 System Model.................................................................................................................47
4.2.1 Synchronous Plant Response...................................................................................48
4.2.2 Reduced Order Machine Model...............................................................................48
4.3 Control Scheme...............................................................................................................49
4.4 Simulink Model...............................................................................................................49
4.5 Setup................................................................................................................................50
4.6 Results.............................................................................................................................50
4.6.1 Open Loop Wind Turbine Response........................................................................50
4.6.2 Closed Loop Wind Turbine Response.....................................................................52
4.6.3 Wind Turbine and Synchronous Response..............................................................52
4.7 Simulation setup and results summary table...................................................................53
4.8 Discussion of results.......................................................................................................55
5 Experimental Wind Turbine Test Rig....................................................................................56
5.1 Overview.........................................................................................................................56
5.2 Design.............................................................................................................................58
5.2.1 DC Motor/ Pendulum Motor – Block A..................................................................58
5.2.2 Generator Machine – Block B.................................................................................60
5.2.3 Back to Back PWM converters – Block C & D.......................................................62
5.2.4 Generator and Grid Side Controller – Block E & F.................................................66
5.2.5 Power System – Block G.........................................................................................68
5.2.6 General Assembly and Connection..........................................................................68
5.2.7 Setup.........................................................................................................................69
5.3 Results.............................................................................................................................69
5.3.1 Measurement and Open Loop Control Test.............................................................69
5.3.2 Bridge Inverter Test.................................................................................................72
6 Further Work..........................................................................................................................75
6.1 Risks................................................................................................................................76
6.2 Gantt Chart......................................................................................................................76
7 Appendices.............................................................................................................................78
7.1 Simulations......................................................................................................................78
7.1.1 Simulation Baseline Record.....................................................................................78
7.1.2 Setup.........................................................................................................................79
7.1.3 M-Files.....................................................................................................................80
7.1.4 Model Parameters....................................................................................................87
7.2 Laplace Transformation..................................................................................................89
7.3 Experimental Test Rig....................................................................................................91
7.3.1 Procedure for Use.....................................................................................................91
7.3.2 Equipment Specifications........................................................................................92
..........................................................................................................................................97
7.3.3 Hardware Design......................................................................................................98
8 References............................................................................................................................104
vi
List of Abbreviations
1
1 Introduction
1.1 Project Overview
This report concentrates on the theory, simulation and planned experimental implementation
of Frequency Response (FR) from Power Converter based WTs which are currently the
favoured choice of technology for wind power plant.
This PhD forms part of the work of the FLEXNET project which is investigating the design,
operation and optimisation of the future electricity system for the UK.
For experimental work a 1kW laboratory based wind turbine test rig is being constructed at
Cardiff University for practical implementation of wind turbine power electronic controls and
evaluation of other novel machine/plant control schemes.
1.2 Motivation
Increasing worldwide demand for Energy, worries about depletion of existing fossil fuel
reserves, nuclear proliferation, economic security and, by no means least Climate Change, are
some of the main reasons for the planned expansion of the wind power sector in the UK and
worldwide.
For the UK which has a privatised electricity system, whether market based methods are used
or central planning, as is the case in some nationalised industries, uncertainty still exists in
regard to the future make-up of the electrical energy supply.
• Variability of output from the expansion of new Renewable sources such as wind
• Inflexibility of any future baseload Nuclear plant
• Declining indigenous Gas reserves
• Impetus to reduce CO2 emissions particularly from coal
As with some other forms of Renewables such as Solar, Wave and Tidal these forms of
Energy ‘harvesting’ are stochastic in nature and cannot be dispatched with the same ease as
conventional generating plant such as Coal, Gas and Hydro. Also of note is that much of these
Renewables are of a distributed nature and thus are of a smaller unit size and are
geographically dispersed.
Thus in general there is an impetus in the industry for requirements for more flexibility from
plant in terms of participating in provision of energy output, reactive power and additional
ancillary services due to this new power system topology.
For the UK in particular, the planned large scale expansion of wind power is necessitating
research into how this relatively new type of plant can be successfully integrated into the
electrical power system. Displacement of conventional plant under a large penetration of wind
will require some ancillary services to be provided from WTs, of which FR is one such
service.
2
1.2.1 Frequency Response Services
Figure 1.1 demonstrates what happens when a Frequency ‘event’ occurs on the electricity
network. These rare events when there is a sudden unexpected large deficit between load and
generation which can result in an unwanted drop in system frequency (potentially causing
system collapse). Immediately after the step imbalance, stored inertial energy in spinning
machinery begins to be consumed by the generators helping to maintain their electrical
output. After a short delay in response, conventional synchronous plant contracted to have
spare reserve power begin to open steam governors and thus increase the generator power
output. This then restores the frequency on a temporary basis until ‘secondary’ slower
response plant can come ‘on-line’.
Frequency (Hz)
continuous service
50.2 event
10 s 30 s 60 s
O time
49.8
49.5
For maximisation of energy capture and thus increased energy revenues, WT plant in the UK
would participate in only the ‘primary’ response shown in the figure above. This short term
response would only affect the energy output of the machine for up to 30 seconds.
(H
z)
• Converter based turbines have no natural inertia response, thus access to this
stored K.E will need to be enabled
• The quantity of WTs on the system will vary at different times, thus management
and dispatch of this response will
continuous service
event
be likely different to that from conventional
50.2
Synchronous plant 10 s 30 s 60 s
49.2
X
3
occasional services
to 30 min
primary secondary
response response
• Capability of WTs to provide this service, dynamic effects on their machines and
loads on the turbine from providing this response.
1.3 Objectives
This project aims to contribute to the subject of investigation of provision of FR from power
converter based wind turbines by :
4
2 Wind Turbine Generator Systems
The majority of WT capacity in existence today consists of machines in the range of 500kW
to 2MW, horizontal axis machines having two or three blades. These types of WTs are the
most common and are still the favoured choice for development with the trend being towards
even larger machines [3].
P = 1 2 ρ AU 3
air
where ρ is the air density, U is the wind speed, and A is the area swept by the wind turbine
blades.
However, the energy which can be extracted by the wind turbine is less than the available
energy in the wind and is given by
P = C P
m p air
Where Cp is called the power coefficient and depends on the tip speed ratio ρ which is the
ratio between the velocity of the rotor tip and wind speed defined by
ω rR
λ =
U
where ωr is the aerodynamic rotor speed and R is the radius of the rotor.
Cp has a theoretical maximum of 0.59 (known as the Betz limit) but will be typically up to 0.4
for a commercial 3-bladed turbine in operation.
For a given wind turbine design there is an optimum value of tip speed ratio λopt, which gives
the maximum power extraction. Figure 2.1 shows a typical performance curve for a modern
high-speed wind turbine, the maximum efficiency of the turbine of approximately 0.45
occurring at a tip speed ratio of 7.
5
Figure 2.1 – Variation of coefficient of power with tip speed ratio [4]
A principle cause of the variation of the efficiency of power extraction of the blade assembly
is due to the variation of the angle of attack α of a fixed blade with the incident wind. These
components are shown in Figure 2.2 where U is the wind perpendicular to the turbine axis, W
is the apparent wind relative to the rotating blade and β is the blade pitch angle. At a low tip
speed ratios the blade is in a stall condition, at higher tip speed ratio the blade has a low angle
of attack and drag effects predominate, both of these effects thus causing less than optimum
power extraction [4] .
If the operational speed of a turbine rotor is allowed to change in order to keep the tip speed
ratio more or less constant an increased quantity of energy can be captured compared to a
fixed speed machine. shows the set of torque speed curves which define the performance
characteristics for a wind turbine machine for different wind speeds. As expected higher wind
speeds result in a higher combination of torque and rotor speed hence giving a higher power
output. This product of torque and rotor speed gives rise to the maximum power curve shown.
6
14000
Generator torque[Nm]
Speed limit
12000 Aerodynamic torque
B
10000
A
8000 Curve for maximum 12 m/s
C
power 11 m/s
6000
10 m/s
4000 9 m/s
8 m/s
2000 7 m/s
6 m/s
Rotor speed [rpm]
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Figure 2.3 –Torque speed characteristics of a variable speed wind turbine [5]
7
Generator
Torque D E
Rated Torque
Shutdown Speed
C
Generator Speed
For a fixed speed WT the modes would be the same with the exception of the maximum
power tracking mode which would instead be replaced with a constant speed operational
mode.
Variable speed – By allowing a more constant tip-speed ratio the turbine can be operated to
extract more power from the wind. There is a trade-off between complexity and this extra
performance. This design requires a either a full power converter design to allow the shaft
speed to vary independently of grid frequency, or alternatively a partial power converter
design (DFIG) which allows a greater range of slip than a conventional IG machine. Typical
slip ranges achievable with this configuration are -40 to +30% [8]
A slight variation of the variable speed design is a wound rotor induction machine with a
variable resistance rotor. A commercial implementation of this is known as Opti-slip
manufactured by Vestas. This design can allow variations in speed of typically 0-10% above
synchronous speed [8]. Notably this design avoids the necessity for slip rings and their
associated maintenance by incorporating all of the switching components on the rotor.
8
2.3.3 Electro-mechanical coupling
Direct grid connection of a synchronous machine driven by a wind turbine rotor is not
possible as the relatively rigid electrical coupling would give rise to high mechanical stresses
and also unwanted variations in electrical output during aerodynamic disturbances. These
might include tower shadow effect. Hence IG based machines which have inherent damping
due to their slip operation, or alternatively full converter interfaced machine connection
topologies are used which are fully decoupled via a dc-link.
Direct drive – By using a large diameter machine with multiple poles a ‘gearless’ drive
arrangement is possible. This has reliability advantages as gearboxes have proved to be a
common failure in early turbines. These down-time and maintenance issues are especially
relevant for offshore turbines.
9
Soft-
starter
Squirrel-cage Capacitor
induction generator bank
Wound rotor
induction generator
Power Converter
Crowbar
10
2.4.3 Full Power Converter
A full power converter (FPC) based WT is shown in. By inserting a full bridge converter and
inverter between the electrical generator and the grid, complete rotational decoupling of the
turbine and grid system is accomplished. There is freedom to use an IG or SG machine. Also
if the generator requires no magnetizing current as in the case of a permanent magnet based
SG, the converter can be a simple diode bridge rectifier.
Induction/Synchronous
generator
Power converter
Benefits – Complete control of output to grid side and hence ease of compatibility with grid
connection requirements. Dc-link provides damping for torque oscillations caused by varying
windspeed.
11
2.5 Power Electronic Converter Fundamentals
Both the DFIG and FPC type of WT employ a power electronic assembly to convert from ac
to dc and back to ac. For the DFIG this synthesised ac waveform is used principally to enable
control of the rotor magnetisation current and hence overall control of the machine and power
export through the directly connected stator. For the FPC all of the power generated must pass
through the power electronic assembly. To obtain the complete ac to ac conversion two
individual converters are connected ‘back to back’ via a dc-link.
Two-level inverter
This is the simplest topology and is shown in Figure 2.8. It consists of three pairs of half
bridges a,b and c with a total of 6 semiconductor devices which are indicated in the figure as
simple switches.
Multi-stepped inverters
These use a greater number of switching devices to obtain a more accurate sinusoidal output,
an advantage being the reduced size of ac and dc filtering.
12
DC - Link
Upper
Va
Vdc
b
Lower c
General Rules
• Switches are either fully ON or OFF (this reduces switching losses)
• No two switches in the same half bridge can conduct at the same time. This would
be a short circuit of the DC supply with destructive currents and is known as
‘shoot-through’. For prevention of this scenario it is common practice for
switching logic to incorporate a ‘deadband’ period which enforces a delay period
between alternation of switching of the upper and lower bridge devices.
• When switching OFF a device, a path must be made for the conduction of the
inductive current in order to prevent overvoltage across the device and hence
destruction of the semiconductor switch. ‘Freewheeling’ diodes provide the path
for this current decay, ready for the reversal of direction of the current into the
opposite bridge leg.
13
• Since we are generating a.c signals current is expected to be always non zero so
the legs will switch alternately between upper ON and lower OFF and lower ON
and upper OFF.
Hence this scheme is implemented using the following sequence indicated in Table
2.1. This pattern alternately applies either +Vdc or –Vdc to a single phase in series with
the other two phases in parallel. Thus allowing conduction of current through the
upper device or the lower device and producing an alternating current. Voltages
developed across the phases are :
Table 2.1- Switching states and applied voltages for square-wave scheme
Half Bridge States Va Vb Vc Comment
Ua Ub Uc (of Vdc) (of Vdc) (of Vdc)
La Lb Lc
0 0 0 0 0 0 Three phases at same
potential. No freewheel
1 1 1 0 0 0
path.
OR
Invalid states.
1 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
All ON 0 0 0 Destructive short circuit
current. Invalid state.
All OFF Bridge idle
1 0 1 1/3 - 2/3 1/3 Valid State
0 1 0
1 0 0 2/3 - 1/3 - 1/3 Valid State
0 1 1
1 1 0 1/3 1/3 - 2/3 Valid State
0 0 1
0 1 0 -1/3 2/3 - 1/3 Valid Stat
1 0 1
0 1 1 -2/3 1/3 1/3 Valid State
1 0 0
0 0 1 -1/3 - 1/3 2/3 Valid State
1 1 0
14
The resulting applied voltage waveforms from this scheme are shown below in Figure 2.9.
Note that the upper gate drive switching signals are the same wave form shape as the voltages
developed Va0, Vb0 and Vc0. The lower gate drive signals are the inverse of these.
Va0 is the voltage of the mid point bridge of leg a with respect to a fictitious midpoint on the
DC supply voltage. Va is the phase voltage of phase ‘a’.
PI
+0.5
Vdc
Phase a
Va0
-0.5
Vdc
2 PI /3
+0.5
Vdc
Phase b
Vb0
-0.5
Vdc
+0.5
Vdc
Phase c
Vc0
-0.5
Vdc
Vdc
Vab
Vdc
Vbc
Vdc
Vca
2/3 Vdc
Va
1/3 Vdc
Figure 2.9 – Switching waveforms and applied voltage for square-wave scheme
15
Observations that can be made on this switching sequence are :
• Either the upper or lower switch must be ON and the other OFF as conduction in
one direction or the other is always required to fabricate the alternating current.
• Since we have 3 phases the resultant overlap means either 2 upper devices and 1
lower or vice-versa 1 top device and 2 lower devices must always be active. This
gives the resultant applied voltage to the phases as shown in the table.
This technique modulates the length of the ON pulse and thus provides voltage control of the
synthesized output. In its most basic format a switching duty cycle is output depending on the
desired ON-OFF time ratio. The frequency of repetition of this duty cycle is determined by
the ‘carrier wave’ frequency.
More advanced PWM based schemes can produce a greater accuracy in sinusoidal output
with reduced harmonic content. Two popular methods are listed below :
SPWM – Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation is a common technique which varies the output
pulse width in proportion to the magnitude of an internally generated sine-wave reference
signal. This scheme will synthesize a good approximation of a sine-wave when an inductive
load is connected to an inverter bridge. The switching signals and output waveform of such a
SPWM scheme are demonstrated in Figure 5.69.
SVM – Space Vector Modulation utilises the concept of a rotating space vector. Although
computationally intensive one of its benefits is that it can ‘optimise the harmonic content’ of
an isolated 3-ph neutral load. This is of relevance to machine loads as these are often do not
have the neutral connected [10].
16
Figure 2.10 – Back to back frequency converter
An observation of this circuit is that when equipped with MOSFET or IGBT devices, due to
the ‘body diode’ on each transistor the generator side (left hand side of Figure 2.10) switches
are able to freewheel and thus act as a diode bridge when power is required to flow from the
3-phase to the dc-link. The grid side switches of course require appropriately modulated gate
drive pulses in order to transfer current to the 3-phase grid side connection (right hand side of
Figure 2.10).
17
2.6 Electrical Machine Control
Two control methods which commonly appear in inverter bridge control schemes for use with
electrical machines are load angle control and vector control. For vector control use of the d-q
reference frame is necessary. These two control methods and the d-q reference frame are
discussed below.
VS jX VR
A)
i
Sending Source Receiving Source
A)
VS
jXI
B) δ
VR
φ
Figure 2.11 – Load angle power transfer (a) circuit and (b) phasor diagram
The relationship between power flows, angle and voltages can be derived as below :
*
V − VR
Complex power SS = VSIS* = VS S (2.1)
jX
18
VS* − VR* VS2 VS VR*
− j
− jX
= VS =j X X (2.2)
Therefore
VS V R
PS = sin δ (2.4)
X
VS2 VS VR
QS = − cos δ (2.5)
X X
where δ is the load angle, φ is the power factor angle, VS is the sending end voltage, VR is the
receiving end voltage and X is the inductive reactance between them.
The steady state active and reactive power flow equations (2.4) and (2.5) form the basis for
this control method whereby the voltage magnitude seen at the receiving end VR and the load
angle δ are controlled to provide the required real and reactive power flows.
For a VSC placed at the receiving end, the PWM reference sine wave and duty cycle can be
adjusted to give the required load angle and magnitude independently of the generator at the
sending end.
The per-phase equivalent machine circuit shown in Figure 2.12 for an IG is only valid for
steady-state conditions. For high performance control of a machine a controller based on
equations derived from this model is not sufficient.
19
Figure 2.12 – Equivalent circuit model of induction generator [11]
A 3-phase machine can be represented as an equivalent 2-phase machine with ds, qs being
direct and quadrature stator components and dr, qr being direct and quadrature rotor
components. These however still have time varying components.
Parks Transformation - R.H.Park in the 1920’s solved this problem by replacing the stator
voltages, currents and flux linkages instead with variables rotating at a synchronous speed in a
fictitious rotor winding. This is known as ‘Parks Transformation’. This transformation
eliminates time varying inductances. Later H.C Stanley and then Krause and Thomas ‘showed
that time varying inductances could be eliminated by referring the stator and rotor variables
to a common reference frame which may rotate at any speed (arbitrary reference frame)’ [10].
d-q reference frame – This final transformation leads to all the machine variables being
described in the d-q reference frame as shown in Figure 2.13 . The derivation of these
equations is too complicated for this report however the reader is referred to [12] and [13].
20
Vector Control (Field Oriented Control) - The basic idea behind vector control (which is also
known as field oriented control) is to force an IM to behave as a separately excited dc brushed
machine. By doing this electromagnetic torque can be made nearly instantaneously equal to a
demanded torque. Permutations of this control include stator flux-oriented, rotor flux-oriented
and air gap flux-oriented methods, of which all of these can be indirect or direct methods.
Direct and indirect methods refer to the necessity or not, for use of sensors to measure air gap
flux linkages [12].
Rotor Flux Oriented Control – This is one example of the possible vector control methods
and its application to an IM. In this control scheme the rotor flux linkage vector is kept
perpendicular to the rotor current vector. The vector diagram for this scheme is shown in .
Figure 2.14 – dq representation of stator and rotor currents with rotor flux orientation [7]
This alignment is accomplished by setting the q-axis rotor flux ψqr to zero and secondly by
setting the d-axis rotor current idr to zero. In terms of practical implementation, a result of this
control method is that :
• ‘torque control’ of the machine is determined by the q-axis stator current iqs
• ‘flux control’ (for control of voltage) is determined by ids.
Some coupling does exist between these d and q control terms which can be compensated for
in a practical control scheme.
21
2.7 Wind Turbine Generator Control Schemes
Examples of vector control schemes and load angle control schemes for WTs are shown in
this section. In all of these schemes the dc-link voltage is assumed to be regulated at a
constant voltage by managing the flow of real power from the generator to the grid by an
appropriate means. If this real power is not transferred there is a danger of the WT over-
speeding or the dc-link voltage rising to an excessively high value. This is a particular
problem during grid fault conditions when low grid-side terminal voltage can prevent export
of real power. Control of back-to-back converters can be split into grid-side and generator-
side control functions.
Load Angle Control – Figure 2.15 shows the implementation of this control strategy [14]. The
desired power Pref is determined by the turbine maximum power point look-up table. The
internal generator voltage eG is calculated from the rotor base speed ωb and the rated voltage
EG. Manipulation of these values gives inputs to the PWM control of angle control αG and
terminal voltage control vG.
P
ωr pref
pref xG
αG
αG = vds = 2vG sin α G
eG vG PWM
ω vqs = 2vG cos α G
vG control
r
ωr eG2 − qref xG
eG = EG vG =
ωb eG
Figure 2.15 – Generator side load angle control strategy for FPC
Vector Control for Synchronous Generator – A generator side vector control strategy is
shown for a synchronous based WT in Figure 2.16. This uses a d-axis defined along the flux
linkage vector ψm. In practical terms this means that if the flux linkage vector ψm is known,
the torque of the machine can be controlled by the q component of the stator current iqs.
Correspondingly control of the d component of the stator current ids exerts control of the
reactive power production of the generator. The two PI controllers scale the current demands
into suitable d and q components of voltage, for the VSC PWM control signals.
22
pGE
vqs Tin
SYN
VSC Swing equation
Generator
vds Te d
Tin − Te = J ωm
dt
Flux control in d-axis ids eG iqs ψ m
vds + ωm
KI
KP +
s + ids − ref
+ −
ids P 2
ω
X q iqs
ωb iqs ωr
ids
ω
eG − X d ids
ωb
eG
iqs ψm
vqs + −
K 1 Te − ref
+
KP + I
s +
. ωr
iqs − ref k ψm
Te − ref
Torque control in q-axis
Figure 2.16 – Generator side vector control strategy for a synchronous machine [14]
Vector Control for PM Synchronous Generator - For a permanent magnet machine the direct
stator current reference ids in Figure 2.16 can be set to zero as no reactive power is transferred.
Vector Control for Induction Generator – The generator side vector control strategy for an
induction generator based WT can be implemented by selecting the d-axis to align with the
rotor flux. Then by regulating the d axis stator current ids air gap flux is controlled and by
regulating the q axis stator current iqs torque is controlled. Such a control scheme is shown in
Figure 2.17. Since this is an asynchronous machine the VSC carrier frequency must be set
according to the desired slip s and actual rotor speed ωr as calculated.
23
Figure 2.17 – Generator side vector control for induction machine [9]
24
2.7.1.2 Grid Side Control
The grid side control scheme is required to transfer the power incoming from the generator
side VSC, out to the grid side. This ensures a constant dc-link voltage. Secondly the grid side
VSC must provide reactive power transfer as appropriate to its agreed grid connection. An
FPC connected to the grid is shown in Figure 2.18. Real power to transfer is Pgr and reactive
power to transfer is qGR. An inductive reactor Xgr is connected between the converter and the
WT terminal outputs, the terminal output voltage being v1
Load Angle Control – A control scheme to maintain correct real power export (and hence
regulate dc-link voltage) and also terminal voltage control is shown in Figure 2.19.
vdc
+ KI pGRref−
KP + θ
v DCref− − s
f ( pGR − ref , vs , θ )
vs
vGR
vsref
− +
−
K g ( qGR − ref , vs , θ )
KP + I
s qGRref−
25
Dc-link error and terminal voltage error are passed through PI controllers to produce
demanded values for real and reactive power transfer. These commanded values pass through
appropriate function to give the load angle setpoint θ and the converter terminal voltage vGR.
As the grid connection is an infinite bus vs cannot be changed.
Vector Control – This method seeks to control the grid side PWM converter by manipulating
the VSC output VGR and the terminal voltage VS in the dq reference frame. The scheme is
shown in Figure 2.20. Control of real power and reactive power are implemented by q axis
and d axis currents respectively.
vdc vqs
+ iq − ref +
− KI R-F K + vqGR
KP + KP + I
vDC − ref s Trns + − s
−
iq Xs
id Xs
+
vs − ref − +
K R-F + K vdGR
KP + I KP + I
+ Trns s
− s id − ref +
vs vds
Vector Control with AVR controlled dc-link - A slight variation on the basic vector control
method presented is when a wound rotor synchronous machine uses its AVR to maintain the
dc-link voltage. In this case the dc-link error summing point with PI control in the upper loop
of Figure 2.20 is replaced by a maximum power point reference and power summing point
instead [16].
26
2.7.2 Doubly Fed Induction Machines
A property of DFIG machines is that transfer of reactive power to the network is possible via
the rotor side converter or the stator side converter. The advantage of reactive power transfer
via the rotor is that it is magnified by a factor of 1/s. The converter is also capable of
transferring real power to the rotor from the network when in sub-synchronous operation and
from the rotor to the network in super-synchronous operation [7]. The schematic for a typical
DFIG and its overall control scheme is shown in Figure 2.21.
The crowbar protection shown operates by shorting the rotor through a resistance to protect
the rotor from over-current in a fault condition.
Generator Side Control – The generator side controller provides control of stator power ps
though torque control and additionally controls stator reactive power qs. Similar to vector
control implemented for FPC machines, by splitting the controlled current into the two
orthogonal components in the dq reference frame, individual control of torque and terminal
voltage is facilitated. In the case of the DFIG, the rotor currents idr and iqr are controlled as
opposed to the stator currents ids and iqs of a synchronous or singly fed induction machine.
This type of controller is also known as PVdq or current-mode control [7].
Implementation of the torque control loop is shown in Figure 2.22. Torque demand Tc from
the maximum power point curve (not shown) is summed with an optional term which
provides synthesis of the inertial action found in synchronous machines. The resulting torque
demand is converted to a rotor quadrature reference value whereby it is then summed with the
actual current value. This is then output through a PI control, summed with a decoupling term
and finally passed to rotor side VSC (not shown) as a q-axis voltage setpoint. Note that in this
figure, ς is the Laplace s constant.
27
Figure 2.22 – DFIG rotor side torque control loop [11]
Implementation of the voltage control loop is shown in Figure 2.23. The upper part of the
input to the first summing block represents the generator magnetising component of the idr
current. The lower part represents the component controlling reactive power flow with the
network [Cartwright]. After passing through a delay term, then summation with measured idr a
PI control converts the demanded current into a d-axis voltage term. After adding a
decoupling term the demanded Vdr is passed onto the VSC PWM input (not shown).
Grid Side Control - The grid-side controller maintains the dc-link voltage by import or export
of real power.
28
3 Connection Requirements & Response Capability
3.1 UK Requirements for grid connection
In order for plant operators to connect their generators to the electricity network whether at
distribution or transmission level the plant must comply with what are known as ‘Grid
Codes’. These specifications which are issued by the respective power system operator are
necessary so that plant behaves appropriately under all known operating conditions and also
abnormal conditions. For wind farms it is noted that the requirements apply at what is known
as the ‘Point of Connection’ where the aggregated power enters the network rather than the
individual WT terminals themselves. The following sub-sections concerning the UK grid-
codes are taken directly from [17]
3.1.1 General
The connection of new generation in Great Britain is governed by the Grid Codes of National
Grid plc [17]. A collection of non-synchronous generating units that are powered by an
intermittent source, joined together by a system with a single electrical point of connection
(may include a DC Converter) to the GB transmission system is categorised as a “Power Park
Module”. The Grid Code only applies to a Power Park Module such as a wind farm, not
individually to power park units (i.e. individual wind turbines). Almost all the performance
requirements that are mandatory for the power park module are applicable to modules
installed in England and Wales with a completion date on or after 1 January 2006. However,
the performance requirements applicable to power park modules in Scotland vary and the
Codes are under continual review. Therefore it is recommended to refer to the most up-to-date
Grid Codes.
For a Generating Unit or Power Park Module using an intermittent power source, the
requirement is that the active power output shall be independent of system frequency for
system frequency changes within the range 50.5 to 49.5 Hz and should not drop with system
frequency by greater than the amount specified in Figure 3.24 for system frequency changes
within the range 49.5 to 47 Hz.
100% of Active
power output
95% of Active
power output
47.0 49.5 50.5 Frequency
Figure 3.24 - Requirement placed on the output power of a generating plant in terms of
frequency [17]
29
At the point of connection the active power output under the steady state conditions of any
Generating Unit, DC Converter or Power Park Module directly connected to the GB
Transmission System should not be affected by voltage changes in the normal operating
range, that is ±5% continuously or ±10% for 15 minutes for 400 kV, ±10% continuously
for 275 or 132 kV and ±6% continuously for less than 132 kV.
All Power Park Modules (excluding those connected to the total system by a current source dc
converter and those connected at 33kV or below) must be capable of supplying rated MW
output at any point between the limits 0.95 power factor lagging and 0.95 power factor
leading. With all plant in service, the reactive power limits defined at lagging and leading
power factor as a function of the active power output are defined in Figure 3.25. These
reactive power limits will be reduced pro rata to the amount of plant in service.
The Power Park Modules are also required to provide continuously acting automatic voltage
control system to provide control of the voltage and operation of the plant without instability
over the entire operating range of the plant. The automatic control system shall be designed to
ensure smooth transition between the shaded area bounded by CD and the non-shaded area
bounded by AB in Figure 3.25.
Point A is equivalent (in MVAr) to: 0.95 leading Power Factor at Rated MW output
Point B is equivalent (in MVAr) to: 0.95 lagging Power Factor at Rated MW output
Point C is equivalent (in MVAr) to: -5% of Rated MW output
Point D is equivalent (in MVAr) to: +5% of Rated MW output
Point E is equivalent (in MVAr) to: -12% of Rated MW output
30
3.1.3 Fault Ride Through Capability
Each power park module and any constituent power park unit shall remain transiently stable
and connected to the system without tripping for a close-up solid three-phase short circuit
fault or any unbalanced short circuit fault on the GB transmission system operating at
voltages of 200 kV or above for a total fault clearance time of up to 140 ms. In this case,
(a) during the period of the fault each power park module shall generate maximum
reactive current without exceeding the transient rating limit of the generating unit
or power park module and/or any constituent power park unit.
(b) each power park module shall be designed such that upon both clearance of the
fault on the GB transmission system and within 0.5 seconds of the restoration of
the voltage at the grid entry point active power output shall be restored to at least
90% of the level available immediately before the fault.
shows the typical fault recovery for cases with two circuit breakers and three circuit breakers
(see top right hand corner of each diagram for the configuration).
Figure 3.26 - Typical fault recovery for two-ended and three-ended circuits [17]
For voltage dips of greater than 140 ms, each power park module and any constituent power
park unit shall remain transiently stable and connected to the system without tripping for
balanced voltage dips and associated durations any where on or above the solid line of Figure
3.27. In this case,
31
(a) provide active power output, during voltage dips at least in proportion to the
retained balanced voltage at the grid entry point except in the case of a
asynchronous generating unit or power park module where there has been a
reduction in the intermittent power source in the time range in Figure 3.27 that
restricts the active power output below this level and shall generate maximum
reactive current without exceeding the transient rating limits of t the generating
unit or power park module and/or any constituent power park unit.
(b) restore active power output within 1 second of restoration of the voltage to at least
90% of the level available immediately before the fault.
Voltage as a %
of nominal
Voltage duration
Figure 3.27 - Minimum voltage dips above which generators should be stable and connected
[17]
The requirements for excitation control facilities, including PSS can be agreed when signing
the bilateral agreement.
The GB Grid Code states that black start capability is agreed at a number of strategically
located power stations.
32
the solid boundaries, the power park module is providing response below the minimum
requirement which is not acceptable.
The capability profile specifies the minimum required level of primary, secondary and high
frequency response. The definitions of these responses are based on the curves shown in
Figure 3.29. The phrase “Minimum Generation (MG)” applies to the entire power park
module operating with all generating units synchronised to the system. The Designed
Minimum Operating Level (DMOL) is the output at which a power park module has no high
frequency response capability. It must be less than or equal to 55% of the registered capacity.
Figure 3.28 – Minimum frequency response profile for a ±0.5 Hz frequency change
[17]
33
Figure 3.29 - Interpretation of Primary, Secondary and High Frequency response [17]
3.1.6 Reserve
The power park modules are not obliged to provide reserve. However, the power park
modules can participate for providing fast reserve or short term reserve under an ancillary
services agreement or under a bilateral agreement. Definition of the two terms fast reserve
and short term reserve are as follows :
(a) Fast Reserve - provides the rapid and reliable delivery of active power through an
increased output from generation or a reduction in consumption from demand
sources, following receipt of an electronic dispatch instruction from National Grid.
(b) Short Term Operating Reserve - Short Term Operating Reserve (STOR) is a
service for the provision of additional active power from generation and/or
demand reduction. The STOR service could be a committed service or a flexible
service.
34
3.2 Desired Response
In order for continued operation of a future power system with a varying mix of wind power
and conventional synchronous plant, an assumption is made that any future wind capacity will
need to provide a primary response of a format similar to that required for existing
synchronous based generating plant. An important characteristic of primary response is that it
should be “released increasingly with time, through automatic governor action, in the period
10-30 seconds after the incident and sustained for a further 20 seconds.” [2].
The upper graph shows a negative system frequency deviation of 0.8Hz after 10 seconds and
0.5Hz after 60 seconds. The sample at 10 seconds being representative of a point in the
primary response period (0 to 30 seconds) and the 60 second point being representative of a
point in the secondary response period (30 seconds to 30 minutes).
The process of benchmarking a generating plant is outlined in [2]. The middle graph shows a
suitable frequency test waveform which might be input to a generator system. The lower
graph shows the positive power response which would be expected from a generating plant.
35
Figure 3.31- Typical Genset Frequency response profile [2]
These response profiles are of a similar format to minimum frequency response profiles as
specified in grid code requirements e.g Figure 3.28.
It is noted in [2] that due to the nature of ‘air breathing engines’ such as gas turbines, a drop
in frequency (i.e synchronous shaft speed) may effect such a plant’s capability to output a
positive power response.
If the ‘largest credible generation loss risk’ occurs, which is 1320MW, a similar quantity of
response to cover this loss is still needed to control the frequency deviation. Additionally
since there are less loads on the system any characteristic contribution from load reduction
due to frequency drop will be less. Other factors which contribute to this include low
frequency load tripping and speed of response of contributing generators. A similar need for
increasing response for lower system demand also occurs for the secondary response service
[2].
36
3.3 Primary Response Capability from WTs
3.3.1 Primary Frequency Response Schemes
Individual WT modelling
Figure 3.33 shows an overview of an example WT model used in frequency response
modelling. Included is a wind model, a two-mass model of the rotating components, and a
high level turbine controller principally for limitation of power capture at above rated speeds
consisting of a blade pitch angle control block.
Figure 3.34 – Block diagram of auxiliary torque/power signal for DFIG inertial response [20]
37
The differential gain term provides a torque in proportion to the rate of change of frequency
similar to the torque occurring in a synchronous machine due to inertial energy release. The
delay term provides ‘shaping’ of the response.
The performance of a 1.5 MW DFIG turbine with this FR loop, connected onto an 8MVA
stand-alone diesel system is shown in the graphs in Figure 3.35 for a disturbance of -0.15p.u
[20]. The solid line indicates the response with the WT FR loop included, the dashed line is
with no response from the WT. With the FR loop included the lower left graph shows a
constant slip angle during the frequency disturbance thus indicating that the turbine rotor
speed is now ‘coupled’ back to the system frequency. In the right-hand middle graph, the
improvement in performance of the system is evident from the reduction in ROCOF and also
the reduction in frequency excursion magnitude.
Figure 3.35- DFIG (at 100% power) response to a frequency disturbance with (solid) and
without (dashed) supplementary inertia effect [20]
38
Identical Inertial Restoration
A further refinement of the ‘delayed df/dt’ method is possible, in order to obtain an identical
SG type response, by dynamic modification of the gain value used for K. If slip is forced to
stay constant, because this is a variable speed turbine the K.E extracted for a particular change
in frequency will vary depending on the operating speed of the turbine. By suitably scaling
gain value K to depend on speed, the response loop can be shown to give a constant FR
contribution regardless of variations in operating speed [20].
The size of ∆T, on set of the ramping down, end of the response time t2 and quantity of K.E
extracted could be adjusted to suit the response required. In the paper ∆T was set at 20% and
the ramp down length (t2 – t1) to 10 seconds.
Figure 3.36- (a) Variation of aerodynamic torque with generator speed for wind speed = 11.5
m/s (rated power). (b) Stepwise torque method for FR. [20]
Results of this algorithm are shown in Figure 3.37. A sustained positive power response of
approximately 13 seconds is produced. At 15.6 seconds the electro-mechanical torque and the
aerodynamic torque become equal and the deceleration of the machine ends.
39
Figure 3.37- Performance of stepwise method for maximum K.E extraction [20]
Comparison of Schemes
The performance of three methods of inertial response from DFIG WTs is undertaken in [20]
and is presented in Figure 3.38.
• Power Control - dotted line. ‘Power control’ which limits the power increase to
10% and the net exchange of active power to zero. This is thought to be a scheme
which would be attractive from a power system operator’s perspective, although it
was noted that this scheme might cause turbine stall.
• Inertial response – Dash dot. This is the simple ‘delayed df/dt’ scheme using a
proportional gain and delay on a frequency input to produce a modified torque
demand.
• ‘Step ramp’ algorithm – solid line.
• No response from WT – dashed line.
As can be seen in the right hand graphs the step-ramp algorithm as configured shows the
greatest speed decrease out of all of the methods and provides a significant reduction in
frequency excursion.
40
Figure 3.38- Comparison of primary FR methods. Dashed, no support. Solid, Step-wise 20%
torque increase. Dash dot, Inertial response (K=39, T = 0.1). Dotted, Power control (10% step
and net exchange is zero. [20]
Converter Over-currents
Reference [20] draws attention to the over-current limitation of the DFIG’s RSC and hence
the FR capability of the machine at different operating points. This is demonstrated in Figure
3.39. The upper left graph shows the limited capability to provide a positive power response
when the turbine is operating at 80% of rated power. A 0.25 MVA RSC is used on the
1.5MVA turbine in the simulation.
41
Figure 3.39 - Influence of DFIG initial loading to the delivery of inertia effect. Dash-dot,
rated power. Dashed, 80% loading. Solid, 40% loading. [20]
42
3.4 Secondary Response Capability from WTs
Although the primary objective of this work is provision of primary response, it is of interest
to consider wider wind farm control and provision of reserve as when implemented they may
have closely related control and communication aspects.
43
3.4.2 Frequency Controller
A WT controller is presented in [18] which has capability of implementing Delta, MEL or
Balance control respectively. Depending on grid frequency and power available from the
turbine an appropriate reference power for the turbine converter is produced.
The results for a multi-megawatt FPC equipped induction machine WT for a negative and a
positive frequency disturbance using MEL control are shown in Figure 3.41. Wind speed
input, turbine speed, pitch angle, available power output and actual power output are shown
for the three control methods possible. Wind speed of 12 m/s is used along with a turbulence
intensity of 18%.
Available
Power
[B-H] concludes that rapid power response for participation in FR is possible from a large
FPC induction machine based WT and aggregation of outputs from a dispersed resource of
WTs would be expected to smooth the outputs seen in the results.
Note that the model used does not feedback into a system frequency model.
44
4 Modelling
4.1 Introduction
Method - The modelling here is undertaken by transferring all of the mathematical
relationships which describe the system into a set of s-domain transfer functions. This
common procedure enables the solution of differential equations by standard algebraic
methods [21]. Matlab-Simulink is used to solve these equations and also provides a useful
graphical interface to describe the model and then view the results in the time-domain.
Assumptions – For simplification and speed of simulation all of the loads are lumped together
as one single mass. This amalgamated representation is also the case with the response from
the sync plant and the wind turbine plant. Note that future simulation work is planned with a
‘partitioned’ response.
Simulation Objectives – The primary objectives of the simulations presented here in this
chapter are to :
Note - As in common with most power systems modelling all units are expressed in p.u
quantities unless otherwise stated
During an imbalance between power and load the net accelerating torque Ta is :
The combined inertia is accelerated accordingly and gives rise to the ‘Swing equation’:
dω m
J = Ta (4.2) J is moment of inertia (kg.m2), ωm angular velocity (rad/s)
dt
For power system studies inertia is normally given in terms of the per unit inertia constant H
which is defined as :
45
Substituting for J in the swing equation :
d ωm Tm − Te
2H = (4.4)
dt ω 0 m VAbase / ω 0 m
dϖ r ωm
2H = Tm − Te (4.5) where we define ω r as
dt ω 0m
Dispensing with the ‘m’ subscript we can define ωr and ω0 as the angular velocity and rated
angular velocity respectively in rad/s.
dω r
2H = T m − T e - KD∆ ω r (4.6)
dt
dω r 1
= ( T m − T e - KD∆ ω r ) (4.7)
dt 2H
As ∆ ω r = ω r- ω 0 then
dω r d (∆ ω r )
dt = dt (4.8)
By substituting for ω r we can now express our swing equation in final form as :
d (∆ ω r ) 1
= ( T m − T e - KD∆ ω r ) (4.9)
dt 2H
For load-frequency studies the preferable quantities to analyse are Power and frequency as
opposed to Torque and frequency [13].
For a small deviation (delta) from initial values (subscript 0) and all values in p.u :
P = ωr T
P = P0 +∆P
T = T0 + ∆T
ωr = ω0 + ∆ωr
46
P0 + ∆P = (ω0 + ∆ωr) (T0 + ∆T) (4.10)
∆P = ω0 ∆T + T0 ∆ωr (4.11)
Hence for small speed deviations, generator power Pgen and load power Pload we can express
the swing equation as :
d (∆ ω r ) 1
= ( P gen − P load - KD∆ ω r ) (4.12)
dt 2H
Sensitivity of loads with respect to a change in frequency is given by the system damping D.
Stored inertia and therefore initial rate of change of frequency for a power disturbance is
dictated by Heq, the equivalent combined inertia of the system (not including any additional
synthesised wind turbine inertia). Synchronous governor response is determined by the
combined transfer functions of the Droop, Governor and Turbine transfer functions which are
shown in the next section. Wind turbine response is given by inserting the model of Figure
4.44 in to the system model. Both the wind turbine response and synchronous response
represent aggregated models of the individual plant on the system.
Disturbance
47
4.2.1 Synchronous Plant Response
This response consists of the expected ∆P increase from all of the synchronous plant on the
system. The quantity of this plant and its scheduled level of response (i.e it’s droop) is
determined through the setting the gain in the ‘Governor Droop’ block. The below figure is
taken from the Simulink model and is of the form of a generating unit with a reheat steam
turbine [13]. The simulation model uses a time constant of 12 seconds for the Turbine Re-heat
[19].
-1 1
1 1 2s+1
1 -K - 1
w r_ d 0 .2 s + 1 0 .3 s + 1 12 s+1 P d_sync
In 1 O ut1
G o v e rn o r
D ro o p G o v e rn o r T u rb in e T u rb in e R e -h e a t
∆f ∆Tf_ctrl Tshaft ∆T
Tdem X2
-
X1 X3
+
+
+ ∆P
η x
Frequency Response (2MW)
Control Block Tsetp
0.6 ωr
p.u
1 .∫ -
Initial
ωr J +
Torque
Max power
lookup curve 0.6 Initial
p.u Aero Torque
48
4.3 Control Scheme
By increasing the Torque set point of the wind turbine in response to a frequency deviation a
short term increase in electrical power output of the machine can be achieved. Supplementary
control to enable this inertial/fast primary response action is shown in Figure 4.45. The
combination of the transfer functions below provides an increase in commanded power output
in response to the change of frequency.
The synthesis of the inertia is provided by the gain k1 acting on the rate of change of
frequency deviation signal. Appropriate adjustment of this gain can give replacement of the
inertia. Depending on the gain chosen the turbine can be made to done one of the following
[19] :
• make the rotor speed track the system frequency
• provide a set quantity of inertia independent of rotor operating speed (this is the
ideal ‘like for like’ replacement of Synchronous plant inertia
• customised synthesis of inertial response as chosen by the system operator
Additional shaping of the response is provided by the ‘washout’ filter in combination with
gain k2 and also the first order delay block using Tf in combination with gain kf.
These additional first order delay terms extend the overall response towards the end of the
primary response phase.
k1
∆f Tf_ctrl
k2
kf
Tf s + 1
49
G B S y s w ith F a s t P R fr o m W in d
Ia n M o o r e - 1 4 A p r il 2 0 0 9
G B _ fa s t _ P R _ 1 . m d l R e v is io n 1 DO C
Text
Ia n M o o re
w_d G B _ fa s t _ P R .d o c
1 6 th O c to b e r 2 0 0 9
P d_ syn c
In 1 O u t 1
P d_syn c
s y n c _ g o v _ re s p o n s e 1
1
6 .2 1 s + 1 w _d
50
2 H te rm w_r f
In 1 O u t 1
f1 .m a t
W T _ re s p
P d _ d is tu r b
Figure 4.46 - Simulink model (top level only shown) for investigation of primary response
from WTs
4.5 Setup
The 2020 high wind penetration scenario given in appendices Table 7.4 was selected for
simulation. This scenario assuming that all plant on the system is at full output uses the
following parameters :
The wind capacity was operating at an initial output of 0.6pu before the load disturbance.
4.6 Results
Simulations were conducted for various control parameters, load disturbances and
participating frequency response combinations.
50
For the same disturbance the open loop response of the wind turbine capacity is shown in
Figure 4.48. A peak positive power increase of approximately 10% is shown for the first 15
seconds followed by a net reduction in power output for the period 15 to 30 seconds after the
disturbance; in the second phase, the turbine operating at a reduced power output, due to
being driven off its optimum operating point, on the maximum power point curve. Variation
of the supplementary controller parameter k2 shows the effect on gain of the response during
its positive and negative output.
50
4 9 .9 5
4 9 .9
F re q u e n c y [H z ]
4 9 .8 5
4 9 .8
4 9 .7 5
70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
T im e [ s ]
Figure 4.47 – System frequency for a generation disconnection of 0.05 p.u (no
response from generation)
0 .7 4
K 2 = 0 .5 , K 1 = 3 , T w = 1
0 .7 2 K 2 = 1 .0 , K 1 = 3 , T w = 1
0 .7
0 .6 8
W in d T u rb in e T o rq u e [ p . u ]
0 .6 6
0 .6 4
0 .6 2
0 .6
0 .5 8
0 .5 6
0 .5 4
70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
T im e [ s ]
Figure 4.48 – Variation in Wind Turbine Power in response to frequency deviation shown in
figure for varying k2
51
4.6.2 Closed Loop Wind Turbine Response
For a larger disturbance of +0.0189 pu (1320 MW), Figure 4.49 shows the no-response and
the wind turbine only responses effect on system frequency. This shows a reduction of
frequency excursion measured at the beginning of the secondary response phase from
approximately 49.05 Hz to 49.35 Hz. Additionally the initial rate of frequency change is
reduced by a factor of five from – 0.1 Hz/sec to -0.02 Hz/sec.
5 0 .2
W it h o u t W T f re q u e n c y re s p o n s e
W it h W T f re q u e n c y re s p o n s e
50
4 9 .8
F re q u e n c y [H z ]
4 9 .6
4 9 .4
4 9 .2
49
70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
T im e [ s ]
50
W it h o u t W T f re q u e n c y re s p o n s e
W it h W T f re q u e n c y re s p o n s e
4 9 .9 5
4 9 .9
F re q u e n c y [H z ]
4 9 .8 5
4 9 .8
4 9 .7 5
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
T im e [ s ]
52
4.7 Simulation setup and results summary table
Figure of Scenario Disturb Freq K1 K2 Tw Freq Freq Sync Wind Results Comments
[19] pu dev Signal Signal Droop Cap. On match to paper
Hz Gain Lag setting (no of (Te_WT), f
(pu) Block m/c)
Unless -3 1 1 k1, X1, X3 are negative
specified
otherwise
3a 0.25Hz 0.005pu 0.25 na na 0 0 Time constant 5sec not
disturb (-0.005) 11?
No response
3b FPC 0.005pu 0.25 50 OFF 0 0 0.6 to 0.72 Good
Open Loop (-0.005)
Page 53 of 112
Table Key : O.L – Open Loop, Assumed : Output Power (pu) in paper = Te_WT (pu) in this model
Page 54 of 112
4.8 Discussion of results
The simulations undertaken clearly demonstrate the capability of DFIG and FPC based wind
turbines in provision of frequency control in the primary response phase. The desired
response from conventional synchronous generation is for a gradual release in the period 0
to10 seconds, followed by a sustained response in the subsequent 10 to 30 second period [2].
It is logical to assume that future power system requirements will require this form of
response from wind turbine plant.
Figure 4.49 shows a good contribution to control of frequency when there is no synchronous
response on the system. Figure 4.50 also shows good response when a combination of
synchronous and wind turbine response operates. However for this latter case the overshoot in
frequency correction (at 93 seconds) is unwanted and optimisation of controller parameters
and design would be warranted.
In addition to the key research objective of investigating an optimum response from the UK
‘fleet’ of WTs further evaluation of the following points is suggested :
These would enable increased refinement of parameters for optimum response and further
ascertain the practicality of implementation of the FR scheme.
Page 55 of 112
5 Experimental Wind Turbine Test Rig
5.1 Overview
A wind turbine test rig consisting of a 1kW motor generator set with a 3-phase full
inverter/converter bridge is being developed in the Institute of Energy here at Cardiff
University. This is to be controlled via a dSPACE® ‘rapid control prototyping’ embedded
system.
Photographs of the test rig are shown below in Figure 5.51 to Figure 5.53.
Figure 5.51 - Early development of rig showing dc pendulum machine left and 3-ph sync
generator to right
Page 56 of 112
Figure 5.52 – Complete wind turbine test rig
Figure 5.53 – From left to right : Transformer and line module, full bridge back to back
converters and resistive load bank
Page 57 of 112
5.2 Design
The functional blocks shown in Figure 5.54 are described in this section. Extra specifications
and details of custom made circuitry relating to these hardware components can be found in
the appendices.
The controller for this machine, which is provided by the manufacturer, is capable of closed
loop control of speed and torque both via an internal setpoint or through an external input
signal. It also has a mode for direct control of armature current. Its functioning is indicated in
Figure 5.55 below and also by graphics on the controller front panel. A transfer function for
such an ‘armature’ controlled machine can be found in appendices Figure 7.72.
Since this is a shunt DC machine with constant field excitation the current of the machine and
hence also its torque is controlled directly by the turn-on duty cycle of the armature thyristors
(contained within the Power Electronics block). The operation of a dc shunt machine means
that the terminal voltage applied to the machine is countered by a back-emf generated by the
machine itself which is proportional to the armature speed.
The proportional elements of the control loop shown provide appropriate gain to increase or
decrease machine applied voltage (and hence current and therefore torque) reducing the error
in the loop and finally by the integrator action reducing the error effectively to zero.
Page 58 of 112
Constant
Voltage
Field
I set
T setpoint +
- PI
Thyristor Armature T
I set + ON - Time Power Current DC Sep Exc
- PI Electronics Shunt Machine n
n setpoint +
- PI
Torque/V
Speed/V Controller
Torque Load
Speed Torque set point
Characteristic
DAC
Pendulum
Generator
motor
ADC PI
Excitation
ADC
Page 59 of 112
5.2.2 Generator Machine – Block B
Via a flexible shaft coupling various machines can be directly connected to the DC motor.
For the synchronous wound rotor machine (4-pole non-salient) an open loop ‘excitation
voltage controller’ provides a current in proportion to the mark-to-space ratio switching
control input. Specifications for these machines can be found in the appendices.
Interconnection of the blocks A and B along with relevant signal scaling and unit part number
identifying the components are shown in Figure 5.57.
Page 60 of 112
Figure 5.57 – Pendulum motor (Block A) to Generator machine (Block C) connection
Page 61 of 112
5.2.3 Back to Back PWM converters – Block C & D
Two identical ‘6-pulse’ bridges are arranged in a back to back configuration, via a dc-link, to
form a complete a.c to a.c convertor. This circuit configuration is very flexible and enables
independent control of the grid and generator. The bridge arrangement along with placement
of necessary voltage and current sensors is shown in Figure 5.60
MOSFETS
BUZ 384 N-channel devices are employed which are nominally rated to 10.5A. These were
part of a pre-manufactured assembly which include extra components for suppression of
noise. These extra circuit components are shown in the appendices but essentially consist of a
series resistor and capacitor connected across the drain and source. Such an ‘R-C turn-off
snubber’ prevents voltage spikes and oscillations across the MOSFET during device turn-off
[23].
Gate Drives
To convert the logic switching output signals from the DSpace controller to an appropriate
level suitable for operating the MOSFETs an integrated 3-phase bridge driver chip,
International Rectifier IR2133 was used. This IC provides essential features of :
• Level shifting via external bootstrap capacitors to provide high turn on voltage
required for the floating upper bridge gate drive outputs
• Electrical isolation to protect the embedded controller from high voltages in power
side component failure scenarios
• Additional protection logic including ‘deadband’
Page 62 of 112
Figure 5.58 – Bootstrap supply schematic [25]
When the lower leg power transistor is conducting the bootstrap capacitor charges up to Vcc
via the bootstrap diode. This lower device then terminates conduction and the upper device
begins conduction. At this stage Vs rises to the dc-link voltage Vdc whereby the bootstrap
capacitor voltage VB is now lifted to Vdc + Vcc. This process repeats, as every time the
transistor is turned on, the bootstrap capacitor discharges to provide the power supply for the
amplifier driving the upper gate drive.
Figure 5.59 shows the final drive stages for the gate outputs which consist of an upper and
lower pair of transistors arranged to drive each gate in a push-pull configuration.
Figure 5.59 – Final output stage in a typical monolithic gate drive [24]
Page 63 of 112
These driver circuits are connected to the embedded controller via opto-isolating transistors
for protection.
Switching Scheme
The dSPACE controller comes equipped with pre-configured PWM outputs as below :
Thus for the test rig implementation one converter will need to be driven using the 3-phase
PWM outputs, the other will need fabricating from 3 single PWM channel outputs. The fourth
PWM signal is to be used for the DC link regulation duties. In non- SVM mode all of the
PWM signals can be modulated by an appropriate sine wave as demonstrated later in this
chapter.
Note that the generator side MOSFETS can provide rectification without being switched by
virtue of their reverse bias rectifying property (body diodes) and thus will allow power flow
from the ac generator side to the dc-link and hence produce a voltage on the bus.
Page 64 of 112
Ph 1 Ph 2 Ph 3 Ph 1 Ph 2 Ph 3
Red
Yell
Blue
M Ph 1 Ph 2 Ph 3 Ph 1 Ph 2 Ph 3
LEM
LV 25-P
AVR
IR 2133 IR 2133
Gate Drive Gate Drive
LEM VLL_grid
dSPACE DS1103 PPC
LV 25-P
LEM
VLL_gen LEM LTS 25-NP
LV 25-P
Current
Sensor
LEM
LTS 25-NP
Figure 5.60 – Wind Turbine Test Rig back to back converter bridge configuration
Page 65 of 112
5.2.4 Generator and Grid Side Controller – Block E & F
These are the two main control duties to implement. These will regulate the appropriate
voltages, currents and power flows on the generator, DC Link and grid side to implement the
required wind turbine control scheme and correct synthesis of the grid side a.c power output.
A typical DFIG control scheme is shown in Figure 5.61 below. The scheme uses vector
control of the generator via the rotor current to give reactive power control using id and real
power control using iq. The grid side converter maintains real power flow to or from the grid
in order to regulate the dc link voltage.
Appropriate load angle control and variations on basic vector control are planned to be
implemented for both FPC and DFIG machines.
In addition to speed, position information from a tachometer on the machine shaft is available
to the embedded controller. This will be used in the d-q transformation within the generator
and grid side PWM control schemes.
Page 66 of 112
Embedded Control System
Block E & F are both implemented on a dedicated control system. The embedded controller,
software, instrumentation and development interface is capable of automatically generating
downloadable code from Matlab-Simulink blocks. Additionally modification of parameters
and viewing of variables and data is possible in real time including construction of custom
display instrumentation. Notable features of the embedded controller platform are :
Page 67 of 112
Sensors/Instrumentation
Industry standard closed loop voltage and current transducers are used :
Earthing
To ensure noise free operation, isolation for protection of equipment, and personal safety
from electric shock, please note the overall earthing arrangements highlighted below and in
Table 5.2
• dSPACE CP1103 connector panel has all BNC bodies tied to mains earth.
• Voltage and current sensors are provided with insulated BNC connectors
• Gate drive BNC’s are insulated
The driven generator, both converters and the dc-link are floating with respect to mains earth.
Page 68 of 112
Note connection of any neutral points on the driven machine, DC-Link or bridge generated a.c
may impact/necessitate careful reconsideration of the above and review of any safety
measures taken.
Protection
A slow blow fuse rated to 1.6A is fitted to the synchronous rotor excitation winding in order
to protect the rotor against over-current.
A slow blow fuse rated to 1.6A is fitted to the dc-link to prevent excess current in the dc-link
5.2.7 Setup
The basic procedure to create, implement and run a control scheme for the test rig is detailed
in the appendices along with comments on specific use of the relevant software packages.
5.3 Results
The initial testing of the rig was undertaken in open-loop configuration using a low level of
excitation for the a.c generator and hence a low value of d.c link (approx 30 V) and a
correspondingly low voltage fabricated a.c wave output.
Instrumentation Capability –Basic measurements of currents, voltages, shaft speed and torque
are input to the relevant ADC channels and then displayed on the PC instrument layout.
Additionally appropriate blocks were used to calculate shaft power and also the real and
reactive power components of the measured currents and voltage to give the outputs P_2 and
Q_2 shown.
Closed Loop Control – Relevant simulink blocks to implement closed control of voltage via
the synchronous machine AVR control input are shown at the bottom of Figure 5.65. This
functionality was not tested however as no over-voltage protection scheme was present on the
AVR input.
1 1 -K - 0 .1 DAC
rpm _set_raw rpm _set
C o n sta n t rp m _ se t_ g a i n rp m _ li m ite r vo l t p e r rp m e xt d s5 DS1103DAC_C6
Page 69 of 112
Figure 5.64 – Instrumentation layout for basic measurement experiment
Page 70 of 112
R T I D a ta
10 -K - -K - 0 .1 DAC
rpm
M UX ADC
a s1 rp m p e r vo lt v o l t p e r rp m d s1 DS1103DAC_C1
DS1103M UX_ADC_CO N1
DAC
10 -K - -K - 0 .1 DAC
DS1103DAC_C3 Nm
+ /- 1 is + /-1 0 V e q u iv a s2 N m p e r vo lt vo lt p e r N m d s2 DS1103DAC_C2
DAC
C o n ve n tio n :
DS1103DAC_C4 P o s itiv e T o rq u e Nm
fo r m o to r-g e n -l o a d
-K - power_shaf t
rad_s
P ro d u ct T e rm i n a to r
ra d _ s p e r rp m
P_2
Q _2
T e rm in a to r2
V PF
PQ D ivid e T e rm i n a to r3
sp e e d _ se t_ D A C 6
I f(u )
S_2
Active & Reactive sq rt_ p sq r_ q _ sq r
Power
sig n arm
l s A m ps_rm s
RMS 3
p o w e r _ lo a d _ p e r _ p h a s e p o w e r _ lo a d
P ro d u ct1 3 p h a se s T e rm in a to r1
sig n arm
l s V d if f _ r m s
RMS1
ADC 10 -K - -K - 0 .1 DAC
V d if r
ADC 10 10 0 .1 0 .1 DAC
Am ps
P ID -K - 0 .1 DAC
1 1 duty _set
v o lt _ s e t _ r a w v _error
P I D C o n t r o l l eR r a t e L i m i t e r M a x _ d u t y vo lt p e r d u ty d s6 DS1103DAC_C5
C o n sta n t1 vo lt_ se t_ g a in 1 0 0 V e rro r
g e t 1 0 0 % d u ty
Page 71 of 112
5.3.2 Bridge Inverter Test
Square Wave switching - This test demonstrates the simple square wave switching scheme as
detailed in chapter X. By setting the ‘sin_true’ constant to zero as shown in Figure 5.66 a
50:50 duty cycle square pulse is sent to each PWM output channel. Channel b and c are
delayed by the appropriate 2Pi/3 phase angle. Note that by sending a pulse with a low value of
0 and a high value of 1 means that no modulation is present on the output signal from block
‘DS1103SL_DSP_PWM3’.
For experimentation some variation of the frequency and pulse widths can be achieved by
varying the input parameters shown on the instrument layout of Figure 5.67. Additionally
there is a ‘Plotter’ component in the top right hand corner to verify that the modulating signals
chan_a, chan_b and chan_c are correct.
R T I D a ta
NO TES : te st1 .m d l
Ia n M o o re O ct 2 0 0 9
p e rio d = 2 * p i / f_ ra d s
E xe rc ise s b a sic 3 -p h P W M syn th e sis
d o u b le ((i n t1 6 ((2 * p i / f_ ra d s)* 1 0 0 0 )))/1 0 0 0
co n ve rts to 3 d p p re cisio n f_ ra d s = 5 0 * 2 * p i
n e e d to cre a te in W o rksp a ce
S in e W a ve 3 S co p e S cope 2
chan_a
1
chan_a
D u t y c y c le a
sin _ tru e S w itch
D u t y c y c le b
chan_b
p u ls e _ a T ra n sp o rt D u t y c y c le c
D e la y
P u lse chan_c PW M Stop
G e n e ra to r
T ra n sp o rt
D e la y1 DS1103SL_DSP_PW M 3
S cope 3
1
_O N_O FF
Page 72 of 112
Figure 5.67 – Instrumentation layout for bridge inverter testing
Page 73 of 112
Figure 5.68 shows the phase a gate drive signal and the voltage developed across phase a
(resistive) load for the square wave scheme driving a load with resistive and inductive
elements. For this RL load, as expected there is a delay in the change in current and hence
delay in voltage rise as the respective magnetic fields change in the inductive components.
Figure 5.68 – Fabrication of a.c waveform in RL load using square wave switching
(CH1 50.0V/div, CH2 10.0V/div, time base 10.0ms/div)
The instrument layout shown in Figure 5.67 includes the facility for frequency adjustment of
the generated sinusoidal wave which is fed into the DS1103SL_DSP_PWM3 block.
Figure 5.69 shows the results for this switching scheme with a series resistive inductive load.
This waveform shows a considerable improvement over the previous switching schemes and
bears close resemblance to the ideal sinusoidal shape required of a grid side inverter. Some
noise is present which is to be expected on a basic Sinusoidal modulated PWM scheme.
Figure 5.69 – Fabrication of a.c waveform in RL load using Sinusoidally modulated PWM
(CH1 50.0V/div, CH2 2.00V/div, time base 10.0ms/div)
Page 74 of 112
6 Further Work
The contribution made by the PhD is planned in three main areas of work and are planned as
below
2 - Experimental testing :
Testing of the FR control scheme will be undertaken in order to verify its functioning and
discover some of the practical implementation issues/characteristics.
This will firstly involve stand-alone operation of the WT rig and its response to a change in
load.
A second more realistic stage of testing is planned where the WT will be connected onto a
larger Power system whereby a change of frequency will be instigated on the larger system by
again a step change in load or step adjustment of the main power system generation output.
Observation of the effects of the implemented FR on the test rig DC driving machine may
feed into the 3rd work topic detailed below.
Page 75 of 112
6.1 Risks
WT Rig
• General noise from switching causing malfunctioning/spurious operation of the
WT rig
• Harmonic noise from WT rig interfering with operation of Power System Trainer
• Learning curve associated with developing a complex embedded controller
Simulation
• Balance between accuracy and simulation run time of models
• Access to accurate data for Turbine machine and Power system modelling
The sequence of tasks and approximate time allocations are indicated in the Figure 6.70.
Development of the WT test rig is described in more detail than the simulation work as this
practical element of the project involves less uncertainty in terms of task sequence.
Page 76 of 112
Figure 6.70– Gantt Chart for PhD
Page 77 of 112
7 Appendices
7.1 Simulations
7.1.1 Simulation Baseline Record
References
Paper : J.Ekanayake. N.Jenkins, “Frequency Response from Wind Turbines”, Wind
Engineering Vol 32 No 6 2008
Change History
Previous Version : Fig7.mdl, Janaka, March 2009
Janakas Mods (compared to Paper) : Added a first order lag block for smoothing, which in
fact provided the extended power response for figs 6 & 8
Ians Mods : Addition of Freq Signal Gain (needed because of pu WT confusion at system
summing point) / Addition of switch to remove lag block so to enable sharp response of fig 3
and 4 results
Ians Minor mods : Signal names added for scope identity /Converted pu for output to freq for
format like in paper
General Settings
Machine Type IG, parameters as appendix X
kp,ki = 10,1 although paper states 0.5,0.5 Note : doesn’t seem to make a difference
Summary Comments :
Fig 3a – Can’t compare full model as don’t have it, and unsure about how to verify effect on
shaft speed 0.06
Fig 3 and 4 are done without the Freq Signal delay block. Is this of importance?
4b shows variation in gain
General comment on paper : Fig3,4 work doesn’t quite join up to Fig 6,8
Extra Questions :
(Possibly Minor)
Sync Droop appears set at 11%, 1/11 not 4 % ?
Page 78 of 112
7.1.2 Setup
Page 79 of 112
7.1.3 M-Files
Inertia_setup.m
%This file works out the parameters to manually insert in the main model
%The values are taken from Janakas paper
%Later models have their own parameters input so some of the control
%parameters below are not used. e.g K1 controller gain etc
% GB sys
Heq = 4.55
D = 1
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%Work out the Inertia from H given
w_e=1500*2*pi*2/60 % Rotational speed electrical, 2 pairs of poles on
this machine
w_m=(1500*2*pi)/60
J=(2*H*S)/(w_m*w_m) % kg.m sq
%Dont actually use this, see notes
%Initial power output for integrator 2MW
%LUT
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Lss=Xm+Xls
Lrr=Lr+Lm
L0=(Lrr-((Lm*Lm)/Lss))
Page 80 of 112
%T1=L0/(w_e*Rr)
X1=Lrr/Lm %IG
X2=1/Rs
X3=Lm/Lrr
T1=Lss/(w_e*Rs) %Note its w_s in paper
Page 81 of 112
GB_Fast_PR_setup.m
%Set some defaults so we can run a sim directly from the GUI
%without mfile having to run an mfile first
%Note these are global so we can use the workspace editor to change
%paramaters quickly rather than changing an m-file
Page 82 of 112
GB_Fast_PR_sim.mdl
global param;
global Ld_Db;
global sync_droop;
global GW_WT;
global K1;
global K2;
global Tw;
global Kf;
global Kf_Lag;
global f_Lag_ON;
global B_K1;
global B_K2;
global B_Tw;
global B_Kf;
global B_Kf_Lag;
global B_f_Lag_ON;
Page 83 of 112
%title ('Open Loop Turbine Torque for 0.25hz Freq Deviation- Fig 4a');
hold all; grid on; %Hold plot and cycle line colours
Page 84 of 112
%{
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Fig FR Control %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Add workspace outs
figure(6); clf; %Clear the figure
param = [ 0.0189, -11, 19.4, -3, 1, 1, 500, 20, 1 ]; update();
sim(mdl_file);
plot1 = plot(f.time,f.signals.values,'b');ylabel('Frequency (Hz)');
%set(plot1,'XLim',[70 130],'YLim',[48.8 50.2])
title ('2020 High Wind System frequency Drop, Including Synchronous
Response, FR Control');
hold all; grid on; %Hold plot and cycle line colours
legend('Without WT frequency response','With WT frequency response');
%}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
function plot_Te_WT(colour)
plot(Te_WT.time,Te_WT.signals.values,colour)
end
function plot_f(colour)
plot(f.time,f.signals.values,colour)
end
function update
Ld_Db = param(1);
sync_droop = param(2);
GW_WT = param(3);
K1 = param(4);
K2 = param(5);
Tw = param(6);
Kf = param(7);
Kf_Lag = param(8);
f_Lag_ON = param(9);
end
end
%miscellaneous commands
%get(plot1);xlim;
Page 85 of 112
G B S y s w ith F a s t P R fr o m W in d
-1 1 Ia n M o o r e - 1 4 A p r il 2 0 0 9
1 2s+1 1 G B _ fa s t _ P R _ 1 .m d l
-K - P d_ syn c
0 .2 s + 1 12 s+ 1 0 .3 s + 1
G B _ fa s t _ P R . d o c
1
s+ 1 P d _ W in d
C lo c k P d _ W in d
S w it c h
0
-K - 1
1
1 9 .4 /6 3 .5 4
6 .2 1 s + 1 w_d
-K -
w _r 50 f
1 2 H te rm
N o o f m /c
20 s+1 f1 .m a t
T_ d e m
f re q s ig la g k1
d u /d t -3 10 s+ 1 1
T_ d e m
-K -
s 0 .0 1 2 9 s + 0 .0 0 4 9 1
-K - Te_W T
k2
s
1 PP dd_ _WW TT
s+1
T e_ W T
1 /3 .5
0 .6
1
s
Pd_W T
L o o k -U p
T a b le 0 .6 0 .9 5
Page 86 of 112
7.1.4 Model Parameters
1
Governor = 0.2 s + 1
2s + 1 1
Turbine = 12s + 1 0.3s + 1
1
Droop = 11
Controller Parameters
kp = 0.5, ki = 0.5
Calculation of Inertia
Si
Heq = ∑ i = coal , gas ,....
Hi *
S sys
Inertia constant H is the kinetic energy in watt-seconds divided by the VA base where ω0m is the rated angular
velocity in rad/s.
1 Jω 02m
H =
2 VAbase
Turbine X1 X2 X3 T1 or T2
Type
DFIG Lss 1 Lm L0
Lm Rr Lss ω s Rr
Page 87 of 112
FPC (IG Lrr 1 Lm L0
based)
Lm Rs Lrr ω s Rs
Nuclear 6 0 6 FR
TABLE 3
H EQ ON SYSTEM BASE 63.5MVA
Generator Type Scenario - High Wind 2020
Capacity(GW) Hi Heq
Page 88 of 112
7.2 Laplace Transformation
For a rotating machine we know per unit torque is synonymous with per unit power if there is
no change in speed. Although real plant steam turbines or diesel generating plant will have a
particular Torque Speed characteristic we assume here that the plant will adjust its torque
upwards slightly to maintain its setpoint Power output when a system frequency drop occurs.
This enables us to present the modified swing equation X describing the relationship between
power and frequency on the system.
d (∆ ω r ) 1
= ( P gen − P load - KD∆ ω r )
dt 2H
d (∆ f ) 1
= ( ∆ P - KD∆ f )
dt 2H
d (∆ f )
2H + KD∆ f = ∆ P
dt
For simplification of presentation (as is common with most authors) from now on we dispense
with superbars as Power System load studies normally use per unit quantities.
Taking the Laplace transform with all initial conditions as zero gives
where for example the notation ∆F(s) indicates the term is the Laplace transform of the time
domain function ∆f(t) and where s is a constant with the unit of 1/t
Page 89 of 112
∆F(s) ( 2Hs + KD ) = ∆P(s)
= 1 / 2Hs + KD
Page 90 of 112
7.3 Experimental Test Rig
7.3.1 Procedure for Use
Setup
The basic procedure to create, implement and run a control scheme for the test rig is as
follows:
Please take of note the items in the following subheadings regarding the overall process of
development.
Equipment Initialisation
Make sure Ethernet link cable from controller to PC is connected before booting the PC.
Object Code
No comments.
Pendulum Controller
This machine has no emergency stop. WARNING - Use of the rocker switch 13 [LD Manual]
will result in the machine only temporarily returning to a zero setpoint if the external control
input is used. Return switch 11 to the ‘internal’ setting position to avoid this immediately after
performing an emergency shutdown of the pendulum machine with this switch.
Page 91 of 112
Table 7.5 – Convention taken for rotation for test rig
Reference : Looking at rear housing of the Pendulum machine case, output shaft
facing away
Page 92 of 112
Synchronous Machine
4- Pole non salient with damper winding, Class 1
Terminals :
Page 93 of 112
DC Pendulum machine
Part no. PM 732 68
DC Shunt wound
Terminals
Armature (rotor) A1, A2
Field (stator) E1, E2
Page 94 of 112
Pendulum machine control unit
LD 732 695
uP controlled
modes
TORQUE CONTROL Closed Loop Torque
SPEED CONTROL Closed Loop Speed
UNCONTROLLED Uncontrolled (actually When sync m/c is on mains
armature current ctrl) grid?
Load char + Run-up char Auto record of run-up and
load
Page 95 of 112
dSPACE Controller Board
Page 96 of 112
Page 97 of 112
7.3.3 Hardware Design
Figure 7.74 Internal wiring for LD Mosfet Units – Drawn by Paul Farrugia
Note diagram is for the version supplied with 7A transistors and may have changed.
Page 98 of 112
A functional block diagram for this device is shown below :
Schmitt Triggers : Removes noise from logic input to signal to give a clean rising edge or
falling edge.
Level translator and PW discriminator : Couples input logic to internal level with necessary
noise immunity. e.g must tolerate Vss dropping below Vcom which can happen in practical
gate drive layout implementations. To reduce noise a Pulse Width (PW) discriminator filters
the gate switching signal.
Pulse Generator : For the top gate drive the signal is changed into a pulse format in order to
reduce power consumption used in the level translator stage.
Delay : For the lower gate drive the signal passes via a delay to ensure a minimum deadtime
(hence protecting against ‘shoot-through’) and then directly on to the ‘totem pole’ output
stage.
Pulse Discriminator : Changes the pulse format back into a square wave format.
Vdd/Vbs Level Translator : Raises the internal logic level suitable to drive the upper gate
drive transistors which are sitting at Vs (i.e same as the dc link voltage).
The following circuit was designed in accordance with recommendations given in [24]
Page 99 of 112
C3
FAULT
C5 1uF 1uF 1uF 1K
Csen 1
6 4
D3 2
5 3 R19 Q2
150pF 1N4001
BC108 D8 D9
HCPL2531 VS3 VS2 VS1 1K
R9 Green RED
LED VSS
680R
S3 LED
C6 S1 VSS
VSS
FAULT SD SD I/P Fclr
150pF
Fclr Fclr I/P VSS
R10 Standby
VCC J5
R26 33
680R HO1 1
C7 U6 Csen U9 VS1 2
1 8
1 28
ITRIP ITRIP FAULT FAULT
2 7 2 27
HIN1 R17 9K Fclr I/P Fault CLR LIN3 LIN3
150pF 3 26 J6
CAO LIN2 LIN2 R27 33
4 6 4 25
R11 HIN2 CA- LIN1 LIN1 HO2 1
5 24
3 5 CA+ HIN3 HIN3 VS2 2
680R 6 23
SD I/P SD HIN2 HIN2
C8 HCPL2531 7 22 VCC
P1
SD will require a pullup VSS
HIN, LIN & FLTCLR all have 100K internal pullups
Table 7.11 – Slave I/O connections [DS1103 Hardware Installation and Configuration Nov
2007, dSPACE ControlDesk Help File]
[] – BWEA, “Wind hits 4GW barrier - now powers 2.3 million homes in UK”,
http://www.bwea.com/media/news/articles/pr20091020.html , accessed 19 November 2009
2
[] - Erinmez, I.A., Bickers, D.O., Wood, G.F., Hung, W.W., “NGC Experience with frequency
control in England and Wales – Provision of frequency response by generators”, IEEE PES Winter
meeting, 31 January – 4 February 1999, New York USA.
3
[ ] – Manwell
J.F, McGowan J.G, Rogers A.L, “Wind Energy Explained – Theory, Design and
Application”, John Wiley & Sons, 2002.
[] –Burton T, Sharpe D, Jenkins N, Bossanyi E, “Wind Energy Handbook”, John Wiley & Sons,
4
2001
[] - Ramtharan, G.; Ekanayake, J.B.; Jenkins, N., “Frequency support from doubly fed induction
5
generator wind turbines”, IET Renewable Power Generation, Volume 1, Issue 1, March 2007, pp.
3-9.
[] – Fox B, et al, “Wind Power Integration – Connection and system operational aspects”, IET,
6
2007
[] – Anaya-Lara O, et al, “Wind Energy Generation – Modelling and Control”, John Wiley & Sons,
7
2009
8
[] – Ackermann T, et al, “Wind Power in Power Systems”, John Wiley & Sons, 2005
9
[] – Caliao D, “Modelling and Control of a Fully Rated Converter Wind Turbine” Thesis submitted
to University of Manchester, 2008
10
[] – Bose B, “Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives”, Pearson Education, 2002
[] – Bossanyi E, “GH Bladed - Theory Manual”, Issue no.17, Garrad Hussan Partners Ltd, Bristol,
11
2007
12
[] – Krause P, et al, “Analysis of Electric Machinery and Drive Systems”, 2nd Edition, IEEE, 2002
13
[] – Kundur P, “Power System Stability and Control”, EPRI, 1994
[] - Ramtharan, G., Jenkins, N., Anaya-Lara, O., “Modelling and Control of Synchronous
14
Generators for Wide-range Variable-speed Wind Turbines”, Wind Energy, Vol 10, 2007, pp 231–
246
15
[] - G Ramtharan, “Control of variable speed wind turbine generators”, PhD Thesis, 2008.
[] - Seul-Ki Kim, Eung-Sang Kim, Jae-Young Yoon and Ho-Yong Kim, “PSCAD/EMTDC Based
16
Dynamic Modeling and Analysis of a Variable Speed Wind Turbine”, IEEE Power Engineering
Society General Meeting, 2004. Volume , Issue , 6-10 June 2004 Page(s): 1735 - 1741 Vol.2
17
[] - National Grid Company plc, “The Grid Code,” Issue 3, Revision 25, 1 February 2008.
[] – Banham-Hall D, et al, “Grid Connection Oriented Modelling of Wind Turbines with Full
18
Frequency Disturbance”, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol 24, no.2, May 2009
21
[] – Bolton W, “Control Engineering”, 2nd edition, Longman, 1998
[] – Mohan N, et al, “Power Electronics: Converters, applications and design”, John Wiley and
23
Sons, 1989
[] – International Rectifier, “Application Note AN-978 – HV Floating MOS-Gate Driver ICs”, IR,
24
RevD
[] - Merello A, et al, “Design Tips – Using monolithic high voltage gate drivers DT04-4revA”,
25
International Rectifier
[] – Heier S, “Grid Integration of Wind Energy Conversion Systems”, John Wiley and Sons, 2nd
26
Edition, 2006
Nottingham UK
29
[] – Valentine R, “Motor Control Electronics Handbook”, McGraw-Hill, 1998
30
[] – Williams T, “The Circuit Designers Companion”, Newnes, 1991
[] – Leybold Didactic Gmbh, “Instruction Sheet – Control Unit for Pendulum Machine 732 695”,
31
33
[] – LEM, “LTS 15-NP Datasheet”, downloaded 20 Nov 2009, http://www.lem.com
34
[] - LEM, “LV-25P Datasheet”, downloaded 20 Nov 2009, http://www.lem.com