ABSTRACT

As crude oil price reach a new high, the need for developing alternate fuels has become
acute. Alternate fuels should be economically attractive in order to compete with currently used
fossil fuels. In this work, biodiesel (ethyl ester) was prepared from waste cooking oil (WCO)
collected from restaurants. Ethyl alcohol with potassium hydroxide as a catalyst was used for the
transesterification process. The biodiesel was characterized by its physical and fuel properties
including density, viscosity, flash point according to ASTM standards. The viscosity of the
biodiesel ethyl ester was found to be 5.03 mm
2
/sec at 40
o
C. Production of biodiesel from waste
cooking oils for diesel substitute is particularly important because of the decreasing trend of
economical oil reserves, environmental problems caused due to fossil fuel use and the high price
of petroleum products in the international market.
The performance evaluation of a single cylinder four stroke VCR diesel engine has been
done when fuelled with different blends of diesel and biodiesel made of waste cooking oil. It was
found that brake thermal efficiency and SFC of engine slightly increases and with the increase in
percentage of biodiesel.
Exhaust gas analysis indicates that with the use of biodiesel, the percentage of CO and
CO
2
decreases and percentage of O
2
increases which is a good sign as far as ecological
conservation is concerned.
One can understand from this experiment that waste cooking oil, which is otherwise
wasted, is one of the most economical choices to produce biodiesel. Since one of the major
concerns on biodiesel production is the price of feedstock, utilization of waste cooking oil
significantly enhances the economic viability of biodiesel production.

INTRODUCTION
Increasing uncertainty about global energy production and supply, environmental
concerns due to the use of fossil fuels, and the high price of petroleum products are the major
reasons to search for alternatives to petrol / diesel. Scientists claimed that the global supply of oil
and natural gas from the conventional sources is unlikely to meet the growth in energy demand
over the next 25 years. In this perspective, considerable attention has been given towards the
production of biodiesel as a diesel substitute. Moreover, biodiesel fuel has become more
attractive because of its environmental benefits due to the fact that plants and vegetable oils and
animal fats are renewable biomass sources. Biodiesel represents a largely closed carbon dioxide
cycle (approximately 78%), as it is derived from renewable biomass sources. Compared to
petroleum diesel, biodiesel has lower emission of pollutants, it is biodegradable and enhances the
engine lubricity and contributes to sustainability Biodiesel has a higher cetane number than
diesel fuel, no aromatics, no sulfur, and contains 10 11% oxygen by weight. Use of neat
(unprocessed) vegetable oils in the compression ignition engines is reported to cause several
problems due to its high viscosity. Biodiesel which is accepted as an attractive alternative fuel,
is prepared by transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fats with an alcohol in presence of
a catalyst. However, the land use for production of edible oil for biodiesel feedstock competes
with the use of land for food production. Moreover, the price of edible plant and vegetable oils is
usually higher than petrol / diesel. The use of waste cooking oil as biodiesel feedstock reduces
the cost of biodiesel production since the feedstock costs constitutes approximately 70-95% of
the overall cost of biodiesel production. Hence, the use of waste cooking oils (WCO) and non-
edible oils should be given higher priority over the edible oils as biodiesel feedstock.
Huge quantities of waste cooking oils (WCO) and animal fats are available throughout
the world, both in the developed and developing countries. Management of such oils and fats
pose a significant challenge because of their disposal problems and possible contamination of the
water and land resources. Even though some of this waste cooking oil is used for soap
production, a major part of it is discharged into the environment. As large amounts of waste
cooking oils are illegally dumped into rivers and landfills, causing environmental pollution, the
use of waste cooking oil to produce biodiesel as petrol / diesel substitute offers significant
advantages because of the reduction in environmental pollution. Diesel fuel consumption
significantly contributes to the formation of greenhouse gases (GHG) and other global pollutant
emissions. Environmentalists pointed out that petroleum / diesel is also the major source for the
emission of NOx, SOx, CO, particulate matter and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Emission of such pollutants not only has negative impacts to the global environment but also
severe impacts in human health due to their persistence in the environment.
The global consumption of diesel fuel per year is approximately 934 million tons. If a 5%
mix in the total diesel consumption as a renewable portfolio standard (RPS) requirement, which
is, approximately 46.7 million tons per year, a substantial portion of this requirement can be
replaced by using biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil. The use of waste cooking oil as a
biodiesel source has a potential to reduce CO
2
, particulate matter and other greenhouse gases as
the carbon contained in biomass-derived fuel is largely biogenic and renewable.
Waste cooking oil, which is otherwise wasted, is one of the most economical choices to
produce biodiesel. Since one of the major concerns on biodiesel production is the price of
feedstock, utilization of waste cooking oil significantly enhances the economic viability of
biodiesel production. Production of biodiesel from waste cooking oils for diesel substitute is
particularly important because of the decreasing trend of economical extracted oil reserves and
the environmental problems caused due to the use of fossil fuel. Use of waste cooking oil helps
improve the biodiesel economics.


















BIODIESEL PREPARATION

Basic Methods of Preparing Biodiesel: There are three basic methods of biodiesel (methyl ester)
production from oils and fats. They are:
Base catalyst transesterification of the oil with methanol.
Directed acid catalyzed esterification of the oil with methanol.
Conversion of the oil to fatty acids, and then to methyl esters with acid catalysis.
Production of biodiesel is usually done today using the base catalyzed reaction, as the base
catalyzed reaction is the most economic process. This process is the most economic, because the
process uses a low temperature and pressure, there is also a high conversion of 98% and there is
a direct conversion to biodiesel with no intermediate steps. The following steps are involved in
preparing the biodiesel from WCO.

A. Retrieving the WCO
WCO was collected from different hotels, restaurants, canteen and cafeterias. The sample was
allowed to settle for 2-3 days and filtration was done to separate unnecessary impurities and food
residues.
B. Pre-heating WCO
Before transesterification process, to ensure that the oil contained very little amount of water
droplets in it, the filtered WCO was subjected to pre-heating to 100
0
C for 15 minutes with
continuous stirring using magnetic stirrer. This helped in drying the oil.
C. Neutralization of free fatty acids

In the accumulated WCO, neutralization of free fatty acids (FFA) needs correct amount of
catalyst for avoidance of soap formation.
D. Alkali catalysed transesterification of WCO
The alkali catalyzed transesterification was performed due to presence of majority of free
fatty acids in WCO. For transesterification of WCO in laboratory, oil was heated in a flat bottom
conical flask upto 45
0
C. To ensure the prevention of methanol to reach its boiling point (57
0
C),
the optimum reaction temperature was set to be 45
0
C. Now, 1litre of filtered WCO is poured
into the reaction vessel and is stirred and simultaneously heated with the help of magnetic stirrer
apparatus.

Fig.1 Transesterification Reaction
The reaction products were poured into a separating funnel and kept for approx. 6 hours for
gravity separation of glycerol with WCO methyl esters. The glycerol forms a lower layer due to
higher density, which is separated out. This oil recovered from the separating funnel was again
subjected to same procedure with 80 ml of solution C to remove the traces of glycerol and
retrieve better quality of bio diesel from the WCO. This biodiesel is then blended with diesel and
various blends such as 5BD, 10BD, 15BD and 20BD are prepared for conducting CI engine
experiment for performance and emission characteristics. Proper characterization of biodiesel
blends and petroleum diesel is also done in laboratory as per ASTM norms. Specific gravity of
blends and kinematic viscosity is measured using Red Wood Viscometer.
First the methanol (MeOH) and the catalyst (sodium hydroxide) are mixed. After the
methanol and catalyst are mixed, they go into a reactor, where the WCO is added to the mix.
Used oil is first run through a filter to remove the fatty acids. This mixture is agitated
continuously for 1 to 4 hours and may also be heated. The fat or oil used is converted to esters
during this stage. Glycerin and methyl esters are the two major products created after the reaction
is complete and the excess methanol has been removed from the mixture. Gravity is used to
separate the two products, since they have different densities. Glycerin is the denser of the two
products. The glycerin is then drawn off the bottom of the tank and can be sold either as crude
glycerin which is useful in soap production or it can be used for making fertilizers.

Methyl Ester Biodiesel Ingredients:
For Methyl Ester Biodiesel
MeOH = 20 % of WCO
KOH = 3.5 g per litre of WCO
The catalyst is dissolved into the alcohol by vigorous stirring in a small reactor. The oil is
transferred into the biodiesel reactor and then the catalyst/alcohol mixture is pumped into the oil
and the final mixture is stirred vigorously for 2 hours. A successful reaction produces two liquid
phases: ester and crude glycerol. Crude glycerol, the heavier liquid will collect at the bottom
after several hours of settling. Phase separation can be observed within 10 minutes and can be
complete within 2 hours of settling. Complete settling can take as long as 20 hours.







HEAT ENGINE
Heat Engine is an engine which takes heat as input and releases work as output. Heat
engines can be classified as; external combustion type in which the working fluid is entirely
separated from the fuel- air mixture (ECE), and the internal - combustion (ICE) type, in which
the working fluid consists of the products of combustion of the fuel- air mixture itself.
Classification of heat engines is given in Fig.1.
Classification of Heat Engines

Fig.1 Heat Engine Classification

Advantages of I.C.E. over E.C.E
1. More mechanical simplicity and lower weight/power ratio.
2. They do not need auxiliary equipment, such as boiler & condenser.
3. They could be started and stopped in a short time.
4. Their thermal efficiency is higher than other heat engines.
5. Their initial cost is low.
These advantages make I.C.E. more suitable in the transport sector; motor cars, small ships,
submarines, and small aircrafts.
Types of Internal Combustion Engines
I.C.E. can be divided into several groups according different features as characteristics: operating
cycles, method of charging the cylinder, fuel used, general design (position and number of
cylinders, method of ignition, rotating speed, etc.), and method of cooling the engine.

Fuel Used
1. Liquid Fuels
a. Volatile liquid fuels: petrol, Alcohol, benzene. Fuel /Air mixture is usually ignited by a spark;
Spark ignition. b. Viscous liquid fuels: fuel oil, heavy and light diesel oil, gas-oil, bio-fuels.
Usually combustion of fuel takes place due to its contact with high temperature compressed air
(self-ignition); Compression ignition.
2. Gaseous fuels:
Liquid Petroleum Gas ( LPG ), Natural gas ( NG ), Town gas, Blast Furnace gas; ignition usually
by a spark.
3. Dual and Multi-Fuels:
Dual fuel engines are operated with two types of fuels, either separately or mixed together.
Multi-fuel engines could be operated by a mixture of more than two fuels, gaseous; such as:
Hydrogen, methane, L.P.G. etc., combined with one or more of liquid fuels, such as alcohol,
ethers, esters, gasoline, diesel etc.
Method of Charging the Engine
1. Naturally aspirated engine: Admission of charge at near atmospheric pressure.
2. Supercharged engine: Admission of charge at a pressure above atmospheric.
Number of Piston Stroke to Complete the Thermodynamic Cycle:
1. Four stroke engines: the cycle of operation is completed in four strokes of the piston or two
revolution of the crank shaft. Each stroke consists of 180 of crank shaft rotation. The series of
operations are shown in figure 2.
2. Two strokes engine: In two-stroke engine the cycle is completed in two strokes, i.e. one
revolution of the crank shaft. The difference between two-stroke and four-stroke engines is in the
method of filling the cylinder with the fresh charge and removing the products of combustion.
Cylinders Arrangement
1. In- line engines: all cylinders are arranged linearly.
2. "V" engines: cylinders are in two banks inclined at an angle to each other and with one crank-
shaft.
3. Opposed cylinder banks located in the same plane on opposite sides of the crank-shaft.
4. Opposed piston engine: when a single cylinder houses two pistons, each of which drives a
separate crank shaft.
5. Radial engine: the radial engine is an engine with more than two cylinders in each row equally
spaced around the crank shaft. Normally it is been used in air-crafts.



Fig. 2 Cylinder events of four- stroke cycle


1. Double- acting engine: the fuel burns on both sides of the piston.
2. Cylinders may be vertical or horizontal, vertical engines needs smaller area, when area is
available horizontal engines may be used, this would make all engine parts accessible and the
operation and maintenance are easier.
Use of the Engine
1. Marine engine: for propulsion of ships at sea.
2. Industrial engine: for power generation on land.
3. Automotive engine: for transport.
Method of Cooling the Engine
1. Water- cooled engines.
2. Air- cooled engines.
I.C.Engine Parts and Details
The main components of the reciprocating internal combustion engine are shown in Figure 3.
Engine parts are made of various materials and perform certain functions, some of which will be
explained: cylinder block (g) it is integral with crank case (m), both are made of cast iron. The
piston (e) reciprocates inside the cylinder, which include the combustion chamber.
The piston is connected to the connecting rod (h) by piston pin (f). This end of the connecting
rod is known as small end. The other end of the connecting rod called the big end is connected to
the crank arm by crank pin (l).
Camshaft (u) makes the cam (t) to rotate and move up and down the valve rod through the tappet
(r). Mainly each cylinder has two valves; one is admission or suction valve and the other is
exhaust valve.
The ignition system consists of a battery, an ignition coil, a distributor with cam and breaker
points, and spark plug for each cylinder. In diesel engines there is an injection system instead of
ignition system.
The piston is connected to the connecting rod (h) by piston pin (f). This end of the connecting
rod is known as small end. The other end of the connecting rod called the big end is connected to
the crank arm by crank pin (l).

Fig. 3 Components of the reciprocating internal combustion engine
The ignition system consists of a battery, an ignition coil, a distributor with cam and breaker
points, and spark plug for each cylinder. In diesel engines there is an injection system instead of
ignition system.
The piston is connected to the connecting rod (h) by piston pin (f). This end of the connecting
rod is known as small end. The other end of the connecting rod called the big end is connected to
the crank arm by crank pin (l).
Camshaft (u) makes the cam (t) to rotate and move up and down the valve rod through the tappet
(r). Mainly each cylinder has two valves; one is admission or suction valve and the other is
exhaust valve.
The ignition system consists of a battery, an ignition coil, a distributor with cam and breaker
points, and spark plug for each cylinder. In diesel engines there is an injection system instead of
ignition system.
Internal Combustion Engines Terminology
1. Cylinder bore (B): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder.
2. Piston area (A): the area of a circle diameter equal to the cylinder bore.
3. Top Dead Center (T.D.C.): the extreme position of the piston at the top of the
cylinder. In the case of the horizontal engines this is known as the outer dead center
(O.D.C.).
4. Bottom Dead Center (B.D.C.): the extreme position of the piston at the bottom of the cylinder.
In horizontal engine this is known as the Inner Dead Center (I.D.C.).
5. Stroke: the distance between TDC and BDC is called the stroke length and is equal to double
the crank radius (l).
6. Swept volume: the volume swept through by the piston in moving between TDC and is
denoted by V
s
,
2
S
V =
4
d l

Where d is the cylinder bore and l the stroke.
7. Clearance volume: the space above the piston head at the TDC, and is denoted by Vc:
8. Total Volume of the cylinder: V = V
c
+ V
s



Fig. 4 Engine Terminology

9. Compression ratio: It is the ratio of the total volume of the cylinder to the clearance volume,
and is denoted by (r
c
)
c
C
V
r =
V
S C
V


Diesel Engine
A diesel engine (also known as a compression-ignition engine) is an internal combustion
engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel that has been injected
into the combustion chamber. This is in contrast to spark ignition engines such as a petrol engine
(gasoline engine) or gas engine (using a gaseous fuel as opposed to gasoline), which uses a spark
plug to ignite an air-fuel mixture. Diesel engines are manufactured in two-stroke and four-stroke
versions.
The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency of any regular internal or external
combustion engine due to its very high compression ratio.
HISTORY
The engine was developed by German inventor Rudolf Diesel in 1893. Diesel Engines
originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s
they have been used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and
electric generating plants followed later. In the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few
automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of diesel engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in
the world increased. As of 2012, about 75% of all new car sales in the world are diesel.
WORKING PRINCIPLE

The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered Otto cycle by
using highly compressed hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug. In the true diesel
engine, only air is initially introduced into the combustion chamber. The air is then compressed
with a compression ratio typically between 15:1 and 22:1 resulting in 40-bar (4.0 MPa; 580 psi)
pressure compared to 8 to 14 bars (0.80 to 1.4 MPa) (about 200 psi) in the petrol engine.


Fig. 5 P-V Diagram for Ideal Diesel cycle
The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered Otto cycle by
using highly compressed hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug. In the true diesel
engine, only air is initially introduced into the combustion chamber. The air is then compressed
with a compression ratio typically between 15:1 and 22:1 resulting in 40-bar (4.0 MPa; 580 psi)
pressure compared to 8 to 14 bars (0.80 to 1.4 MPa) (about 200 psi) in the petrol engine. This
high compression heats the air to 550 C (1,022 F). At about the top of the compression stroke,
fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber. This may be into a
(typically toroidal) void in the top of the piston or a pre-chamber depending upon the design of
the engine. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets, and that
the fuel is distributed evenly. The heat of the compressed air vaporizes fuel from the surface of
the droplets. The vapour is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air in the combustion
chamber, the droplets continue to vaporise from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all
the fuel in the droplets has been burnt. The start of vaporisation causes a delay period during
ignition and the characteristic diesel knocking sound as the vapour reaches ignition temperature
and causes an abrupt increase in pressure above the piston. The rapid expansion of combustion
gases then drives the piston downward, supplying power to the crankshaft.
As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place without a
separate ignition system, a high compression ratio greatly increases the engine's efficiency.
Increasing the compression ratio in a spark-ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before
entry to the cylinder is limited by the need to prevent damaging pre-ignition. Since only air is
compressed in a diesel engine, and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before top
dead centre (TDC), premature detonation is not an issue and compression ratios are much higher.
Diesel's original engine injected fuel with the assistance of compressed air, which
atomized the fuel and forced it into the engine through a nozzle (a similar principle to an aerosol
spray). The nozzle opening was closed by a pin valve lifted by the camshaft to initiate the fuel
injection before top dead centre (TDC). This is called an air-blast injection.
Driving the three stage compressor used some power but the efficiency and net power
output was more than any other combustion engine at that time. Diesel engines in service today
raise the fuel to extreme pressures by mechanical pumps and deliver it to the combustion
chamber by pressure-activated injectors without compressed air. With direct injected diesels,
injectors spray fuel through 4 to 12 small orifices in its nozzle. The early air injection diesels
always had a superior combustion without the sharp increase in pressure during combustion.
Research is now being performed and patents are being taken out to again use some form of air
injection to reduce the nitrogen oxides and pollution, reverting to Diesel's original
implementation with its superior combustion and possibly quieter operation. In all major aspects,
the modern diesel engine holds true to Rudolf Diesel's original design that of igniting fuel by
compression at an extremely high pressure within the cylinder.
A vital component of all diesel engines is a mechanical or electronic governor which
regulates the idling speed and maximum speed of the engine by controlling the rate of fuel
delivery. Unlike Otto-cycle engines, incoming air is not throttled and a diesel engine without a
governor cannot have a stable idling speed and can easily over speed, resulting in its destruction.
Mechanically governed fuel injection systems are driven by the engine's gear train. These
systems use a combination of springs and weights to control fuel delivery relative to both load
and speed. Modern electronically controlled diesel engines control fuel delivery by use of an
electronic control module (ECM) or electronic control unit (ECU). The ECM/ECU receives an
engine speed signal, as well as other operating parameters such as intake manifold pressure and
fuel temperature, from a sensor and controls the amount of fuel and start of injection timing
through actuators to maximise power and efficiency and minimise emissions. Controlling the
timing of the start of injection of fuel into the cylinder is a key to minimizing emissions, and
maximizing fuel economy (efficiency), of the engine. The timing is measured in degrees of crank
angle of the piston before top dead centre. For example, if the ECM/ECU initiates fuel injection
when the piston is 10 degrees before TDC, the start of injection, or timing, is said to be 10
BTDC. Optimal timing will depend on the engine design as well as its speed and load.
Advancing the start of injection (injecting before the piston reaches to its SOI-TDC) results in
higher in-cylinder pressure and temperature, and higher efficiency, but also results in elevated
engine noise and increased oxides of nitrogen (NO
x
) emissions due to higher combustion
temperatures. Delaying start of injection causes incomplete combustion, reduced fuel efficiency
and an increase in exhaust smoke, containing a considerable amount of particulate matter and
unburned hydrocarbons.
In diesel engines varying amounts of fuel, in the form of very fine droplets, are injected into
approximately the same amount of air, irrespective of the engines speed, to control the top
temperature and the torque. The AFR therefore varies (typically between 20 - 100:1), hence
Diesel engines are described as being QUALITY governed. Fuel burns (after a slight delay) on
injection. Compression ratios (r
c
, typically 18 - 22:1] are limited more by engine component
strength than thermodynamics. Diesel knock can also occur (initial rapid combustion). Fuel
ignitability is measured by 'CETANE' rating a temperature such that when liquid fuel is sprayed
into the combustion space in droplet form it self-ignites. This is why the compression ratios of
diesel engines are typically about twice those of petrol engines. The droplets move around in the
combustion space seeking oxygen and burning takes place on the droplet surface at a local AFR
of about 15 to 1. To promote finding oxygen turbulence is induced in the combustion space. In a
diesel engine only enough fuel is injected to produce the torque required at any given engine
speed. It is not possible to use the stoichiometric AFR because the fuel will never find enough
oxygen quickly enough - and unburned fuel in the form of black smoke (carbon particles) will be
emitted. At 300 RPM the time for combustion is about 8 milliseconds. In diesel engines varying
amounts of fuel, in the form of very fine droplets, are injected into approximately the same
amount of air, irrespective of the engines speed, to control the top temperature and the torque.
The AFR therefore varies (typically between 20 - 100:1), hence Diesel engines are described as
being QUALITY governed. Fuel burns (after a slight delay) on injection. Compression ratios (r
c
,
typically 18 - 22:1] are limited more by engine component strength than thermodynamics. Diesel
knock can also occur (initial rapid combustion). Fuel ignitability is measured by 'CETANE'
rating. Early diesel engines used constant pressure heat transfer rather than constant volume heat
transfer as in the Otto cycle. In practice this can be achieved by a relatively short air blast fuel
injection process. The ideal (or 'true') diesel cycle is shown in Fig.6 below in which the process
2-3 is constant pressure heat transfer to the cycle.


Fig. 6 P-V and T-S Diagrams for Ideal Diesel cycle

On the compression stroke 1-2, air is compressed adiabatically to a temperature such that
when liquid fuel is sprayed into the combustion space in droplet form it self-ignites. This is why
the compression ratios of diesel engines are typically about twice those of petrol engines. The
droplets move around in the combustion space seeking oxygen and burning takes place on the
droplet surface at a local AFR of about 15 to 1. Thermal efficiency of typical diesel engines is


Where r
c
= compression Ratio
= Cutoff Ratio
= Ratio of specific heats
This equation shows that thermal efficiency depends not only on r
c
but also on the cut-off ratio
and the working medium properties . As increase the work done per cycle increase but
th

decreases. When r
c
increase more than 22, the increase in
th
is small, on the other hand,
maximum pressure increases much and mass of the engine increases.

MAJOR ADVANTAGES

Diesel engines have several advantages over other internal combustion engines:
[1]. They burn less fuel than a petrol engine performing the same work, due to the engine's
higher temperature of combustion and greater expansion ratio. Gasoline engines are
typically 30% efficient while diesel engines can convert over 45% of the fuel energy into
mechanical energy.
[2]. They have no high voltage electrical ignition system, resulting in high reliability and easy
adaptation to damp environments. The absence of coils, spark plug wires, etc., also
eliminates a source of radio frequency emissions which can interfere with navigation and
communication equipment, which is especially important in marine and aircraft
applications.
[3]. The life of a diesel engine is generally about twice as long as that of a petrol engine due
to the increased strength of parts used. Diesel fuel has better lubrication properties than
petrol as well.
[4]. Diesel fuel is distilled directly from petroleum. Distillation yields some gasoline, but the
yield would be inadequate without catalytic reforming, which is a more costly process.
[5]. Diesel fuel is considered safer than petrol in many applications. Although diesel fuel will
burn in open air using a wick, it will not explode and does not release a large amount of
flammable vapor. The low vapor pressure of diesel is especially advantageous in marine
applications, where the accumulation of explosive fuel-air mixtures is a particular hazard.
For the same reason, diesel engines are immune to vapor lock.
[6]. For any given partial load the fuel efficiency (mass burned per energy produced) of a
diesel engine remains nearly constant, as opposed to petrol and turbine engines which use
proportionally more fuel with partial power outputs.
[7]. They generate less waste heat in cooling and exhaust.
[8]. Diesel engines can accept super- or turbo-charging pressure without any natural limit,
constrained only by the strength of engine components. This is unlike petrol engines,
which inevitably suffer detonation at higher pressure.
[9]. The carbon monoxide content of the exhaust is minimal; therefore diesel engines are used
in underground mines.


EXPERIMENTAL SET- UP
The setup consists of single cylinder, four stroke, Multi-fuel, research engine connected to eddy
current type dynamometer for loading. The operation mode of the engine can be changed from
diesel to Petrol or from Petrol to Diesel with some necessary changes. In both modes the
compression ratio can be varied without stopping the engine and without altering the combustion
chamber geometry by specially designed tilting cylinder block arrangement. The injection point
and spark point can be changed for research tests. Setup is provided with necessary instruments
for combustion pressure, Diesel line pressure and crank-angle measurements. These signals are
interfaced with computer for pressure crank-angle diagrams. Instruments are provided to
interface airflow, fuel flow, temperatures and load measurements. The set up has stand-alone
panel box consisting of air box, two fuel tanks for duel fuel test, manometer, fuel measuring unit,
transmitters for air and fuel flow measurements, process indicator and hardware interface.
Rotameters are provided for cooling water and calorimeter water flow measurement. A battery,
starter and battery charger is provided for engine electric start arrangement. The setup enables
study of VCR engine performance for brake power, indicated power, frictional power, BMEP,
IMEP, brake thermal efficiency, indicated thermal efficiency, Mechanical efficiency, volumetric
efficiency, specific fuel consumption, A/F ratio, heat balance and combustion analysis. Labview
based Engine Performance Analysis software package Enginesoft is provided for on line
performance evaluation. Diesel engine test rig used for investigations comprised of a single
cylinder, water cooled, constant speed, four stroke, variable compression ratio diesel engine
connected to an eddy current dynamometer for loading. The set up and its schematic (Fig. 7 and
Fig.8) includes necessary instruments for measuring temperatures at various points, load, speed
and fuel consumption. Rotameter was used for measuring cooling water and calorimeter water
flow. Thermocouples were used for measurement of temperature of exhaust gas, cooling water
and calorimeter inlet and outlet. These signals were sent to data acquisition system and to
computer for further processing. The specifications of engine and sensors used are given in Table
2. The engine was coupled with Indus five gas exhaust analyser which is used for measuring
exhaust gas emissions like CO, CO
2
and O
2
.

Fig.7 Test Setup

Fig.8 Schematic of Test Setup
TABLE-2

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Before starting the engine, the condition of the engine oil was checked and also the
availability of water was ensured.
Initially, engine was allowed to run with diesel fuel at no load till engine condition
stabilizes. The engine was then tested for different loads at compression ratio set by
manufacturer. For each load the engine was run for 4-5 minutes till engine parameters stabilizes.
At every load was repeated for three times and readings were averaged. Simultaneously the
values of CO
2
, CO and O
2
were recorded by using exhaust gas analyzer.
The engine then tested with blends of diesel and biodiesel (Easter of waste cooking oil) at
same setting to obtain base line data. The compression ratio at which the experiment was
conducted was 18. The performance of the engine at different loads was evaluated in terms of
brake power (BP), indicated power (IP), brake thermal efficiency (BTE), brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC) and mechanical efficiency. CO
2
, CO and O
2
were recorded by using
exhaust gas analyzer while evaluating the performance of engine fuelled with different blends of
diesel and WCO by using exhaust gas analyzer.








RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
I. Performance Parameters:
(a) Brake Power: While comparing BP of engine with pure diesel, BP of engine when running
with various blends of biodiesel and diesel is slightly reduced (4.5 % only).
Table 3 BP of the engine at different loads
Load PD 5BD 10BD 15BD 20BD
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0.305 0.286 0.285 0.286 0.285
3 0.888 0.854 0.847 0.852 0.852
6 1.756 1.694 1.688 1.688 1.688
9 2.61 2.53 2.5 2.525 2.523


Fig.9 BP at various loads
(b) Indicated Power: While comparing IP of engine with pure diesel, IP of engine when running
with various blends of biodiesel and diesel is increased by 23 %. This may be due to more
availability of oxygen in biodiesel which finally leads to increase in IP.
Table 4 IP of the engine at different loads
Load PD 5BD 10BD 15BD 20BD
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1.05 1.48 1.555 1.516 1.475
3 1.638 2.05 2.117 2.082 2.042
6 2.506 2.89 2.958 2.918 2.878
9 3.36 3.72 3.77 3.755 3.713
0
1
2
3
0 5 10
B
P

(
k
W
)

Load (kg)
PD
5BD
10BD
15BD
20BD


Fig.10 IP at various loads
(c) Brake Thermal Efficiency: It increases with the increase in % of biodiesel by 8.8 %.
Table 5 BTE of the engine at different loads
Load PD 5BD 10BD 15BD 20BD
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 4.5 4.36 4.9 5.1 5.11
3 11.7 11 12.4 12.22 12.5
6 18.4 18.6 19.9 19.4 19.99
9 22.5 22.5 23.7 23.9 23.9



Fig.11 BTE at various loads
(d) Specific fuel consumption: It deceases with the increase in % biodiesel by 7 %.
0
1
2
3
4
0 5 10
I
P

(
k
W
)

Load (kg)
PD
5BD
10BD
15BD
20BD
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 5 10
B
T
E

(
%
)

Load (kg)
PD
5BD
10BD
15BD
20BD
Table 6 SFC of the engine at different loads
Load PD 5BD 10BD 15BD 20BD
1 1.869 1.964 1.75 1.687 1.691
3 0.729 0.781 0.691 0.701 0.688
6 0.465 0.462 0.432 0.443 0.432
9 0.38 0.381 0.362 0.359 0.359


Fig.12 SFC at various loads
(e) Mechanical Efficiency: It decreases by 21 % with the increase in % of biodiesel.
Table 7 Mechanical Efficiency of the engine at different loads
Load PD 5BD 10BD 15BD 20BD
1 28.99 18.91 18.3 18.84 19.32
3 54.22 41.46 40.01 40.93 41.71
6 70.07 58.47 57.05 57.84 58.64
9 77.67 67.74 66.31 67.24 67.94


Fig. 13 Mechanical Efficiency at different loads
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 5 10

S
F
C

(
k
g
/
k
W
-
H
)

Load (kg)
PD
5BD
10BD
15BD
20BD
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 5 10
M
e
c
h
.
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

(
%
)

Load (kg)
PD
5BD
10BD
15BD
20BD
II. Emission Parameters
(a). % of CO: It decreases with % increase in biodiesel by 27 %.
Table 8 % of CO at different loads
Load PD 5BD 10BD 15BD 20BD
0 0.167 0.149 0.14 0.119 0.113
1 0.128 0.118 0.094 0.095 0.099
3 0.095 0.085 0.061 0.073 0.07
6 0.084 0.072 0.052 0.07 0.058
9 0.071 0.067 0.068 0.066 0.054

Fig. 14 % of CO at different loads.
(b) % of CO
2
: It decreases with the % increase in biodiesel by 20 %.
Table 9 % of CO
2
at different loads
Load PD 5BD 10BD 15BD 20BD
0 2.98 2.53 2.32 2.25 2.25
1 3.53 3.14 2.93 2.76 2.25
3 3.95 3.82 3.62 3.36 3.2
6 4.99 4.87 4.64 4.77 4.62
9 6.8 6.15 6.06 6.05 5.78

Fig. 15 % of CO
2
at different loads.
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0 5 10
C
O


(
%
)

Load (kg)
PD
5BD
10BD
15BD
20BD
0
2
4
6
8
0 5 10
C
O
2

(
%
)

Load (kg)
PD
5BD
10BD
15BD
20BD
(c) % of O
2
: It increases with the increase in % of biodiesel by 11%.
Table 10 % of O
2
at different loads
Load PD 5BD 10BD 15BD 20BD
0 16.77 17 17.32 17.4 17.52
1 16.02 16.16 16.5 16.77 17.32
3 14.46 15.13 15.4 15.55 15.76
6 12.71 13.53 14.05 14.52 14.88
9 10.38 11.19 11.8 12.12 12.25


Fig.16 % of O
2
at different loads
(d). % of NO
X
: It decreases with the increase in biodiesel by 5 %.
Table 11 % of NO
X
at different loads
Load PD 5BD 10BD 15BD 20BD
3 716 716 716 716 715
6 716 716 712 709 672
9 716 665 665 660 655


Fig. 17 % of NO
X
at different loads
0
5
10
15
20
0 5 10
O
2

(
%
)

Load (kg)
PD
5BD
10BD
15BD
20BD
640
660
680
700
720
740
0 2 4 6 8 10
%

o
f

N
O
X

Load (kg)
PD
5BD
10BD
15BD
20BD
CONCLUSIONS
It is concluded from this research work that, by using blends of biodiesel of WCO
1. The BP of engine reduces by 5 %.
2. The IP of engine increases by 23 %.
3. The Mechanical efficiency reduces by 21 %.
4. The brake thermal efficiency increases by 8.8 %.
5. The SFC decreases by 7 %.
7. The percentage of CO reduces by 27 %.
8. The percentage of CO
2
reduces by 20 %.
9. The percentage of O
2
increases by 11 %.
10. The percentage of NO
X
reduces by 5 %.
11. The performance evaluation indicates that use of biodiesel of WCO certainly is beneficial to
environment due to reduction in emissions of green house gasses.
12. The using of biodiesel of WCO certainly helps in reducing cost of imports of crude oil.