MO Figure

Gymnosperms
Figure 1
Gymnosperms
first evolved
~145 million
years before
angiosperms.
Gymnosperm adaptations to dry environments:

Pollen and ovules encapsulate entire male and
female gametophyte, respectively.
Water requirements for reproduction
eliminated.
Seeds provide protective coating and resources for
developing embryo.
Bark surrounding the stem, allowing water retention
and protection against enemies.
Figure 2
Large continental interior led to reduced rainfall, fluctuating
temperatures.
Provided environmental conditions favoring gymnosperms,
allowing them to flourish.
Climatic conditions changed during the
Permian as a result of Pangaea
Figure 4
Life cycle of a pine
Figure 4c
Figure 3
Development and dispersal
of gymnosperm seeds
Figure 3a
Figure 3b
Figure 3c
1. Cycadidae (cycads)
2. Ginkgoidae (ginkgo)
3. Gnetidae (gnetophytes)
4. Pinidae (conifers)
Gymnosperms are a monophyletic
clade with four subclades:
Figure 5
Ginkgo biloba. The single surviving member of what was
once a diverse group. Often used in urban landscapes.
Ginkgo
Figure 6
Gymnosperms that share superficial morphological characteristics
with early angiosperms. Adapted to arid environments.
Gnetophytes
Figure 7
Resemble palms but are distantly related. Thrived
during the Mesozoic (~20% of plant species). Few
species today; most rare/threatened.
Cycads
Most diverse group of gymnosperms (~600 species).
Inhabit a wide range of environments, often harsh.
Leaf adaptations needles minimized water loss.
Three orders:
1. Pinales include pines, cedars, spruce, fir
(primarily Northern Hemisphere).
2. Araucariales Southern Hemisphere conifers.
3. Cupressales redwood and sequoia, junipers.
Conifers
MO Figure
Angiosperms
Angiosperms

Most diverse group of plants
90% of all terrestrial plants (more than
250,000 species)
Adaptations
flowers (reproduction)
Enclosed seeds (fruits)
More efficient vascular systems
Nutrient storage capacity

Coevolutionary relationship with animals
Especially insect pollinators

Figure 2
Earliest angiosperm
fossils:


Early Cretaceous (~125
million years old).

But the group is
probably much older
(200-300 million years
old).

Leefructus
one of the earliest angiosperm fossils.
Figure 3
Evolutionary
relationships among
angiosperms
Dicots (two cotyledons)
~175,000 species


Monocots (one cotyledon)
~65,000 species
Figure 1
Generalized angiosperm flower
Petals and sepals are modified leaves.
Ovary at base of flower develops into a fruit with seeds.
Figure 4
Stamen: male reproductive organ
Anther of stamen (with pollen) and filament
Figure 5
Carpel: female reproductive organ
Stigma, style and ovary
Pistil can consist of one or many
carpels.
Figure 6
A generalized angiosperm life cycle
Figure 4c
pollination
Nearly 90% of angiosperms are pollinated by
animals.
Primarily insects
Also bats, birds and even lizards
Coevolutionary relationships between plant
& pollinator mutualists.
Pollen and nectar rewards
Sometimes mutualists cheat
Figure 7
Pollinating insects often
cue in on ultraviolet colors
Figure 8
Deceptive pollination: for example,
resembling a female insect
Figure 9
Pollination by entrapment
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Figure 10
Fruits protect the developing seeds.
Often develop into structures that aid seed dispersal:
Passive e.g., wind or water.
Active e.g., animal consumption.
WaLer ulspersal
Anlmal ulspersal-adherence
Mechanical dispersal
MO Figure
Plant Diversity and Humans
Benefits of plant
diversity to humans
Food (crops)
Medicines
Materials
Shelter
Fuel
Many others
Approximately 80% of all the calories consumed by
people across the world come from six crops:
Maize (corn)
Rice
Wheat
Potatoes
Cassava
Barley


Figure 1
Most of our major
crops have been
domesticated
through artificial
selection to
increase
production of food.
Figure 2
Secondary
compounds from
plants are often co-
opted by people for
medicines and
other benefits.


Ethnobotany: The
study of the
relationship
between plants
and people.
Figure 3
Human activities are leading to a
global decline in plant biodiversity.
Primary causes of
biodiversity loss:

Habitat loss/change
Overexploitation
Pollution
Exotic species
Climate change
Figure 5
Plant biodiversity plays
important role for
ecosystems and
human well-being


but we have only
described a fraction of
the species that exist
on the planet, and
many undescribed
species may go extinct
before we even
discover them.
FERTILIZATION
Gametophyte
(n; multicellular,
haploid)
M
IT
O
S
IS

Sporophyte
(2n;
multicellular,
diploid)
Spores (n)
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Gametes (n)
Zygote
(2n)
Alternation of generations life cycle
Morphologlcal ulverslLy: nonvascular and
Seedless vascular lanLs
Nonvascular plants do not have vascular tissue to conduct water and provide support.
Seedless vascular plants have vascular tissue but do not make seeds.
Hepaticophyta
(liverworts)
Anthocerophyta (hornworts) Bryophyta (mosses)
Pteridophyta (ferns) Sphenophyta (horsetails) Psilotophyta
(whisk ferns)
Lycophyta (lycophytes
or club mosses)
Morphologlcal ulverslLy: Seed
lanLs
Seed plants have vascular tissue and make seeds.
Cycadophyta (cycads) Ginkgophyta (ginkgo) Other conifers
(redwoods, junipers,
yews)
Gnetophyta (gnetophytes) Pinophyta (pines, spruces, firs)Anthophyta (angiosperms
or flowering plants)