Electric Flux and Gauss's Law

Electric flux and Gausss law
1
Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi, Delhi

Discipline Course-I
Semester-II
Paper No: Electricity and Magnetism
Lesson: Electric flux and Gausss law
Lesson Developer: Mr. Jasmeet Singh
College/ Department: Keshav Mahavidyalaya,
University of Delhi

2
Table of Contents

Chapter 2. Electric flux
2.1. Electric field lines
2.2. Properties assigned to electric field lines
2.3. Electric flux
2.4. Gausss law

2.5. Proof of Gausss theorem using the concept of
solid angle
2.6. Differential form of Gausss law

Questions
References

3

Learning Objectives
After going through this chapter, the student would be able to
- Draw the electric field lines for some simple charge distribution
- Know the general meaning of the flux of a vector field in terms of the concept of
rate of flow
- Define the term Electric flux
- State Gauss law and prove it.
- Know the importance and significance of the concept of Gaussian surface in using
Gauss law in practical situations.

2.1 Electric Field Lines
A field line is an imaginary line drawn in such a way that the direction of tangent drawn
at any point is the same as the direction of the field at that point. As shown in figure
2.1.

Figure 2.1 Direction of electric field vectors.
2.2 Properties Assigned to Electric Field Lines:
1. The magnitude of the field is indicated by the density of the field lines i.e. it is
strong near the center where the field lines are close together and weak farther
out, where they are relatively far-apart (fig. 2.2).

A
C
B
Field vectors
4

Figure: 2.2 Electric field due to a point charge.
2. Field lines begin on positive charges and end on negative ones (fig. 2.3).

Figure: 2.3 Electric field between two opposite charges.
+
Q

-
Q

+
Q
5

Figure: 2.4 Electric field between two similar charges.

3. Field lines can never cross, because at the point of intersection the field would
then need to have two different directions at once. This is not permissible (fig.
2.5).

Figure: 2.5 Two different directions of electric field vectors at the crossing, which is not
permissible.

+
Q
+
Q

6
Value addition: Did you Know
Gausss Divergence Theorem
Body text:
Gausss Divergence Theorem
The surface integral of the normal component of a vector field F taken over a
closed surface S enclosing a volume V is equal to the volume integral of the
divergence of the vector F taken through the volume V.
F.dS
S
(.
V
F)dV
Reference: David J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, 3rd
edition.

Gausss law has been discussed in detail in separate chapter specially devoted to this law.
2.3 Electric flux
To understand the concept of flux, imagine a vector function which represents the
velocity of motion of a fluid (say, water flowing in a river), where the velocity varies
from one place to another but is constant in time at any one position. Denote this vector
field by v, measured in m/s. Then, if a is the oriented area in square meters of a frame
lowered into the water, v.a is the rate of flow of water through the frame in cubic
meters per second.

Figure: 2.6 Motion of a fluid (say, water flowing in a river): The flux through an area a
is v.a, where v is the velocity of the fluid.
7
In figure 2.6, the flux through an area a is v.a, where v is the velocity of the fluid. The
flux is the volume of fluid passing through the area, per unit time. Through this example
of flow of a liquid as the rate of flow of a vector field, we can generalize the defination of
flux for any vector field.
In general, for any vector field the flux is defind as the rate of flow of the vector field
through a given area. In electrostatics, consider the simplest case, the field due to an
isolated positive point charge q and let the surface be a sphere of radius r centered on
the point charge. The magnitude of E

at every point on the surface is constant
2
0
1 Q
E
4
r
| |
=
|
e
\ .
and its direction is the same as that of the outward normal at that point.
So the flux through this surface
= E (Total area) =
2
0
1 Q
4
r
| |
|
e
\ .
(4r
2
) =
0
Q
e

The flux is independent of the size of the sphere.
The Electric flux can be regarded as proportional to the number of field lines passing
through unit area. It is measure of the number of field lines passing through S or the
density of field lines (number of field lines per unit area). Thus it can be viewed as a
measure of the total charge enclosed in the given surface .

Figure 2.7 Electric flux: Electric field lines through passing through area S.
The flux of Ethrough surface S (fig. 2.7)
E = (E. n
^
)
S
da

(Eq. 2.1)
where da is infinitesimal area and
^
n is the unit area vector which is perpendicular to da.
8
What are Spherical Polar coordinates?
Body text:
Spherical Polar coordinates (r,,)
r is the distance from the origin.
is the polar angle (the angle down from the z-axis)
is the azimuthal angle (the angle around from the x-axis)

Animation: ani4.swf
In the figure
^ ^ ^
, , r u | constitute an orthogonal basis set (just like
^ ^ ^
x, y, z ) and any
vector A can be expressed in terms of them. The direction of the unit vectors
^ ^ ^
, , r u |
are along their increasing direction.

A Ar r
^
+ A
^
+ A
^

, r A Au and A| are the radial, polar and azimuthal components of A.
In terms of Cartesian unit vectors
9
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^ ^
sin cos i sin sin j cos k
cos cos i cos sin j sin k
sin i cos j
r u | u | u
u u | u | u
| | |
= + +
= +
= +

An infinitesimal displacement in the
^
r direction is simply dr
dl
r
=dr
^
u direction is
dl=r.d
^
| direction is
dl=r.sin.d
Thus the infinitesimal displacement
dl dr r
^
+r.d
^
+r.sin .d
^
dV=dlr.dl .dl

Animation: ani1.swf Animation: ani2.swf
10

Animation: ani3.swf
The infinitesimal volume element dV, in spherical coordinates, is the product of the
three infintesimal displacements:
dV=dl .dl .dl r u |
2
.sin . . . dr d d
r
u u | =
If we are integrating over the surface of a sphere, then r is constant, where and
change, so
1
^ ^
2
dA dl .dl .sin . . r d d r
r
u | u u | = =
When the surface lies in the xy plane, is constant while r and vary, so
2
^ ^
dA dl .dl . . r r dr d | u |u = =
Here r ranges from 0 to
ranges from 0 to
ranges from 0 to 2

2.4 Gausss law
Here we consider that the field of an isolated positive point charge q is represented by
lines radiating out in all directions. Suppose we imagine this charge as surrounded by a
spherical surface of radius R, with the charge at its center. The area of this imaginary
surface is 4R
2
, so if the total number of field lines, emanating from q, is N, then the
number of lines per unit surface area on the spherical surface is N/4R
2
. We imagine a
second sphere concentric with the first, but with radius 2R. Its area is 4(2R)
2
=16R
2
,
11
and the number of lines per unit area on this sphere is N/16R
2
, one-fourth the density
of lines on the first sphere. This correspondes to the fact that, at distance 2R, the field
has only one-fourth the magnitude it has at distance R, and verfies the statement that
the density of lines is proportional to the magnitude of the field.
It is important to note that the total number of lines at distance 2R is the same as that
at a distance R. This is because whereas the field is inversely proportional to R
2
, the area
of the sphere is proportional to R
2
. Hence the product of the two is independent of R. In
mathematical terms,
0
2
1 q
E
4
R
=
e

and the surface area is
A=4R
2

Hence the product of the two is
0
q
EA =
e

This is independent of R and depends only on the charge q.
Let us surround the sphere of radius R by a surface of irregular shape as shown in figure
2.8. Consider a small areal element A; we note that this area is larger than the
corresponding element on a spherical surface at the same distance from q. If the normal
to the surface makes an angle with the radial line from q, the two sides of the area,
projected on the spherical surface, are foreshortened by a factor cos. Thus the
quantity, corresponding to E.A for the spherical surface, is E.Acos for the irregular
surface.

Figure 2.8 Electric field components on an irregular shape surface surrounding a point
charge q.

Now we may divide the entire surface into small elements A, compute the quantity
E.Acos for each, and sum the results which will be again equal to q/
0
for the
irregular surface. This follows from the result obtained above
12
0
q
E. Acos = A
e

The result holds no matter whatever the shape of the surface may be. It is necessary,
however, that the surface must be a closed surface enclosing the charge q.
In the limit when the area elements become very small, A0. In this limit, the sum
becomes an integral, called the surface integral of Ecos

0
S
q
Ecos.dA =
e
}

(Eq. 2.2)
The circle on the integral sign reminds us that the integral is always taken over a closed
surface enclosing the charge q. Since E.cos is the component of E perpendicular to the
surface at each point , we may write E Ecos =

0
S
1
E dA q =
e
}

(Eq. 2.3)
The quantity E dA EcosdA = also equals the electric flux du through the area dA.
Hence the total flux
d u= u=
} E dA E cos .dA E.dA
0
q
=
e

(Eq. 2.4)
Thus total flux, of the electric field, out of a closed surface is proportional to the charge
enclosed.
u
0
q
=
e

Now it is easy to generalize the above results to any charge distribution. The total
electric field E
,
at a point on the surface, is the vector sum of the fields produced by the
individual charges and, therefore, the quantity Ecos.dAis the sum of the contributions
from these charges:
0
S
1
E dA q =
e
}

The total charge enclosed Q= q

S
E.dA

}
0
Q
=
e

(Eq. 2.5)
Thus the Gausss law states that The surface integral of the normal component of the
electric field ( E) over any closed surface (S), is equal to 1/
0
times the total charge (Q)
contained in the volume of space bounded by that closed surface.
Here we need to write about the need for s Gaussian Surface. Gausss law is applicable
for any closed surface but the Gaussian surface has to be a special closed surface for a
given charge distribution.
13
In evaluating the surface integral of E over a closed surface, we may divide the
surface into a number of elements. The integral, over the entire surface, is the sum of
the integrals over each element. There are many cases of practical importance where
symmetry considerations simplify the evaluation of the integral. The following
observations are also useful:
1. If E is at right angles to a surface of area A at all points and has the same
magnitude at all points of the surface, then E = E=constant and E dA EA
2. If E is parallel to a surface at all points, E =0 and the integral is zero.
3. If E=0 at all points of a surface, the integral is zero.
4. The Gaussian surface to which Gausss law is applied need not be a real physical
surface , such as the surface of a soild body. In most applications of this law, we
often use (i) an imaginary surface that may be in empty space, (ii) a (suitable)
surface embedded in a solid body, or (iii) a (suitable) surface that may be partly
in space and partly within a body.

Difference between an angle and solid angle.
Body text:
Angle:
Arc AB
=
radius r
=

The unit angle is the angle subtended by an arc of length equal to its radius. It is
known as one radian.
Solid angle:
2
2
dS Arc
dw= =
radius
r
| |
|
\ .

The unit solid angle is that angle subtended at the center of a sphere by an area r
2

and is known as steradian. The total surface area of the sphere is 4r
2
; hence the
total solid angle subtended at its center is 4 steradians.

A B
O
r
14

Solid angle is the analogue, in three dimensions, of the usual angle in two
dimensions.
For a surface S of irregular shape, dS and dS subtend the same solid angle. Thus
the solid angle, subtended by any surface dS, at a point O, a distance r away, is
given by
2
dS.cos
d =
r

where dS=dScos is the projection of the surface dS perpendicular to the radius
vector r from the point O.
Reference: Electricity and Magnetism By D C Tayal
(Himalaya Publishing House,1988).

2.5 Proof of Gausss theorem using the concept of Solid
Angle
To prove Gausss theorem we begin with the case when the source, producing the field,
is a point charge q present in a volume enclosed by a surface S of irregular shape. We
consider an infinitesimal element dS of the surface S as shown in figure 2.9. The flux,
through dS, is given by:
d EcosdS u=

(Eq. 2.6)
where field
0
2
1 q
E
4
r
=
e

d

dw
dS
O
15
0 0
2 2
1 q q dScos
d cosdS= d
4 4
r r
u = =
e e

Figure 2.9 Electric flux through an elementary area dS of a closed surface surrounding a
point charge.
Here
2
dScos
r
d =

is the solid angle subtended by the surface dS at the point where the
point charge is located. Thus the total flux, through the entire closed surface, S
0 0
S S S
q q
EcosdS d d
4 4
u = = =
e e
} } }

where
S
d
}

is the total solid angle subtended by the surface S. We know that the total
solid angle, subtended by a closed surface, around a point in space, is 4 .

E.dS
q
4 0
4=
0
q
e

(Eq. 2.7)
This is the Gausss theorem for a single point charge present inside the surface S.
Consider now a charge q lying outside the closed surface. We construct a cone of solid
angle d with q as vertex (fig. 2.10). Let dS
1
and dS
2
be the areas inetrcepted by the
cone at A
1
and A
2
. The projection of these surfaces, perpendicular to the radius vector,
are dS
1
cos
1
and dS
2
cos2 and
1 2
1 2
1 2
2 2
ds cos ds cos
d
r r
= =

16
Figure 2.10 Electric flux through a closed surface due to a point charge present outside.
The flux through dS
1
is directed inwards, as the angle (-
1
),

between the directions of
E and 1
^
n , is obtuse. The outward flux is
-E
1
dS
1
cos
1
+E
2
dS
2
cos
2
=
1 2
0 0
1 2
1 2
2 2
-q ds cos q ds cos
0
4 4
r r
+ =
e e

Thus the net flux through the entire surface due to charge outside is zero.

2.6 Differential form of Gausss law
Gausss law, in integral form, is expressed as

enclosed
0
S
Q
E.da

=
e
}

(Eq. 2.8)
Applying divergence theorem to the L.H.S. of above equation, we get
S V
E.da .E dV

| |
= V
|
\ .
} }

Also enclosed Q can be expressed in terms of the charge density :
enclosed
V
Q = dV
}

Thus Gausss law becomes
0
V V
.E dV dV

| | | |
V =
| |
e \ . \ .
} }

For any arbitrary volume, the integrands must be equal. Hence
.E

0

(Eq. 2.9)
This is Gausss law in differential form. We may state this as follows:
The divergence, of the electric field, at any point, is 0 1 e times the volume charge
density at that point.

Question Number Type of question
1 Subjective

Question
17
(a) A point charge Q is located at the center of a cube of edge length d. What is
the value of
S
E.da

}
over one face of the cube?
(b) The charge Q is moved to one corner of the cube. What is now the value of
the flux of E
through each of the nearby faces of the cube?

Solution
(a) The magnitude of E

at every point on the surface is constant
2
0
1 Q
E
4
r
| |
=
|
e
\ .
. So the total flux through all the six faces
= E (Total area)=
S
E.da

}
=
0
Q
e

From the defination, the electric flux is proportional to the number of
field lines passing through unit area. So the flux through a single face
is
1
=
0
Q
6e

(b) Now the point charge is present at one corner of the cube. Hence the
flux contribution to the cube will be 1/8
th
of total flux (Q/0).
The effect of field lines, due to a point charge, drops with distance.
Hence the flux, due to a point charge, present at one corner of the
cube, will pass only through three faces near to the point charge.
Hence the flux through a single face is
1
=
0 0
1 1 Q Q
. .
8 3 24
=
e e
.

2 Subjective

Question
Suppose the electric field, in some region, is found to be E
= kr
3
^
r , in spherical
coordinates (k is some constant)
(a) Find the charge density .
(b) Find the total charge contained in a sphere of radius R, centered at the
18
origin.

Solution
(a) Using differential form of Gausss law
.E

0

k3r
2
=
0
e

0
2
= 3k r e
(b) We have a relation between total chrage and chrage density, given
by

V
Q = dV
}

Using sperical coordinates
0
R 2
r 0 0 0
Q = 3k
| = = =
e
} } }
r
2
.r
2
sin dr d d
0
12
Q = k
5
e R
5

3 Subjective

What is the total outward flux from the cube (0<x,y,z<1 meter), containing a
volume charge distribution = 16xyz C/m
3
.

Solution According to Gausss law,
Total outward flux= Total charge enclosed/
0
= Q/
0
=
V
dV
}
/
0

19
=
0
16
e
10
-6
1 1 1
0 0 0
xyz dx dy dz
} } }

=
0
2
e

References:
1. David J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics,
3rd edition.
2. Electricity and Magnetism By D C Tayal (Himalaya
Publishing House,1988)

Electric Flux and Gauss's Law

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through each of the nearby faces of the cube?

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