Basic Concepts in RF Design

From System requirements to

Rx/TX specifications
System Information
Objectives
Effects of nonlinearity (Harmonics. Gain
compression, desensitization and
blocking, Inter-modulation)
Noise (definition, sources, NF)
Cascaded stages (Nonlinearity, Noise)
How does this translate into the specs of
the individual blocks.
Nonlinearity_1
Definition of linear system
x
1
(t) y
1
(t), x
2
(t)y
2
(t)
ax
1
(t)+bx
2
(t)ay
1
(t) + by
2
(t) for all values of a, b
Time-invariant system
x(t)y(t), then x(t-)y(t-)
A linear system can generate frequency components that do not exist in the input
signal if it is time variant
)
T
n
(f V
n
) (n
(f) V
)
T
n
f
n
(n
(f). V (f) V
in out
in out
1
1

2 / sin
(
) 2 / sin
=
=

Effects of nonlinearity Harmonics
RF Receiver
x(t)=A cost t y(t)
Assume a nonlinear system
t
A
t
A
t A A
A
t y
t t
A
t
A
t A t y
t A t A t A t y
t A t x substitute
t x t x t x t y

3 cos
4
2 cos
2
cos )
4
3
(
2
) (
) 3 cos cos 3 (
4
) 2 cos 1 (
2
cos ) (
cos cos cos ) (
cos ) ( by
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
3
3
2
2
3
3 1
2
2
3
3
2
2
1
3 3
3
2 2
2 1
3
3
2
2 1
+ + + + =
+ + + + =
+ + =
=
+ + =
Harmonics
1. Differential configuration removes even harmonics
2. n
th
harmonic proportional to A
n

1
,
2
,
3
,
n
Gain CompressionDefinition of 1-dB compression
point
3
1
1
1
2
1 3 1
2
3 1
1
3
2
3 1
145 . 0
1 log 20
4
3
20log
int 1
4
3
,
0 ,
4
3
1

=
=

=
= <<<<
< + =

dB
dB
st
A
dB A
sion po dB compres
A , gain as A
gain signal small A for
where A gain signal small harmonic
sensitivity
Receiver
X(t)=A cost t y(t)
Desensitization and Blocking
Effect of system nonlinearity on the
capability of the receiver to extract the
weak signal from the strong interferers
(Blockers)
By checking the desired frequency
1
t A A t y
A A for
where t A A A A t y
1 1
2
2 3 1
2 1
3 1
2
2 1 3
3
1 3 1 1
cos )
2
3
( ) (

0 , cos )
2
3
4
3
( ) (


+ =
<<
< + + =
The gain is compressed now by the effect of the strong interferer. We call
this interferer (Blocking signal)
Strong Interferer
A
2
cost
2
t
RF Receiver
Gain
Weak desired signal
A
1
cost
1
t
y(t)
Inter-modulationdefinition of IP3 point
Receiver
(nonlinear system)

1

2
2
2
-
1
2
1
-
2

1
2

2
2
..
Receiver
(nonlinear system)

1

2
Desired
channel

2
2
2
-
1
2
1
-
2
Desired
channel
Two near-by
interferers
Inter-modulation_2
3
1
IP3
2 1 1 3
3
3 2 1
1 1
2
3 1
1 2
3
3 2 1
3
3
2
2
3 1 1
2
3 1
3
2 1
3
3
2
2 1
2
2 2 1 1
2 1 2 2 1 1
3
3
2
2 1
3
4
A
) - (2 @ output @ output the e point wher the is IP Input
4
3
) - (2

4
9
......... )t - cos(2
4
3
)t - cos(2
4
3

t cos )
4
9
( t cos )
4
9
( ) (
) t cos t cos ( ) t cos t cos ( ) t cos t cos ( ) (
A A Assume , cos cos
interferes nearby two to response system The

=
=
=
=
>>>>
+ + +
+ + + =
+ + + + + =
= = + =
+ + =
A at output
A at output
A assume
A A
A A A A t y
A A A t y
A t A t A x(t)
x(t) x(t) x(t) y(t)
Receiver
(nonlinear system)

2
,
2
,
3
, ..
n

1

2
A
1
A
2

2
2
2
-
1
2
1
-
2

1
2

2
2
..
Inter-modulation-3
in IM out IP
in
IP
IM
out
in
in
IM
out
A A A A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
int, ) 2 ( 3 int, ) , ( int, 3
2
int,
2
3
) 2 ( 3 int,
) , ( int,
int,
2
3
int, 1
) 2 ( 3 int,
) , ( int,
log 20 ) log 20 log 20 (
2
1
log 20
4
3
2 1 2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
+ =
=

P/2
IIP
3
OIP
3
Main Signal Power
3
rd
IM
Power
P
P
in
Cascaded Nonlinear Stages
Finding the System-level IIP3 Point

X(t)
y
1
(t)
y
2
(t)

........
1 1
2
3 , 3
2
1
2
1
2
2 , 3
2
1
2
1 , 3
2
3
+ + +
IP IP IP IP
A A A A

1
,
2
,
3
,
n

1
,
2
,
3
,
n
IIP
3,1
IIP
3,2
IIP
3
: Power quantity
A
IP3
: Voltage
quantity
The nonlinearity of stages away from the antenna is more critical than those located
directly after the antenna since the IP
3
of each stage is scaled down by the total gain
preceding that stage
Thermal noise
-associated with terminal resistances (G, D in MOSFET), and (B, E, C in BJT)
V
n
2
= KTBR
Shot noise:
-Gaussian, associated with the transfer of Q across PN junction
-Dominant in BJT
-modeled as a current source
I
n
2
= 4KT (2/3gm)
Flicker noise
-Random trapping of charge at the oxide-silicon interface of MOSFETS
-voltage sourse in series with the gate
V
n
2
=(K / WLC
ox
)*(1/f) (FET)
Why is Noise important?
Sets dynamic range of a receiver (i.e. ratio of maximum to minimum power)
Determines sensitivity of receiver
Determines required transmission power
Noise
Noise is defined as any random interference unrelated to the signal of interest.
Harmonic distortion and inter-modulation are deterministic processes
Noise: Physical sources of noise in active devices
Noise Figure
G
N
in
=KTB N
out
=G.F.KTB
L
NF=L
Lossy Circuits
Bandwidth : B
e(K) Temperatur : T
Constant Boltzmann : K

, . .
.
KTB Noise Thermal
G Ni F No
Ni
No
So
Si
SNR
SNR
F NF
out
in
=
=
= = =
Noise Figure of Cascaded Stages
Filter
LNA
mixer
IF Amp.
G
1
,NF
1
G
2
, NF
2
G
3
, NF
3
G
4
, NF
4
n
n
tot
G G G G
NF
G G
NF
G
NF
NF NF
..
1
.......
1 1
3 2 1 2 1
2
1
2
1

+ +

+ =
Friis Equation
For gain stages: noise is reduced by the gain factor
For lossy stages: noise is amplified as it propagates through the stage
Sensitivity
Min. detectable signal by the receiver according to a fixed S/N
determined by the BER
Sensitivity
B NF
SNR B NF dBm P
B Log KTB Log
SNR KTB NF P
SNR P NF P y sensitivit
SNR P
P
SNR
SNR
NF
dB
dB
out
dB
in,
out in,
out in noise in,
out in noise
in
out
in
Log 10 dBm/Hz 174 F
system the of noise integrated Total floor Noise
Log 10 dBm/Hz 174 ) (
) ( 10 174 ) ( 10
). .(
. .
1
.
min , min
min , min
, min
,
+ =
=
+ + =
+ =
=
= =
= =
Spurious Free Dynamic Range
SFDR
1. Dynamic Range (DR): Ratio of the maximum input level
that the circuit can tolerate to the minimum input level at
which the circuit provides reasonable signal quality.
2. Upper-end of the dynamic range (DR) depends on the
intermodulation behavior
3. The lower end depends on sensitivity and NF
Spurious Free Dynamic Range
SFDR
min ,
3
min ,
3
min , max ,
3
max in,
in IM,
, ,
3
,
3
max ,
min , max , min , max ,
3
) F IIP ( 2
) (
3
F 2IIP
3
F 2IIP
P
10logB NF -174 F
F floor noise P max. The
2
3
2
2
IIP
discussion IIP3 From
floor noise IM3 where test, tone - two a in level input maximum
) log 10 174 (
out
out in in
in IM in in IM in
in
dB
in
dB
in
out in in in
SNR SFDR
SNR F P P SFDR
P P P P
P IIP
P
P
P
NF SNR B P P P SFDR

=
+
+
= =
+
=
+ + =
= =

+ =
+

=
=
+ + + = =

2
2
1
-
2
2
2
-
1
P
IM,in
<= F
Example: DECT
BER versus SNR in
demodulator
Transceiver Architecture
1. Super-heterodyne
Super-heterodyne_2
Homo-dyne (Direct Conversion)
Architecture_1
Direct Conversion Transceiver_2
Low-IF Transceiver_1
Low-IF Transceiver_2