Politics

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Politics
For the political magazine, see The Politic. For other uses, see Politics (disambiguation).
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Basic forms of
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Politics (from Greek: politikos, meaning "of, for, or relating to citizens") is the practice and theory of
influencing other people on a global, civic or individual level. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising
positions of governance organized control over a human community, particularly a state. Furthermore, politics is
the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community (a hierarchically organized
population) as well as the interrelationship(s) between communities. A variety of methods are employed in politics,
which include promoting one's own political views among people, negotiation with other political subjects, making
laws, and exercising force, including warfare against adversaries. Politics is exercised on a wide range of social
levels, from clans and tribes of traditional societies, through modern local governments, companies and institutions
up to sovereign states, to the international level.
A political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of
political thought can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as Plato's Republic, Aristotle's
Politics and the works of Confucius.
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Etymology
The word comes from the Greek word from which the title of Aristotle's books Politics (politika) derives: "affairs of
the cities", a dissertation on governing and governments, which was rendered in English in the mid-15th century as
Latinized "Polettiques". Thus it became "politics" in Middle English . The singular politic first attested in English
1430 and comes from Middle French politique, in turn from Latin politicus, which is the Latinization of the Greek
(politikos), meaning amongst others "of, for, or relating to citizens", "civil", "civic", "belonging to the
state", in turn from (polites), "citizen" and that from (polis), "city".
History of State Politics
The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, and economics of the institutions of government.
The state
Main article: State (polity)
The origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all political
communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare.
Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China and Japan, were considered divine.
Of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to
the "divine right of kings". Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the longest-lasting political institutions, dating as
early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through
heredity.
The king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council
without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors, and others outside the monarchy negotiated for
power, constitutional monarchies emerged, which may be considered the germ of constitutional
government.Wikipedia:Citation needed Long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered
invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by:Wikipedia:Citation needed
1. 1. Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity.
2. 2. Preserving the traditions of the social order.
3. 3. Being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority.
4. 4. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than a single individual such as the king.
The greatest of the king's subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland, the dukes and counts in the
Continent, always sat as a right on the council. A conqueror wages war upon the vanquished for vengeance or for
plunder but an established kingdom exacts tribute. One of the functions of the council is to keep the coffers of the
king full. Another is the satisfaction of military service and the establishment of lordships by the king to satisfy the
task of collecting taxes and soldiers.
The state and property
Property is the right vested on the individual or a group of people to enjoy the benefits of an object, be it material or
intellectual. A right is a power enforced by public trust. Sometimes it happens that the exercise of a right is opposed
to public trust. Nevertheless, a right is really an institution brought around by public trust, past, present or future. The
growth of knowledge is the key to the history of property as an institution. The more man becomes knowledgeable of
an object be it physical or intellectual, the more it is appropriated. The appearance of the State brought about the
final stage in the evolution of property from wildlife to husbandry. In the presence of the State, man can hold landed
property. The State began granting lordships and ended up conferring property and with it came inheritance. With
landed property came rent and in the exchange of goods, profit, so that in modern times, the "lord of the land" of
long ago becomes the landlord. If it is wrongly assumed that the value of land is always the same, then there is of
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course no evolution of property whatever. However, the price of land goes up with every increase in population
benefiting the landlord. The landlordism of large land owners has been the most rewarded of all political services. In
industry, the position of the landlord is less important but in towns which have grown out of an industry, the
fortunate landlord has reaped an enormous profit. Towards the latter part of the Middle Ages in Europe, both the
State - the State would use the instrument of confiscation for the first time to satisfy a debt - and the Church - the
Church succeeded in acquiring immense quantities of land - were allied against the village community to displace
the small landlord and they were successful to the extent that today, the village has become the ideal of the
individualist, a place in which every man "does what he wills with his own." The State has been the most important
factor in the evolution of the institution of property be it public or private.
The state and the justice system
As a primarily military institution, the State is concerned with the allegiance of its subjects, viewing disloyalty and
espionage as well as other sorts of conspiracies as detrimental to its national security. Thus arises the law of treason.
Criminal acts in general, breaking the peace and treason make up the whole, or at least part of criminal law enforced
by the State as distinguished from the law enforced by private individuals or by the state on behalf of private
individuals. State justice has taken the place of clan, feudal, merchant and ecclesiastical justice due to its strength,
skill and simplicity. One very striking evidence of the superiority of the royal courts over the feudal and popular
courts in the matter of official skill is the fact that, until comparatively late in history, the royal courts alone kept
written records of their proceedings. The trial by jury was adopted by the Royal Courts, securing its popularity and
making it a bulwark of liberty. By the time of the Protestant Reformation, with the separation of Church and State, in
the most progressive countries, the State succeeded in dealing with the business of administering justice.
The state and legislation
The making of laws was unknown to primitive societies.
That most persistent of all patriarchal societies, the Jewish, retains to a certain extent its tribal law in the Gentile
cities of the West. This tribal law is the rudimentary idea of law as it presented itself to people in the patriarchal
stage of society; it was custom or observance sanctioned by the approval and practice of
ancestors.Wikipedia:Citation needed
The state of affairs which existed in the 10th century, when every town had its own laws and nations like France,
Germany, Spain and other countries had no national law until the end of the 18th century, was brought to an end by
three great agencies that helped to create the modern system of law and legislation:Wikipedia:Citation needed
1. Records: From the early Middle Ages in Europe there come what are called folk-laws and they appear exactly at
the time when the patriarchal was becoming the State. They are due almost universally to one cause: the desire of
the king to know the custom of his subjects. These are not legislation in the sense of law-making but statements or
declarations of custom. They are drawn from a knowledge of the custom of the people. Unwritten custom changes
imperceptibly but not the written. It is always possible to point to the exact text and show what it says.
Nevertheless, the written text can change by addition with every new edition.
2. Law Courts: By taking some general rule which seemed to be common to all the communities and ignoring the
differences, English common law was modeled after such a practice so that the law became common in all the
districts of the kingdom. The reason why in the rest of Europe, there was no common law till centuries later is
because the State in those countries did not get hold of the administration of justice when England did. One of the
shrewdest moves by which the English judges pushed their plan of making a common law was by limiting the
verdict of the jury in every case to questions of fact. At first the jury used to give answers both on law and fact;
and being a purely local body, they followed local custom. A famous division came to pass: the province of the
judge and the province of the jury.
3. Fictions: Records and Law Courts were valuable in helping the people adapt to law-making but like Fictions,
they were slow and imperfect. Though slowly, Fictions work because it is a well-known fact that people will
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accept a change in the form of a fiction while they would resist it to the end if the fact is out in the open.
Finally there is the enactment of laws or legislation. When progress and development is rapid, the faster method of
political representation is adopted. This method does not originate in primitive society but in the State's need for
money and its use of an assembly to raise the same. From the town assembly, a national assembly and the progress
of commerce sprang parliaments all over Europe around the end of the 12th century, but not entirely representative
or homogeneous for the nobility and the clergy. The clergy had amassed a fortune in land, about one-fifth of all
Christendom but at the time, in the 12th and 13th centuries, the Church was following a policy of isolation; they
adopted the rule of celibacy and cut themselves from domestic life; they refused to plead in a secular court; they
refused to pay taxes to the State on the grounds that they had already paid it to the Pope. Since the main object of the
king in holding a national assembly was to collect money, the Church could not be left out and so they came to
Parliament. The Church did not like it but in most cases they had to come.Wikipedia:Citation needed
The medieval Parliament was complete when it represented all the states in the realm: nobles, clergy, peasants and
craftsmen but it was not a popular institution mainly because it meant taxation. Only by the strongest pressure of the
Crown were Parliaments maintained during the first century of their existence and the best proof of this assertion lies
in the fact that in those countries where the Crown was weak, Parliament ceased to exist. The notion that parliaments
were the result of a democratic movement cannot be supported by historical facts. Originally, the representative side
of Parliament was solely concerned with money; representation in Parliament was a liability rather than a privilege.
It is not uncommon that an institution created for one purpose begins to serve another. People who were asked to
contribute with large sums of money began to petition. Pretty soon, sessions in Parliament would turn into
bargaining tables, the king granting petitions in exchange for money. However, there were two kinds of petitions,
one private and the other public and it was from this last that laws were adopted or legislation originated. The king as
head of State could give orders to preserve territorial integrity but not until these royal enactments were combined
with public petition that successful legislation ever took place. Even to the present day, this has always been the
basis of all successful legislation: public custom is adopted and enforced by the State.Wikipedia:Citation needed
In the early days of political representation, the majority did not necessarily carry the day and there was very little
need for contested elections but by the beginning of the 15th century, a seat in Parliament was something to be
cherished. Historically speaking, the dogma of the equality of man is the result of the adoption of the purely practical
machinery of the majority, but the adoption of the majority principle is also responsible for another institution of
modern times: the party system. The party system is an elaborate piece of machinery that pits at least two political
candidates against each other for the vote of an electorate; its advantage being equal representation interesting a large
number of people in politics; it provides effective criticism of the government in power and it affords an outlet for
the ambition of a large number of wealthy and educated people guaranteeing a consistent policy in
government.Wikipedia:Citation needed
These three institutions: political representation, majority rule and the party system are the basic components of
modern political machinery; they are applicable to both central and local governments and are becoming by their
adaptability ends in themselves rather than machinery to achieve some purpose.
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The state and the executive system
The administration is one of the most difficult aspects of government. In the enactment and enforcement of laws, the
victory of the State is complete but not so in regards to administration the reason being that it is easy to see the
advantage of the enactment and enforcement of laws but not the administration of domestic, religious and business
affairs which should be kept to a minimum by government.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Originally, the state was a military institution. For many years, it was just a territory ruled by a king who was
surrounded by a small elite group of warriors and court officials and it was basically rule by force over a larger mass
of people. Slowly, however, the people gained political representation for none can really be said to be a member of
the State without the right of having a voice in the direction of policy making. One of the basic functions of the State
in regards to administration is maintaining peace and internal order; it has no other excuse for interfering in the lives
of its citizens. To maintain law and order the State develops means of communication. Historically, the "king's
highway" was laid down and maintained for the convenience of the royal armies not as an incentive to commerce. In
almost all countries, the State maintains the control of the means of communication and special freedoms such as
those delineated in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution are rather limited. The State's original
function of maintaining law and order within its borders gave rise to police administration which is a branch of the
dispensation of Justice but on its preventive side, police jurisdiction has a special character of its own, which
distinguishes it from ordinary judicial work. In the curfew, the State shows early in history the importance of
preventing disorder. In early days, next to maintaining law and order, the State was concerned with the raising of
revenue. It was then useful to the State to establish a standard of weights and measures so that value could be
generally accepted and finally the State acquired a monopoly of coinage. The regulation of labor by the State as one
of its functions dates from the 15th century, when the Black Plague killed around half of the European
population.Wikipedia:Citation needed
The invariable policy of the State has always been to break down all intermediate authorities and to deal directly
with the individual. This was the policy until Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations was published promoting a strong
public reaction against State interference. By its own action, the State raised the issue of the poor or the State relief
of the indigent. The State, of course, did not create poverty but by destroying the chief agencies which dealt with it
such as the village, the church and the guilds, it practically assumed full responsibility for the poor without
exercising any power over it. The Great Poor Law Report of 1834 showed that communism was widespread in the
rural areas of England. In newly developed countries such as the colonies of the British Empire, the State has refused
to take responsibility for the poor and the relief of poverty, although the poor classes lean heavily towards State
socialism.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Taking into account the arguably significant powers of the State, it is only natural that in times of great crisis such as
an overwhelming calamity the people should invoke general State aid.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Political representation has helped to shape State administration. When the voice of the individual can be heard, the
danger of arbitrary interference by the State is greatly reduced. To that extent is the increase of State activity popular.
There are no hard and fast rules to limit State administration but it is a fallacy to believe that the State is the nation
and what the State does is necessarily for the good of the nation. In the first place, even in modern times, the State
and the nation are never identical. Even where "universal suffrage" prevails, the fact remains that an extension of
State administration means an increased interference of some by others, limiting freedom of action. Even if it is
admitted that State and nation are one and the same, it is sometimes difficult to admit that State administration is
necessarily good. Finally, the modern indiscriminate advocacy of State administration conceals the fallacy that State
officials must necessarily prove more effective in their action than private enterprise. Herein lies the basic difference
between public and business administration; the first deals with the public weal while the second deals basically in
profit, but both require a great deal of education and ethical conduct to avoid the mishaps inherent in the relationship
not only relating to business and labour but also the State and the people administrating its government.
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Themes
Forms of political organization
There are many forms of political organization, including states, non-government organizations (NGOs) and
international organizations such as the United Nations. States are perhaps the predominant institutional form of
political governance, where a state is understood as an institution and a government is understood as the regime in
power.
According to Aristotle, states are classified into monarchies, aristocracies, timocracies, democracies, oligarchies, and
tyrannies. Due to changes across the history of politics, this classification has been abandoned. Generally speaking,
no form of government could be considered the absolute best, as it would have to be the perfect form under all
circumstances, for all people and in all ways. As an institution created by human nature to govern society, it is
vulnerable to abuse by people for their own gain, no matter what form of government a state utilizes, thus suggesting
there is no 'best' form of government.
All states are varieties of a single organizational form, the sovereign state. All the great powers of the modern world
rule on the principle of sovereignty. Sovereign power may be vested on an individual as in an autocratic government
or it may be vested on a group as in a constitutional government. Constitutions are written documents that specify
and limit the powers of the different branches of government. Although a constitution is a written document, there is
also an unwritten constitution. The unwritten constitution is continually being written by the legislative branch of
government; this is just one of those cases in which the nature of the circumstances determines the form of
government that is most appropriate. England did set the fashion of written constitutions during the Civil War but
after the Restoration abandoned them to be taken up later by the American Colonies after their emancipation and
then France after the Revolution and the rest of Europe including the European colonies.Wikipedia:Citation needed
There are many forms of government. One form is a strong central government as in France and China. Another
form is local government, such as the ancient divisions in England that are comparatively weaker but less
bureaucratic. These two forms helped to shape the practice of federal government, first in Switzerland, then in the
United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and in Germany in 1870 and in the 20th century, Australia. Federal states
introduced the new principle of agreement or contract. Compared to a federation, a confederation has a more
dispersed system of judicial power.Wikipedia:Citation needed In the American Civil War, the contention of the
Confederate States that a State could secede from the Union was untenable because of the power enjoyed by the
Federal government in the executive, legislative and judiciary branches.Wikipedia:Citation needed
According to professor A. V. Dicey in An Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, the essential
features of a federal constitution are: a) A written supreme constitution in order to prevent disputes between the
jurisdictions of the Federal and State authorities; b) A distribution of power between the Federal and State
governments and c) A Supreme Court vested with the power to interpret the Constitution and enforce the law of the
land remaining independent of both the executive and legislative branches.
Global politics
Main article: Global politics
Global politics include different practices of political globalization in relation to questions of social power: from
global patterns of governance to issues of globalizing conflict. The 20th century witnessed the outcome of two world
wars and not only the rise and fall of the Third Reich but also the rise and fall of communism. The development of
the atomic bomb gave the United States a more rapid end to its conflict in Japan in World War II. Later, the
development of the hydrogen bomb became the ultimate weapon of mass destruction.
Global politics also concerns the rise of global and international organizations. The United Nations has served as a
forum for peace in a world threatened by nuclear war, "The invention of nuclear and space weapons has made war
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unacceptable as an instrument for achieving political ends." Although an all-out final nuclear holocaust is out of the
question for man, "nuclear blackmail" comes into question not only on the issue of world peace but also on the issue
of national sovereignty. On a Sunday in 1962, the world stood still at the brink of nuclear war during the October
Cuban missile crisis from the implementation of U.S. vs U.S.S.R. nuclear blackmail policy.
Global politics is affected by values: norms of human rights, ideas of human development, and beliefs such as
cosmopolitanism about how we should relate to each:

Cosmopolitanism can be defined as a global politics that, firstly, projects a sociality of common political engagement among all human beings
across the globe, and, secondly, suggests that this sociality should be either ethically or organizationally privileged over other forms of
sociality.

Political corruption
Main article: Political corruption

Unlimited power is apt to corrupt the minds of those who possess it. William Pitt the Elder
[3]

Political corruption is the use of legislated powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of
government power for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents and general police brutality, is not
considered political corruption. Neither are illegal acts by private persons or corporations not directly involved with
the government. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to
their official duties.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Forms of corruption vary, but include corruption, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, patronage, graft, and
embezzlement. While corruption may facilitate criminal enterprise such as drug trafficking, money laundering, and
trafficking, it is not restricted to these activities. Wikipedia:Citation needed The activities that constitute illegal
corruption differ depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, certain political funding practices that are
legal in one place may be illegal in another. In some cases, government officials have broad or poorly defined
powers, which make it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually.
[4]
A state of unrestrained
political corruption is known as a kleptocracy, literally meaning "rule by thieves".Wikipedia:Citation needed
Political parties
Main article: political party
A political party is a political organization that typically seeks to attain and maintain political power within
government, usually by participating in electoral campaigns, educational outreach or protest actions. Parties often
espouse an expressed ideology or vision bolstered by a written platform with specific goals, forming a coalition
among disparate interests.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Politics as an academic discipline
Political science, the study of politics, examines the acquisition and application of power. Political scientist Harold
Lasswell defined politics as "who gets what, when, and how". Related areas of study include political philosophy,
which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic of public behaviour, political economy, which attempts to develop
understandings of the relationships between politics and the economy and the governance of the two, and public
administration, which examines the practices of governance.Wikipedia:Citation needed The philosopher Charles
Blattberg, who has defined politics as "responding to conflict with dialogue," offers an account which distinguishes
political philosophies from political ideologies.
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The first academic chair devoted to politics in the United States was the chair of history and political science at
Columbia University, first occupied by Prussian migr Francis Lieber in 1857.
Political values
Political views differ on average across nations. A recreation of the
InglehartWelzel Cultural Map of the World based on the World Values Survey.
Main article: Political spectrum
Several different political spectrums have
been proposed.
Leftright politics
Main article: Leftright politics
Recently in history, political analysts and
politicians divide politics into left wing and
right wing politics, often also using the idea
of center politics as a middle path of policy
between the right and left. This
classification is comparatively recent (it was
not used by Aristotle or Hobbes, for
instance), and dates from the French
Revolution era, when those members of the
National Assembly who supported the
republic, the common people and a secular
society sat on the left and supporters of the
monarchy, aristocratic privilege and the
Church sat on the right.
The meanings behind the labels have become more complicated over the years. A particularly influential event was
the publication of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels in 1848. The Manifesto suggested a
course of action for a proletarian revolution to overthrow the bourgeois society and abolish private property, in the
belief that this would lead to a classless and stateless society.Wikipedia:Citation needed
The meaning of left-wing and right-wing varies considerably between different countries and at different times, but
generally speaking, it can be said that the right wing often values tradition and social stratification while the left
wing often values reform and egalitarianism, with the center seeking a balance between the two such as with social
democracy or regulated capitalism.
According to Norberto Bobbio, one of the major exponents of this distinction, the Left believes in attempting to
eradicate social inequality, while the Right regards most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural
inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian.
[5]
Some ideologies, notably Christian Democracy, claim to combine left and right wing politics; according to Geoffrey
K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, "In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views
held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles."
[6]
Movements which claim or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide include Fascist Terza Posizione
economic politics in Italy, Gaullism in France, Peronism in Argentina, and National Action Party in
Mexico.Wikipedia:Citation needed
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Authoritarianlibertarian politics
Authoritarianism and libertarianism refer to the amount of individual freedom each person possesses in that society
relative to the state. One author describes authoritarian political systems as those where "individual rights and goals
are subjugated to group goals, expectations and conformities", while libertarians generally oppose the state and hold
the individual as sovereign. In their purest form, libertarians are anarchists, who argue for the total abolition of the
state, of political parties and of other political entities, while the purest authoritarians are, theoretically, totalitarians
who support state control over all aspects of society.Wikipedia:Citation needed
For instance, classical liberalism (also known as laissez-faire liberalism,
[7]
) is a doctrine stressing individual
freedom and limited government. This includes the importance of human rationality, individual property rights, free
markets, natural rights, the protection of civil liberties, constitutional limitation of government, and individual
freedom from restraint as exemplified in the writings of John Locke, Adam Smith, David Hume, David Ricardo,
Voltaire, Montesquieu and others. According to the libertarian Institute for Humane Studies, "the libertarian, or
'classical liberal,' perspective is that individual well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered by 'as much
liberty as possible' and 'as little government as necessary.'"
[8]
For anarchist political philosopher L. Susan Brown
"Liberalism and anarchism are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual freedom
yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to
individual freedom while rejecting liberalism's competitive property relations."
[9]
References
Connolly, William (1981). Appearance and Reality in Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
James, Paul; Soguk, Nevzat (2014). Globalization and Politics, Vol. 1: Global Political and Legal Governance
[10]
. London: Sage Publications.
Ryan, Alan: On Politics: A History of Political Thought from Herodotus to the Present. London: Allen Lane,
2012. ISBN 978-0-713-99364-6
Notes
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Politics_sidebar& action=edit
[2] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Basic_forms_of_government& action=edit
[3] Safire's political dictionary, by William Safire, 2008, Oxford University Press US, pg 566
[4] African corruption 'on the wane' (http:/ / news.bbc.co.uk/ 1/ hi/ business/ 6288400. stm), 10 July 2007, BBC News
[5] Bobbio, Norberto, Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction (translated by Allan Cameron), 1997, University of Chicago
Press. ISBN 0-226-06246-5
[6] Roberts and Hogwood, European Politics Today, Manchester University Press, 1997
[7] Ian Adams, Political Ideology Today (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), 20.
[8] What Is Libertarian? (http:/ / www. theihs.org/ about/ id. 1084/ default. asp), Institute for Humane Studies
[9] L. Susan Brown. The Politics of Individualism: Liberalism, Liberal Feminism, and Anarchism. BLACK ROSE BOOKS LID. 1993
[10] http:/ / www.academia.edu/ 7285675/ Globalization_and_Politics_Vol. _1_Global_Political_and_Legal_Governance_2014_
Article Sources and Contributors
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Article Sources and Contributors
Politics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=623123781 Contributors: (jarbarf), 1 Jake Williams, 100110100, 123123123a, 129.79.203.xxx, 193.150.238.xxx, 203.96.111.xxx,
28bytes, 2D, 3d1tb0y, 5618, 6SJ7, A More Perfect Onion, A8UDI, A930913, ABF, ABoerma, AMittelman, Aareviewsalot, Aaron north, Aaron391, Abdullais4u, AberrantTemplar, Abhinav,
Abid931, AbsolutDan, Abu-Fool Danyal ibn Amir al-Makhiri, Academic Challenger, Acadmica Orientlis, Accuracyname, Ace Diamond, Aces lead, Acetotyce, Acidify, ActivExpression,
AdamRetchless, Adambro, Adashiel, Adasinol, Addshore, Adobar, Aeroman7476, Aetheling, Aeusoes1, Agh.niyya, Ahoerstemeier, Airtyme 71, Aitias, Akamad, Alan Liefting, Alansohn,
AlbertW, Alekjds, Alex '05, Alexander Doria, Alexander.stohr, Alexrules, Alfredovic, AlisonRedi, Alisonmahone, AliveFreeHappy, Allchopin, Allen3, Alma Pater, Alrasheedan, Altenmann,
Anc10, Ancheta Wis, Andre Engels, Andreasegde, Andres, Andrew Homer, Androidclone, Andy Marchbanks, Andycjp, Anetode, Angela, Angr, Animum, Anonymous anonymous, Antandrus,
Aphaia, Apollo1758, Aram33, Archangel85, Arda Xi, Ardara, Aresilek, Arifsaha, Aronlee90, Arpit baid, Art LaPella, Arthena, Aryc19x, Askrew, Atethnekos, Atomician, Awh, BSI, Babecorp,
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