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Basics of Networking

Networking
Introduction
A collection of two or more computers interconnected by the telephone lines, co-axial
cable, satellite links, radio and microwave transmission and some other communication
techniques. A computer network is a group of computers that are connected together and
that communicate with one another for a common purpose.
Although the computer industry is young compared to anther industries (e.g., automobiles
air transportation), computer have made spectacular progress in a short time. uring the
first two decades of their extrinsic, computer system highly centrali!ed, usually a single
large room. A medium si!e company or university might have had one or two computers,
while large instructions had at most a few do!en. "he idea that with in #$ years equally
powerful computers smaller than postage stamps would be mass produced by the millions
was pure science fiction.
"he merging of computers % communications has had a profound influence on the way
computer systems are organi!ed. "he concept of the computer center as a room with a
large computer to which users bring their work for processing is now totally obsolete. "he
old model of single computer serving all of the organi!ations computational needs has
been replaced by one in which a large number of separate but interconnected computers
do the &ob. "hese systems are called computer networks.
"wo computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information's.
"he connection need not be via a copper wire( fiber optics, microwaves, and
communication satellites can also be used. )y requiring the computer to be autonomous,
we which to execute from our definitions systems in which there is a clear master*slave
relation. +f one computer can forcibly starts , stop, or control another one, the computers
are not autonomous. A system with one control unit and many slaves is not a network( nor
is a large computer with remote printers and terminals.
"here is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer network and a
distributed system. "he key distinction is that in a distributed system, the extence of
multiple autonomous computers is transparent to the user. ,e can type a command to run
a program. And it runs. +t is up to the operating system to select the best processor, find
and transport all the input files to the processor, and put the result in the appropriate
place. +n other words, the user of a distributed system is not aware that there are multiple
processors( it looks like a virtual uni-processer. A location of &obs to processors and files
to disks, moment of files between where they are stored and where they are needed, and
all other system functions must be automatic.
-ith a network, user must explicitly log on to one machine, explicitly submit &obs remotely,
explicitly move files around and generally handle all the network management personally.
-ith the distributed system, nothing has to be done explicitly it is all automatically done by
the system without the users knowledge.
+n effect, a distributed system is a software system built on top of a network. "he software
gives it a high degree of cohesiveness and transparency. "hose distinction between a
network and a distributed system lies with the software rather than with the hardware.
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Basics of Networking
0evertheless, there is considerable our lap between the two sub&ects. 1.g., both
distributed system and computers networks need to move file around. "he difference lies
in whom in vokes the movement, the system or the user.

Local Area Networks (LAN):
2ocal area network, generally called 2A0s, is privately-owned networks with in a single
building or campus of up to a few 34 in si!e. "hey are widely used to connect personal
computers and workstation in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g.,
printers) and exchange information. 2A0s are distinguished from other kinds of networks
by three characteristics5
.. "heir si!e,
#. "heir transmission technology,
6. "heir topology.
2A0s are restricted in si!e, which means that the worst-case transmission time is
bounded and known in advance. 3nowing this bound makes it possible to use certain
kinds of designs that would not otherwise be possible. +t also simplifies network
management.
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN):
A metropolitan area network, or MAN (plural5 4A0s, not 410) is basically a bigger
version of a 2A0 and normally uses similar technology. +t might cover a group of nearby
corporate offices or a city and might be either private or public. A 4A0 can support both
data and voice, and might even be related to the local cable television network. A 4A0
&ust has one or two cables and does not contain switching elements, which shunt
packets over one of several potential output lines.
Wide Area Networks (WAN):
A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or
continent. +t contains of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs.
-e will follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts "he term end s!stem is
sometimes also used in the literature. "he hosts are connected by a communication
su"net, or &ust su"net for short. "he &ob of the subnet is to carry messages from host to
host, &ust as the telephone system carries words from speaker to listener. )y separating
the pure communication aspects of the network (the subnet) from the application aspects
(the hosts), the complete network design is greatly simplified.
+n most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components5
transmission lines % switching elements "ransmission lines (also called circuits,
channels, or trunks) move bits between machines.
"he switching elements are speciali!ed computers used to connect two or more
transmission lines. -hen data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must
choose an outgoing line to forward them on.
+n most -A0s, the network contains numerous cables or telephone lines, each one
connecting a pair of routers. +f two routers that do not share a cable nevertheless wish to
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Basics of Networking
communicate, they must do this indirectly, via other routers. -hen a packet is send from
one router to another via one or more intermediate routers, the packet is received at
each intermediate router in its entirety, stored there until the required output line is free,
and the forwarded. A subnet using this principle is called a #oint to #oint, store and
forward or packet switched subnet. 0early all wide area networks (except those using
satellite) have store and forward subnet. -hen the packet are small and all the same
si!e, they often called cells.
Wireless network:
4obile computers, such as notebook computers and personal digital assistants (7A)
are the fastest growing segment of the computer industries. 4any of the owners of
these computers have desktop machines on 2A0's and -A0's back at the office and
want to be connected to their home base even when away from home or en route. 8ince
having a wired connection is impossible in cars and airplanes, there is a lot of interest in
wireless network.
-ireless networks come in many forms. 8ome universities are already installing
antennas all over campus to allow students to sit under the trees and consult the
libraries card catalogs. ,ere the computers communicate directly with the wireless 2A0
in a digital form. Another possibility is using a cellular (i.e. portable) telephone with a
traditional analog modem. irect digital cellular service, called $%#% ($ellular %igital
#acket %ata) is becoming available in many cities.
Network &ardware
+t is now time to turn our attention from the application and social aspects of networking to
the technical issues involved in network design. "here is no generally excepted taxonomy
into which all computer network fit, but two dimensions stand out as important5
transmission technologies and scale. -e will now examine each of these in turns.
)roadly speaking, there are two types of transmission technologies5
.. )roadcast networks.
#. 7oint-to-point networks.
Broadcast networks: +t have a single communication channel that is shared by all
the machines on the network. 8hort messages, called packets in certain contexts,
sent by any machine are received by all the others. An address field within the
packet specifies for whom it's intended. 9pon receiving a packet, a machine
checks the address field. +f the packet is intended for itself, it process the packet, if
the packet is intended for the other machine, it is &ust ignored.
)roadcast systems generally also allow the possibility of addressing a packet to all
destinations by using a special code in the address field. -hen a packet with this
code is transmitted, it is received and processed by every machine on the network.
"his mode of operation is called "roadcasting. 8ome broadcast system also
support transmission to a subset of a machines, something now has multicasting.
#oint'to'point networks: +t consists of many connections between individual pairs
of machines. "o go from the source to the destination, a packet on this type of
network may have to first visit one or more intermediate machines. :ften multiple
routes, of different lengths are possible, so routing algorithm play an important role
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in point-to-point networks. As a general rule (although there are many exceptions),
smaller, geographically locali!ed networks tend to use broadcasting, where larger
usually are point-to-point.
-henever we want two devices ; transmitting and receiving device to
communicate with each other, we need hardware's to achieve that. -e would be
discussing about the various hardware such as5
.. 8ender and <eceiver hardware
#. =ommunication devices
6. =ommunication channels

(ender and )ecei*er &ardware:
>ollowing hardware are used for handling communication messages, data
transfer etc.
Nodes and workstations:
ata communication is done using various communication devices and
softwares interconnected for information exchange. "he devices used to
communicate a data in communication network are called -orkstations.
"hese workstations may be computer, terminal, printer, telephones and
other communication devices. 1ach workstation is connected to something
called a ata =ommunication 0etwork 4ode.
Multiple+er:
As the name suggests, multiplexing is a form of data transferring which are
communication channels and is used for several transmission. >or e.g. the
telephone lines that we used for our daily conversation can carry .$$'s and
even .$$$'s of conversations using multiplexing. +n other words
multiplexing is a type of network which allows a number of simple, low cost
terminals to share each communication lines introduces almost no delay
and requires no special computer softwares.
4ultiplexing is used in two ma&or ways5
,%M (>requency ivision 4ultiplexing)
-%M ("ime ivision 4ultiplexing)
,%M: )y dividing a communication channel into various smaller
segments of different frequencies.
-%M: )y taking groups of bytes from each sender and send or
transmit them over the channel one after another. 1ach group of
data bytes are tagged at the beginning and end with start and stop
bytes. "hese by control bytes are then separated at the receiving
end and send to their respective places. "his type of multiplexing
occurs so fast that the transmission seems continuous.
$ommunication de*ices:
"here are several types of communication devices or interface used in data
communication. "hese interfaces are connection between receiver and sender hardware
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involved in data communication and the communication network. 8ome of these interface
or communication devices are discussed below5
. Modems5 4odulator and emodulators are devices which converts digital
signals in to analog for transmission over the analog transmission facilities
such as telephones. At the receiving end, a modem performs the reverse
function and converts analog signals into digital form.
/ $odec performs the opposite function of a modem. A communication port *
adapter is a connector on the computer, which is used as an entry to departure
point for data involved in data communication. A common type of
communication port is <8-#6#c. "his adapter is used for transfer of data
between the computer and the telephone lines.
0 Line %ri*ers are simple devices used to transmit digital signals over short
distances. "hese devices do not modulate or demodulate signals, but use
filters to reduce the high frequency components and the modified signal is
transmitted directly over the media. "hese devices are used for the distances
up to . 34 and can achieve data transfer rates of up to .@#$$ )78. +t is
mainly used for connecting A9 terminals with a computer at a distance of
more than .$$ feet or so.
$ommunication channels:
"he most basic hardware required for communication is the media through which
data is transferred. "here are several types of media, and the choice of the right
media depends on many factors such as cost of transmission media, efficiency of
data transmission and the transfer rate.
8ome of the following transmission 4edias is as follows5
.. -wo wire open line: "his is the simplest of all the transmission media. +t
consists of a simple pair of metallic wires made of copper or some times
aluminums of between $.? and .mm diameter, and each wire is insulated from
the other. "here are variations to this simplest form with several pairs of wire
enclosed in a single protected cable called a multi core cable or molded in the
form of a flat ribbon.
"his type of media is used for communication within a short distance, up to
about /$ 4, and can achieve a transfer rate of up to .@#$$ bits per second.
#. -wisted #air ca"le: A twisted pair consists of a pair of insulated conductors
that are twisted together. "he advantages of a "wisted 7air cable over the "wo
-ire :pen 2ines are( it provides better immunity from spurious noise signals.
As the "wo -ires are closed to each other, both pick equal interferences
caused by extraneous signal sources and this reduces the differential signal
added by the noise.
"wisted 7air cable is used for communication up a distance of . 34 and can
achieve a transfer rate of up to .-# 4)78. )ut as the speed increased the
maximum transmission distances reduced, and may require repeaters.
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"wisted pair cables are widely used in telephone network and are increasingly
being used for data transmission.
6. $o'a+ial $a"le: A co-axial cable consists of a solid conductor running co-axial
inside a solid or braided our annular conductor. "he space between the two
conductors is filled with a dielectric insulating material. 2arger the cable
diameter, lower is the transmission loss, and higher transfer speeds can be
achieved. A co-axial cable can be used over a distance of about . 34 and can
achieve a transfer rate of up to .$$ 4)78.
A co-axial cable is of two types- a B/ :hm cable which is used by the cable "A
operators and /$ :hm cable which is used in high speed broad band networks
and is low loss cables.
?. ,i"er 1ptic $a"les:
A fiber optic cable carries signals in the form of fluctuating light in a glass or
plastic cable. An optical fiber cable consists of a glass or plastic core
surrounded by a cladding of a similar material but with a lower refractive index.
"he core transmits the light while the change in refractive index. "he core
transmit the light while the change in refractive index between the core and the
cladding causes total internal reflection, thus minimi!ing the loss of light from
fiber.
As light waves gave a much wider wand width then the electrical then the
electrical signal and are immune from electromagnetic interferences, this leads
to high data transfer rate of about .$$$ mega bites per second % can be used
for long % medium distance transmission links.
/. )adio, Microwa*es 2 (atellite $hannels
<adio, 4icrowaves % 8atellite =hannels use electromagnetic propagation in open
space. "he advantage of these channels lie in their capability to cove large
geographical areas % being inexpensive than the wired installation.
"he demarcation between radio, 4icrowave % satellite channels lie in the
frequencies in which they operate. >requency bellow .$$$ 4,C are radio
frequencies % higher the 4icrowave frequencies.
"he radio frequency transmission may be bellowing 6$ 4,C above 6$ 4,C % thus
the techniques of transmission are different. :wing to the characteristics of the
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Basics of Networking
ionosphere, frequencies bellow 6$4,C are reflected back towards the surface of
the earth. Above 6$4h! propagation is on line of sight paths. Antennas are placed
in between the line-of- sight paths to increase the distance. <adio frequencies are
prone to attenuation and, thus, they require repeats along the path to enhance the
signal. <adio frequencies can achieve data transfer rate of .$$ 3bps to ?$$ 3bps.
4icrowave links use line- of- sight transmission with repeaters placed every .$$-
#$$ 3ms. 4icrowave links can achieve data transfer rates of about .$$$ 4bps.
8atellite links use microwave frequencies is the order of ?-.# E,! with the satellite
as a repeater. "hey can achieve data transfer rates of about .$$$ 4bps.
Network $oncept and $lassifications5
=ommunication using computer has brought a revolution in the world of computer
technology, particular in the field of computers. -e have always heard of networking or
the term network, a network is a way or means of transmitting or receiving information
one or more sources. As an e.g. car salesman after years in the business, have
developed a network of associates. -hen the car salesman needs a car to make a sale
the car salesman calls out to his network to retrieve information on the location of the car.
1mployment agents also develop a network. "heir customers become their network.
1mployment agents will frequently keep in touch with their clientele for possible openings
or to locate a candidate for an opening. -ithout the capability of networking, these two
people would have a difficult time. +t is the same in computing. 0etworks provide the
means for locating transporting information.

+n computing networks, the origin of the information request utili!ed the service of a
network to locate % return the information. "his is done with addresses. +n the two
previous examples of the car sales man % the employment agent, a telephone number
can be considered the address of their associate or client. Addresses in computer
networking are used in the same manner. "hese addresses identify the network resource.
"here are two popular architectures for networking ; hierarchical % peer.
,ierarchical addressing is defined in a master slave relationship. +n hierarchical network,
the master controls the network % therefore assigns addresses to the network resource.
"his architecture has the maniframe as the master % all network resources as slave. "he
bases of this is that if the master does not know before hand of a network resource
existence through a pre- defined address then that resource can not participate in the
network.
7eer networking does not need pre- defined networking addressing. +nstead, each
resource on the network is seen as a peer. 1ach network resource is a peer to the other
network resource. -hen a new network resource &oins the network it introduced itself %
notifies its peer to any other network resources that it knows about peer networks are
share network information.
"he entire computer network can be classified into two board categories. "hey are (a)
2A0 (2ocal Area 0etwork) (b) -A0 (-ide Area 0etwork)
LAN (Local Area Network)
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As numbers of system grow within an organi!ation, a need is felt for sharing expensive
resource and exchanging data and information between systems. "his need of
information exchange and resource and sharing with in a organi!ation has given birth to a
local area network or 2A0.
A 2A0 is a data communication network, which connects many computers or workstation
( =omputer's "erminals, 7rinter etc.) and permits exchange of data % information among
themselves, with in a locali!ed area, typically confined to a building, or a cluster of
buildings. "he distance between two communications prints connected on the same 2A0
channels is usually up to $# to $/ kms.
2A0s are not rigidly defined but tend to share most of all of the following characteristics.
"he transmission media is shared by all the connected devices in the network.
1ach device is connected in the network can either operate stand alone or in the
network.
Area covered is small.
ata transfer rates are high, usually . 4bps- .$$ 4bps (4illion of bits per
second).
1ach device connected in the network can communicate with any other device in
network.
=ost of setting up the network is usually low.
LAN -opolog!
A network topology refers to the physical lay out of the network in which all the devices
are connected. "his includes all the hardware that makes up the network. "he points of
the connection to the network by the station are calls 0odes or 2ink stations. "here are
several types of topographical design % strategies are used to implement 2A0. "he
ma&ority of these are based on three types of topologies.
a) 8tar ") )us c) <ing
1ach topology has its advantages % disadvantages.
(tar -opolog!
8tar topology is shown bellow. +n this topology. A number of stations are connected
directly to a central station or controller. =ommunication on the connecting links
between the stations % the central station of the star topology can be bi- directional
and are point to point. A station on this type of network passes an information
frame to the central controller, which then forwards the information to the
destination station. "he central controller manage and controls all communication
between stations on the network.
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(tar Network
>ailure of a station on a star network is easy to detect and can be remove from the
network. ,owever, failure of the central controller will disable communication
through out the whole network.
Bus -opolog!
A bus topology is shown bellow all stations are connected to a single
communication line. "his single communication line is referred to a bus.
+nformation frames originating at a station are propagated away from the station in
both directions on the bus. 1ach station on the bus interrogates the information
frame destination address failed for its on addresses. +f the destination failed does
not mach the station address, the station discards the information frame back on to
the bus. +f the destination address matches the station addresses, it accepts the
information frame % processes the frame.
An extension to the bus topology is tree topology is in the following figure. "ree
topology extends the branches of the bus topology allowing more stations to
access the bus.
Bus -opolog!
:n a bus or tree network there is no central point for management % control.
"hese function ions are distributed to each station on the bus. A brake in the bus
can be difficult to locate but limits the outage to communications between stations
that traverse the broken point.
)ing -opolog!
A ring topology is shown bellow. 2ocal area network that have each station
attached to an ad&acent station using point to point links from a physical ring. 1ach
station attached and active to the ring regenerate the information frame, then
retransmits the information frame on the ring. "he ring itself is logically circle and
the information travels in one direction.
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>ailure of a station in a ring topology disrupts the ring because the information
frame is not regenerated. Additions or deletions of stations of the ring can be
disruptive, if the changes are not managed properly.
LAN &ardware and (oftware
As we have seen so far, to reali!e a 2A0 process, several functions are to be performed.
"hese are so speciali!ed in nature the require hardware specially built for such purpose.
,ere we will discuss briefly the basic hardware components of 2A0, these are5
(A) "ransfermission channel
()) 0etwork +nterface 9nit (0+9)
(=) 8ervers
() -ork 8tation
(A) -ransfermission $hannels
Eenerally following four types of channels are used for data communication in a 2A0.
"hey are5
(i) "wisted 7air =able
(ii) =oaxial =able
(iii) >iber :ptic =able
(iv) <adio waves
(B) Network Interface 4nits (NI4)
0etwork interface units connect each device in the 2A0 network to shared transmission
device. +t contains the rules or logic to access the 2A0. 0+9 is also used for to implement
2A0 protocols and for device attachments. +ts functions depend on the type of topology
used in 2A0.
( $) (er*ers
:ne of the ma&or benefits of implementation of 2A0 is sharing expensive resources such
as storage device, printer etc. this is achieved through providing servers on the 2A0. +t is
a dedicated computer that controls on or more resources. "his contains both hardware %
software for 2A0. "hree ma&or categories of servers used in 2A0s are
(i) >ile 8erver
(ii) 7rinter 8erver
(iii) 4odem 8erver
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Basics of Networking
+n a networking file server is used to share storage space for files. )eside providing
storage space for files in a 2A0 environment, it is used for talking periodical backup, and
also to provide gateway to other servers with in % between 2A0s.
8imilarly printer server is use to handle printing works of all workstations connected in the
network.
+n the 2A0 environment also modem is required to get connected to other network or
simply to use a telephone. A modem server is used to share these expensive resources
by all connected workstation in a networking ring.
LAN (oftware* 1perating (!stem
As the name suggest 2A0 operating system is required to operate on the 2A0 system,
manage the tremendous work load with a number of various types of server attached to it.
+t has basically two aspects (i) 8erver 8oftware (ii) -ork station 8oftware. As case of
other multi user operating system, 2A0 operating system also facilitate the sharing of
expensive resources such as printer, storage space etc. among all 2A0 users, provides
security of data permits connections to other network.
"here are various types of 2A0 operating systems for example 0ovel 0etware, 2A0
server, omni met, 7= 0et, +)4 7= 2A0, 1therlik plus etc.

WI%3 Area Network
As the name suggest, -A0 spread across countries and continents satellites being one
of the transmission media.
A wide area network -A0 is a network that links separate geographical location. A -A0
can be a public system such as the 7ublic 8witched "elephone 0etwork (78"0) or one of
the various packet switched services provided by the public telecommunication
authorities. -A0s can also use most other types of other types of circuit including satellite
networks, +80, Aalue Added 0etworks (AA0s*AAs).
"he network can be a private system made up from the local telephone company or set
up using public systems as virtual private network. A virtual private network is one which
operates in the same way as a private network but which uses public switched services
for the transmission of information.
"he main distinguishing feature between a 2A0 and -A0 is that, the 2A0 is under the
complete control of the owner, whereas the -A0 needs the involvement of another
authority like the telephone company. 2A0s are also able to handle very high data
transfer rates at low cost because of the limited area covered. 2A0s have a lower error
rate then -A0s.
$ommunication (witching -echni5ues
+n a -A0, two computing devices are not connected directly. A network of switching
nodes provides a transfer path between the two devices. "he process of transferring data
blocks from one node to another is called data switching.
"here are three switching techniques commonly employed and these are5
. $ircuit (witching
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+n circuit switching there is a dedicated communication path between the sending and
receiving devices. "he dedicated path is a connected sequence of links switching nodes.
A conventional telephone network, where a dedicated path is set between the called party
for the duration of a telephone call is an example of circuit switching.
=ommunication vi!. circuit switching involves three steps-circuit establishment( data
transfer( and circuit termination. =ircuit switching is mainly used for voice telephone
network, but is not that effective for data communication network, as channel capacities
are not fully utili!ed, as data communication equipments do not generate data
continuously.
/ Massage (witching
4assage switching is an alternative switching techniFque, where it is not necessary to
establish a dedicated path between the sending and receiving devices. +n massage
switching, the sending device appends the destination address to the massage and
passes to the network( the massage is then passed through the network from one node to
another till it reaches the intended destination. 1ach switching are electronic mails,
computer files, telegrams and transaction queries and responses. A complete exchange
may consist of several messages.
"he basic disadvantage of massage switching is the variable delay at intermediate
switching nodes.
0 #acket (witching
7acket switching combines the advantages of message % circuiting switching. 7acket
switching is functionally similar to message switching, in which data is transmitted in
blocks, stored by the first switching node it meets in the network and it forwarded to the
next and subsequent downstream nodes until it reaches the destination. "he length of
data block is limited in packet switching network. "ypical maximum length of packets is
between .#F bytes to ?$@D bytes. "here are two approaches to packet switching5
atagram
Airtual circuit
+n datagram approach, each packet is treated independently and may follow a different
path through the network. 7ackets may be reordered, dropped or delivered in wrong
sequence. "he communication protocols provide the error recovery sequencing of
packets at the receiving device.
+n virtual circuit approach, a fixed logical path through the network from the sender to the
receiver is established before any packets are sent. "his path remains unchanged for the
duration of the session. "his is quite like circuit switching, but no resources are reserved
along the path. 7ackets are buffered at intermediate nodes awaiting transmission.
WAN %e*ices 6 &ardware
"he switching techniques utili!ed the routine technology of data transfer. <outing is
responsible for searching a path between two computing devices that wish to
communicate and for following the data packets on this path. evices such as bridges,
router and gateway provide this routing function.
. Bridges
)ridges are used to connect two 2A0s that use identical 2A0 protocols over a wide
area. "he bridge acts as an address filter which picks up packets from one 2A0 that
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are identical for a destination on the another 2A0 and passes these packets on the
network. )ridges operate at the data link layer (layer #) of the :8+ model. As all
devices use the same protocols, the amount of processing required at the bridge is
minimal. +f the distance between the two 2A0s is large, the user would require two
additional bridges at either end of the communication link.
)esides a point-to-point link, the intervening communication facility can be a network
such as a wide area packet switching network in such case the bridges need to add G.
#/ link layer header and trailer.
/ )outers
<outers can be used to connect networks that may not be similar. <outers provide
connectivity between two 2A0s or two -A0s over large geographical distance.
<outers operate at the network layer (layer 6) of the :8+ model. All routers participate
in routing protocols to access the network topology, and based on this information
routers computes the best route from a sender to the receiver,
>or large wide area network spanning thousands of kilometers, the normal practice is
to put network routers at suitable locations to minimi!e link cost for leased link and
provide adequate reliability from link failures. 0etworks and other system are then
connected to the nearest router.
0 7atewa!s
Eateways are used to connect to dissimilar 2A0s. "he term gateway and routers are
used interchangeably, though there is a subtle difference between the two. A router
operates at the network layer (layer 6) of the :8+ model, whereas a gateway operates
on the application layer (layer B) of the :8+ model. A gateway is required to convert
data packets from one protocol format to another before forwarding it, as it connects
two dissimilar networks.
-hile discussing the -A0 devices we referred to G.#/ and protocols. -e will now see
what x.#/ is.
What is 8/9
"owards the end of the .@D$s, the conman telecommunication carriers around the
world recogni!ed the need for data communication service that would be distinct from
voice circuits. "he plan was to put together a series of recommendation during the
.@B$s using +""== (+nternational telegraph % telephone consultative committee) as
the total standards body. "his +""== recommendation series to define the new service
was doubled the G series. uring the .@B$s sum D$ to B$ recommendations had
involved. "he most famous of these is G.#/, which define an interface in to a particular
regular data network that of a packet switched network.
+""== developed G.#/ as the standard interface between the ata "erminal
1quipment ("1, computer system) and ata =ircuit "erminating 1quipment (=1"-
the network node to which the "1 is connected) the recommendation has been
widely accepted as the industry standard for public packet switched networks.
G.#/ is a protocol for interfacing to a 7ublic 7acket 8witched 0etwork. +t is not a
protocol for implementing a network. "wo systems that support G.#/ cannot necessary
.6 * ./
Basics of Networking
be connected back ; to ; back. "hey can only be connected through a =1 in a public
packet switched.
-!pe of WI%3 Area Network
"he essential purpose of -+1 Area network, regardless of the si!e or technology
used is to link separate locations in order remove data around. A -A0 allows these
locations to access shared computer resources and provides the asocial infrastructure
for developing wide spread distributed computing system.
-e will now discuss the different types of -A0 which are communally used.
. #u"lic Networks
7ublic networks are those networks which are installed and run by the
telecommunication authorities and are made available to any organi!ation or
individual who subscribe. 1xamples include 7ublic 8witched "elephone 0etworks
(78"0), 7ublic 8witched ata 0etwork (780), Aalue Added 8ervice (AA0s*
AAs) and the +ntegrated 8ervice igital 0etworks (+80). -e would be
discussing the main features of there services5
#u"lic (witched -elephone Network (#(-N)
"he features of the 78"0 are its low speed, the analog nature of transmission,
restricted bandwidth % its wide spread availability. As 78"0 is designate for
telephones, modems are required when it is used for data communication.
#u"lic (witched %ata Network (#(%N)
"he term 780 covers a number of technologies( all through currently it is limited
to 7ublic 7acket 8witch 0etworks available to the public. "he main features of all
780s are their high label reliability and the high quality of the connection
provided. "he can support both high % low speeds at appropriate costs.
:alue Added (er*ices (:ANs6 :A%s)
+n value added services, the provider of such services must process, store and
manipulate the data that is carried on the network, that add value to it. "he
technique can be used in specific types of business in which it is advantageous to
be able to share information with other companies in the same line.
Integrated (er*ices %igital Network (I(%N)
"he +80 is the networking concept providing for the integration of
voice, video and data servicing using data service using digital transmission
combining both circuits and packet switching techniques. "he motivating force
behind +80 is that telephone networks around the world have been making a
transition towards utili!ing digital transmission facilities for many years.
/ #ri*ate Networks
"he basic technique used in all forms of private -A0 is to use private (or more
usually leased) circuits to link the locations to be served by the network. )etween
these fixed points the owner of the network has complete freedom to use the
circuits in any way they want. "hey can use the circuit to carry large quantities of
data or for high speed transmission.
.? * ./
Basics of Networking
7rivate -+1 area network can be built using what ever standard technology is
available. "he way private networks have generally been set up has to specify

./ * ./

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