Criminalistics is a branch of Forensic Science that applies science to law
through the recognition, documentation, collection, preservation, and analysis of physical evidence. Many disciplines including chemistry, biology, law enforcement, physics, and mathematics are being used in the application of Science of Criminalistics. A criminalist is a specialist who uses scientific principles to analyze, compare and/or identify firearms, fingerprints, hairs, fibers, drugs, blood and other physical evidence. A criminalist may also be trained to conduct crime scene investigation and testify as an expert witness in court. (Metropolitan State University of Denver) Some examples of physical evidence that are being considered for investigation are fingerprints, relevant documents, polygraph results and firearms. Listed below are the methods that are being utilized by criminalists in processing physical evidences. Dactylsocopy Fingerprints Comparison of fingerprints for identification is called Dactylsocopy. Identifying the unique whorls and ridges of a fingerprint can determine whether a person is a known criminal. Nowadays, personnel departments often requires the employees to have their fingerprints taken to make sure they are not guilty of any crime. Individuals inducted into the armed forces undergo the same procedure to screen out criminals and facilitate identification in case of serious injury or death. Fingerprint analysis of an object at a crime scene may help bring the perpetrator to justice by proving his presence there Questioned Documents A term for a forensic science discipline pertaining to documents that are potentially disputed in a court of law is called Questioned document examination (QDE). It covers a variety of different evidentiary questions, which extends well beyond the traditional field of the identification of questioned handwriting. One that is being focused on with this kind of examination is the authenticity of the signatures, alterations of documents, erasures or other obliterations and the relative date of a particular writing (Examination) Polygraph A polygraph (popularly referred to as a lie detector) measures and records several physiological indices such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and skin conductivity while the subject is asked and answers a series of questions. The belief underpinning the use of the polygraph is that deceptive answers will produce physiological responses that can be differentiated from those associated with non-deceptive answers. The efficacy of polygraphs is debated in the scientific community though. In 2001, a significant fraction of the scientific community considered polygraphy to be pseudoscience. In 2002, a review by the National Academies of Science found that in populations untrained in countermeasures, polygraph testing can discriminate lying from truth telling at rates above chance, though below perfection (Wikipedia). Photography Photography is a more popular technology used for documentation. In criminalistics photography crime scenes are documented through the use of film photography, digital imaging, videography and aerial photography. The photographs of the crime scenes, evidences and victims help in solving the crime. Firearms and Forensic Ballistics Firearms are often used by criminals in committing crimes. The science of analyzing firearm usage in crimes called Forensic Ballistitcs is being used to identify the firearms that equipped the criminal.Forensic ballistics involves analysis of bullets and bullet impacts to determine the type. Separately, from the ballistics information, firearm and tool mark examinations also involve analyzing firearm, ammunition, and tool mark evidence in order to establish whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the commission of a crime. One of the disciplines of forensic science is firearms identification which is defined by forensic experts as: The identification of fired bullets, cartridge cases or other ammunition components as having been fired from a specific firearms (An Introduction to Forensic Firearm Identification).
Handwriting Forgery Handwriting forgery is the duplication of someone's handwriting with the intent to create a document for fraudulent or other questionable uses. The most common form involves forging signatures, but people can also copy handwriting to generate handwritten documents purporting to be written by someone else. Detecting handwriting forgery can require the services of an expert with extensive experience and training in the study of handwriting. In the past the only defense against forgery was a wax impression placed on the fold of a document. In retrospect the penalties for forgery were severe. In the past in England, if any person shall found to have falsely forged, or made , or caused or assented to be falsely forged or made, any false deed, charter, or writing sealed, court-roll or will in writing, he shall pay to the party aggrieved double costs and damages to be assessed by the court...and shall be set on the pillory. And there have his ears cut off, and his nostrils slit and cut, and seared with a hot iron: he shall also forfeit to the queen the profits of his lands during life imprisonment" as cited in 5 Eliz.C. 15 ( 1563 ). The consequences of forgery today are minimal although forgery is the most wide spread of crimes and is growing at a higher rate than other crimes primarily due to the fact that many people are uninformed as to the tactics these criminals use. Today the penalty for forgery is a misdemeanour. It's as though society condones the act. Identity theft is still a multiple crime, that is the perpetrator not only steals your material possession but more importantly they steal your identity as well. There are many "hi-tech" products that are used to detect a fraudulent document and among the best are inks of different types, both covert and overt in nature. Covert inks are known to a few people within a specific organization, and overt inks are known by the general public. The key to detecting a fraudulent document is knowing what the specific function of the ink specified on the document does, how it reacts and how to identify them. The following list is of ink that needs no ( or little ) mechanical assistance for detection. (CatchAThief Forensic Document Examiners, 2011)
Fundamentals of Dactyloscopy Basically, the Dactyloscopy is the examination of fingerprints in order to establish identity. For official use, fingerprints are recorded on a special form with spaces for impressions of all the digits. The spaces are numbered from one to ten. The prints taken in these spaces are called rolled impressions because they are obtained by rolling each finger from side to side on an inked plate and then repeating the same process with the inked finger during the taking of the impressions on the form. The reason for the rolling action is to obtain the largest picture possible of the area of the skin ridges which lies between the edges of the nail and the flexure of the distal (first) joint of the finger, thus ensuring the inclusion of all data necessary for classification purposes. The purpose of taking the plain impressions is to ensure that the rolled impressions have been taken in the correct order. A misplaced impression could result in an incorrect classification formula. After all the impressions have been taken the prisoner signs the form and immediately after the signature a print of one of his fingers is taken as a check that the prints are his. New methods of taking prints are being sought, but, at present, the method described is universal. Fingerprints are divided into four main groups of patterns: arches, loops, whorls, and compounds. There are variations of each pattern. The arch, as the name implies, the ridges are arranged in an archlike fashion; a variation of this type is the tented arch. The loop is the most common type of print. The point indicated by the arrow is called the delta. The ridges lying between the delta which cut a direct line to the core are counted. As the number varies in different prints it provides useful data for classification. Whorls have a circular arrangement of the ridges. There are two deltas in all whorls; one only in loops. Whorls are sub-divided by tracing to the right the course of the lower limb of the left-hand delta and noting whether it passes inside the right-hand delta, meets it, or drops below it. The cores of some whorls are more or less elongated. Compounds possess features of other patterns. There are two deltas and sometimes more. They are classified in the same manner as whorls. Extra deltas lying between the two outer deltas are ignored. When two prints are of the same pattern it does not follow that they originated from the same finger. Identity or non-identity is determined by comparing the order in which the ridge characteristics appear in each print. Characteristics comprise such features as ending ridges, forking ridges, and ridges forming lakes and islands. When the expert finds a number of these appearing in the same order in each print he knows that both prints were made by the same finger and that the remaining characteristics will coincide. Ridge characteristic data remain constant unless disturbed by a deep-seated injury that leaves a permanent scar. Superficial damage to the epidermis is more or less transient and subsequently leaves little or no trace of such injury. The four main types of pattern form a basis for the primary classification of fingerprints. For this purpose the patterns are placed in two categories. Whorls and compounds are given a numerical value according to the number of the digit on which they occur. Arches and loops have no value numerically. By this arrangement 1024 primary groups are arrived at. Further subdivisions are obtained by using the delta ridge tracing of whorls and compounds and by counting the ridge lines in loops. Many permutations result from the intercombination of the ridge tracing and ridge counting formulas. The presence of arches and radial loops provides additional data in some sub- groups. The place a set of prints will occupy in a collection depends firstly on the primary classification number. This may be any one of the 1024 groups referred to. Reference is then made to the secondary classification derived from the methods used for subdividing patterns. If a tertiary classification appears in the formula it must be consulted next, and finally the set of prints is arranged according to the number of ridges in loops, if they are present, on the little fingers and thumbs. If a person has been previously convicted and providing he has given his correct name when he is again fingerprinted, the location of his prints in the collection is a matter of a few minutes. Should he give an alias the task is much more difficult. (An Introduction to Dactyloscopy). Photography in Police Works Police photography, also known as forensics photography, refers to photographing the crime scene, evidence, blood spatter and victims to help document and eventually solve the crime. The first forensic photographers operated in Europe during the nineteenth century, photographing inmates and criminals. Near the end of the century, French photographer Alphonse Bertillon developed a methodology for photographing criminals so that photos could be analyzed and compared, the first "mug shots." Toward the end of the century, the invention of emulsion film by George Eastman and color film by James Maxwell made the use of photography in field situations practical. Twentieth century journalists used crime photography for more than just "mug shots"--they documented hangings and bloody crime scenes. Police began photographing crime scenes and by the 1940s, were routinely documenting evidence with photography. The use of realistic photographs became more accepted in courts and, in 1993, the U.S. Supreme Court ("Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals," a case prompted by the development of DNA testing) provided a precedent to evaluate forensic evidence, using the qualifications of the witness and the "reliability" of the scientific process. The development of hand held video and digital cameras in the 1980s and 1990s made visual documentation possible for nearly every police department. The Modern police photographers use video, microscopic and telescopic photography and digital and emulsion film-based images in documenting evidence. Forensic photographs must be clear and must include known items (such as coins or a measuring device) from which size can be judged. The police photographer must be qualified to speak on photography and be able to confirm the reliability of the image. Any photograph used in the prosecution of a case must have a clear chain of custody (record of who has handled it and where it has been kept) in order to be considered in a case. Photographs introduced in court almost always are admitted if they are relevant (clearly illustrate a point that a party is trying to make), if they are clear (cruiser dash cams are often muddled and confusing) and reliable (printed immediately with no alterations or computerized "enhancements"). The state generally has an advantage in getting its photos accepted, not because the court favors the police but because they generally come to court with a clearly documented chain of custody, equipment that is available for inspection and photographs that are clear and self-explanatory (Laura Reynolds). Principle Of Fingerprints Fingerprints are reproductions of the patterns formed by the papillary ridges located on the palm side of the fingers and thumbs. The established facts show that the chance against one finger producing a print identical with that of another finger, whether on the same hand or on the hand of another person, is almost impossible that for all practical human purposes it is reasonable to conclude that a fingerprint match leads to the correct person. It has been computed that, theoretically, two identical prints would be found only once during a period longer than that which astronomers estimate is needed for the sun to grow cold. According to criminal investigators, fingerprints follow 3 fundamental principles: 1. A fingerprint is an individual characteristic; no two people have been found with the exact same fingerprint pattern. 2. A fingerprint pattern will remain unchanged for the life of an individual; however, the print itself may change due to permanent scars and diseases. 3. Fingerprints have general characteristic ridge patterns that allow them to be systematically identified. (Lewis, 2005)
Works Cited
An Introduction to Dactyloscopy. (n.d.). Retrieved May 15, 2014, from criminalcle.net.au: http://www.criminalcle.net.au/attachments/Fingerprints__An_Introduction _to_Dactyloscopy.pdf An Introduction to Forensic Firearm Identification. (n.d.). Retrieved May 15, 2014, from firearmsid.com: http://www.firearmsid.com/ CatchAThief Forensic Document Examiners. (2011). Retrieved 15 2014, May, from CatchAThief.com: http://www.catchathief.com/history.htm Examination, Q. D. (n.d.). Retrieved May 15, 2014, from documentexperts.net: http://documentexperts.net/pdf/qd%20examination%20chapter.pdf Laura Reynolds, e. C. (n.d.). About Police Photography. Retrieved May 15, 2014, from eHow.com: http://www.ehow.com/about_4563985_police- photography.html Lewis, S. W. (2005, June 13). Forensic Science at Deakin. Retrieved May 15, 2014, from http://bcs.deakin.edu.au/: http://bcs.deakin.edu.au/BCS_Courses/forensic/Chemical%20Detective/b asic%20principles_fingerprints.htm Metropolitan State University of Denver. (n.d.). Retrieved May 15, 2014, from msudenver.edu: https://www.msudenver.edu/chemistry/academics/criminalistics/ Wikipedia. (n.d.). Polygraph. Retrieved May 15, 2014, from wikipedia.org: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph