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Science of Criminalistics

Criminalistics is a branch of Forensic Science that applies science to law


through the recognition, documentation, collection, preservation, and analysis of
physical evidence. Many disciplines including chemistry, biology, law
enforcement, physics, and mathematics are being used in the application of
Science of Criminalistics. A criminalist is a specialist who uses scientific
principles to analyze, compare and/or identify firearms, fingerprints, hairs, fibers,
drugs, blood and other physical evidence. A criminalist may also be trained to
conduct crime scene investigation and testify as an expert witness in court.
(Metropolitan State University of Denver)
Some examples of physical evidence that are being considered for
investigation are fingerprints, relevant documents, polygraph results and
firearms. Listed below are the methods that are being utilized by criminalists in
processing physical evidences.
Dactylsocopy
Fingerprints Comparison of fingerprints for identification is called
Dactylsocopy. Identifying the unique whorls and ridges of a fingerprint can
determine whether a person is a known criminal. Nowadays, personnel
departments often requires the employees to have their fingerprints taken to
make sure they are not guilty of any crime. Individuals inducted into the armed
forces undergo the same procedure to screen out criminals and facilitate
identification in case of serious injury or death. Fingerprint analysis of an object
at a crime scene may help bring the perpetrator to justice by proving his
presence there
Questioned Documents
A term for a forensic science discipline pertaining to documents that are
potentially disputed in a court of law is called Questioned document examination
(QDE). It covers a variety of different evidentiary questions, which extends well
beyond the traditional field of the identification of questioned handwriting. One
that is being focused on with this kind of examination is the authenticity of the
signatures, alterations of documents, erasures or other obliterations and the
relative date of a particular writing (Examination)
Polygraph
A polygraph (popularly referred to as a lie detector) measures and records
several physiological indices such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and skin
conductivity while the subject is asked and answers a series of questions. The
belief underpinning the use of the polygraph is that deceptive answers will
produce physiological responses that can be differentiated from those associated
with non-deceptive answers. The efficacy of polygraphs is debated in the
scientific community though. In 2001, a significant fraction of the scientific
community considered polygraphy to be pseudoscience. In 2002, a review by the
National Academies of Science found that in populations untrained in
countermeasures, polygraph testing can discriminate lying from truth telling at
rates above chance, though below perfection (Wikipedia).
Photography
Photography is a more popular technology used for documentation. In
criminalistics photography crime scenes are documented through the use of
film photography, digital imaging, videography and aerial photography. The
photographs of the crime scenes, evidences and victims help in solving the
crime.
Firearms and Forensic Ballistics
Firearms are often used by criminals in committing crimes. The science of
analyzing firearm usage in crimes called Forensic Ballistitcs is being used to
identify the firearms that equipped the criminal.Forensic ballistics involves
analysis of bullets and bullet impacts to determine the type. Separately, from the
ballistics information, firearm and tool mark examinations also involve analyzing
firearm, ammunition, and tool mark evidence in order to establish whether a
certain firearm or tool was used in the commission of a crime. One of the
disciplines of forensic science is firearms identification which is defined by
forensic experts as: The identification of fired bullets, cartridge cases or other
ammunition components as having been fired from a specific firearms (An
Introduction to Forensic Firearm Identification).


Handwriting Forgery
Handwriting forgery is the duplication of someone's handwriting with the
intent to create a document for fraudulent or other questionable uses. The most
common form involves forging signatures, but people can also copy handwriting
to generate handwritten documents purporting to be written by someone else.
Detecting handwriting forgery can require the services of an expert with
extensive experience and training in the study of handwriting.
In the past the only defense against forgery was a wax impression placed on the
fold of a document. In retrospect the penalties for forgery were severe. In the
past in England, if any person shall found to have falsely forged, or made , or
caused or assented to be falsely forged or made, any false deed, charter, or
writing sealed, court-roll or will in writing, he shall pay to the party aggrieved
double costs and damages to be assessed by the court...and shall be set on the
pillory. And there have his ears cut off, and his nostrils slit and cut, and seared
with a hot iron: he shall also forfeit to the queen the profits of his lands during life
imprisonment" as cited in 5 Eliz.C. 15 ( 1563 ).
The consequences of forgery today are minimal although forgery is the
most wide spread of crimes and is growing at a higher rate than other crimes
primarily due to the fact that many people are uninformed as to the tactics these
criminals use.
Today the penalty for forgery is a misdemeanour. It's as though society
condones the act. Identity theft is still a multiple crime, that is the perpetrator not
only steals your material possession but more importantly they steal your identity
as well. There are many "hi-tech" products that are used to detect a fraudulent
document and among the best are inks of different types, both covert and overt in
nature. Covert inks are known to a few people within a specific organization, and
overt inks are known by the general public.
The key to detecting a fraudulent document is knowing what the specific
function of the ink specified on the document does, how it reacts and how to
identify them. The following list is of ink that needs no ( or little ) mechanical
assistance for detection. (CatchAThief Forensic Document Examiners, 2011)

Fundamentals of Dactyloscopy
Basically, the Dactyloscopy is the examination of fingerprints in order to
establish identity. For official use, fingerprints are recorded on a special form with
spaces for impressions of all the digits. The spaces are numbered from one to
ten. The prints taken in these spaces are called rolled impressions because they
are obtained by rolling each finger from side to side on an inked plate and then
repeating the same process with the inked finger during the taking of the
impressions on the form.
The reason for the rolling action is to obtain the largest picture possible of
the area of the skin ridges which lies between the edges of the nail and the
flexure of the distal (first) joint of the finger, thus ensuring the inclusion of all data
necessary for classification purposes.
The purpose of taking the plain impressions is to ensure that the rolled
impressions have been taken in the correct order. A misplaced impression could
result in an incorrect classification formula. After all the impressions have been
taken the prisoner signs the form and immediately after the signature a print of
one of his fingers is taken as a check that the prints are his. New methods of
taking prints are being sought, but, at present, the method described is universal.
Fingerprints are divided into four main groups of patterns: arches, loops,
whorls, and compounds. There are variations of each pattern. The arch, as the
name implies, the ridges are arranged in an archlike fashion; a variation of this
type is the tented arch. The loop is the most common type of print. The point
indicated by the arrow is called the delta. The ridges lying between the delta
which cut a direct line to the core are counted. As the number varies in different
prints it provides useful data for classification. Whorls have a circular
arrangement of the ridges. There are two deltas in all whorls; one only in loops.
Whorls are sub-divided by tracing to the right the course of the lower limb of the
left-hand delta and noting whether it passes inside the right-hand delta, meets it,
or drops below it. The cores of some whorls are more or less elongated.
Compounds possess features of other patterns. There are two deltas and
sometimes more. They are classified in the same manner as whorls. Extra deltas
lying between the two outer deltas are ignored.
When two prints are of the same pattern it does not follow that they
originated from the same finger. Identity or non-identity is determined by
comparing the order in which the ridge characteristics appear in each print.
Characteristics comprise such features as ending ridges, forking ridges, and
ridges forming lakes and islands.
When the expert finds a number of these appearing in the same order in
each print he knows that both prints were made by the same finger and that the
remaining characteristics will coincide. Ridge characteristic data remain constant
unless disturbed by a deep-seated injury that leaves a permanent scar.
Superficial damage to the epidermis is more or less transient and subsequently
leaves little or no trace of such injury.
The four main types of pattern form a basis for the primary classification of
fingerprints. For this purpose the patterns are placed in two categories. Whorls
and compounds are given a numerical value according to the number of the digit
on which they occur. Arches and loops have no value numerically. By this
arrangement 1024 primary groups are arrived at.
Further subdivisions are obtained by using the delta ridge tracing of whorls
and compounds and by counting the ridge lines in loops. Many permutations
result from the intercombination of the ridge tracing and ridge counting formulas.
The presence of arches and radial loops provides additional data in some sub-
groups.
The place a set of prints will occupy in a collection depends firstly on the
primary classification number. This may be any one of the 1024 groups referred
to. Reference is then made to the secondary classification derived from the
methods used for subdividing patterns. If a tertiary classification appears in the
formula it must be consulted next, and finally the set of prints is arranged
according to the number of ridges in loops, if they are present, on the little fingers
and thumbs.
If a person has been previously convicted and providing he has given his
correct name when he is again fingerprinted, the location of his prints in the
collection is a matter of a few minutes. Should he give an alias the task is much
more difficult. (An Introduction to Dactyloscopy).
Photography in Police Works
Police photography, also known as forensics photography, refers to
photographing the crime scene, evidence, blood spatter and victims to help
document and eventually solve the crime.
The first forensic photographers operated in Europe during the nineteenth
century, photographing inmates and criminals. Near the end of the century,
French photographer Alphonse Bertillon developed a methodology for
photographing criminals so that photos could be analyzed and compared, the
first "mug shots." Toward the end of the century, the invention of emulsion film by
George Eastman and color film by James Maxwell made the use of photography
in field situations practical.
Twentieth century journalists used crime photography for more than just
"mug shots"--they documented hangings and bloody crime scenes. Police began
photographing crime scenes and by the 1940s, were routinely documenting
evidence with photography. The use of realistic photographs became more
accepted in courts and, in 1993, the U.S. Supreme Court ("Daubert v. Merrell
Dow Pharmaceuticals," a case prompted by the development of DNA testing)
provided a precedent to evaluate forensic evidence, using the qualifications of
the witness and the "reliability" of the scientific process. The development of
hand held video and digital cameras in the 1980s and 1990s made visual
documentation possible for nearly every police department.
The Modern police photographers use video, microscopic and telescopic
photography and digital and emulsion film-based images in documenting
evidence. Forensic photographs must be clear and must include known items
(such as coins or a measuring device) from which size can be judged. The police
photographer must be qualified to speak on photography and be able to confirm
the reliability of the image. Any photograph used in the prosecution of a case
must have a clear chain of custody (record of who has handled it and where it
has been kept) in order to be considered in a case.
Photographs introduced in court almost always are admitted if they are
relevant (clearly illustrate a point that a party is trying to make), if they are clear
(cruiser dash cams are often muddled and confusing) and reliable (printed
immediately with no alterations or computerized "enhancements"). The state
generally has an advantage in getting its photos accepted, not because the court
favors the police but because they generally come to court with a clearly
documented chain of custody, equipment that is available for inspection and
photographs that are clear and self-explanatory (Laura Reynolds).
Principle Of Fingerprints
Fingerprints are reproductions of the patterns formed by the papillary
ridges located on the palm side of the fingers and thumbs.
The established facts show that the chance against one finger producing a
print identical with that of another finger, whether on the same hand or on the
hand of another person, is almost impossible that for all practical human
purposes it is reasonable to conclude that a fingerprint match leads to the correct
person. It has been computed that, theoretically, two identical prints would be
found only once during a period longer than that which astronomers estimate is
needed for the sun to grow cold.
According to criminal investigators, fingerprints follow 3 fundamental principles:
1. A fingerprint is an individual characteristic; no two people have been
found with the exact same fingerprint pattern.
2. A fingerprint pattern will remain unchanged for the life of an individual;
however, the print itself may change due to permanent scars and
diseases.
3. Fingerprints have general characteristic ridge patterns that allow them
to be systematically identified.
(Lewis, 2005)

Works Cited

An Introduction to Dactyloscopy. (n.d.). Retrieved May 15, 2014, from
criminalcle.net.au:
http://www.criminalcle.net.au/attachments/Fingerprints__An_Introduction
_to_Dactyloscopy.pdf
An Introduction to Forensic Firearm Identification. (n.d.). Retrieved May 15, 2014,
from firearmsid.com: http://www.firearmsid.com/
CatchAThief Forensic Document Examiners. (2011). Retrieved 15 2014,
May, from CatchAThief.com: http://www.catchathief.com/history.htm
Examination, Q. D. (n.d.). Retrieved May 15, 2014, from documentexperts.net:
http://documentexperts.net/pdf/qd%20examination%20chapter.pdf
Laura Reynolds, e. C. (n.d.). About Police Photography. Retrieved May 15, 2014,
from eHow.com: http://www.ehow.com/about_4563985_police-
photography.html
Lewis, S. W. (2005, June 13). Forensic Science at Deakin. Retrieved May 15,
2014, from http://bcs.deakin.edu.au/:
http://bcs.deakin.edu.au/BCS_Courses/forensic/Chemical%20Detective/b
asic%20principles_fingerprints.htm
Metropolitan State University of Denver. (n.d.). Retrieved May 15, 2014, from
msudenver.edu:
https://www.msudenver.edu/chemistry/academics/criminalistics/
Wikipedia. (n.d.). Polygraph. Retrieved May 15, 2014, from wikipedia.org:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph

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