Concrete Intersections

A Guide for Design and Construction

CONCRETE
PAVINGTechnology
Introduction
Traffic causes dam age to pavem ent of at-grade street
and road intersections perhaps m ore than any other
location. H eavy vehicle stopping and turning can
stress the pavem ent surface severely along the
approaches to an intersection. The pavem ent w ithin
the junction (physical area) of an intersection also m ay
receive nearly tw ice the traffic as the pavem ent on the
approaching roadw ays.
At busy intersections, the added load and stress from
heavy vehicles often cause asphalt pavem ents to
deteriorate prem aturely. Asphalt surfaces tend to rut
and shove under the strain of busses and trucks
stopping and turning. These deform ed surfaces
becom e a safety concern for drivers and a costly
m aintenance problem for the roadw ay agency.
C oncrete pavem ents better w ithstand the loading and
turning m ovem ents of heavy vehicles. As a result,
city, county and state roadw ay agencies have begun
rebuilding deteriorated asphalt intersections w ith con-
crete pavem ent. These agencies are extending road
and street system m aintenance funds by elim inating
the expense of intersections that require frequent
m aintenance.
At-grade intersections along business, industrial and
arterial corridor routes are som e of the busiest and
m ost vital pavem ents in an urban road netw ork.
C losing these roads and intersections for pavem ent
repair creates costly traffic delays and disruption to
local businesses. C oncrete pavem ents provide a long
service life for these m ajor corridors and intersections.
2
C oncrete pavem ents also offer other advantages for
intersections:
1. Low long-term m aintenance costs.
2. N o softening or deterioration caused by oil drippings.
3. G ood light reflectivity that enhances pedestrian and
vehicle safety at night and in inclem ent w eather.
4. A durable and skid resistant surface.
Successful construction of concrete intersections is
challenging, especially in urban areas, w here accom -
m odating traffic and adjacent business needs often
m ust supersede other engineering or construction
factors. H ow ever, m odern technology, including fast-
track construction, sim plifies these challenges.
Design Considerations
W hen building or rebuilding an intersection, the new
concrete pavem ent should cover at least the entire
functional area of the intersection. The functional area
includes the longitudinal lim its of any auxiliary lanes
(Figure 1).
(1,2)
N orm ally, the distress caused by heavy
vehicles braking and turning w ill occur w ithin an inter-
sections functional boundaries.
As a rule, it is im portant to evaluate the existing pave-
m ent condition before choosing lim its for the new
concrete pavem ent. O n busy routes, it m ay be desir-
able to extend the lim its for the new concrete pave-
m ent beyond the intersections functional boundaries.
Traffic congestion at a busy intersection m ay extend
the distance w here vehicles start and stop, w hich
m ay extend the length of distressed pavem ent. The
length that pavem ent distress extends beyond the
intersections functional boundaries w ill depend upon
the num ber, speed, and type of vehicles that use the
intersecting roadw ays. A sim ilar extension of dis-
tress is possible w here trucks cause dam age w hile
accelerating slow ly up a steep grade aw ay from an
intersection.
If significant changes to an intersection are required, it
is ideal to extend the new pavem ent to the bound-
aries of the intersections new functional area. Traffic
patterns change w ith m odifications to an intersec-
tions through-lanes, auxiliary lanes, and acceleration
and deceleration tapers. Therefore, the location
w here vehicles cause dam age also m ay change from
the location in the existing intersection configuration.
As a standard, som e agencies extend the new con-
crete pavem ent, from 30-60 m (100-200 ft) on each
leg of the intersection for all traffic lanes. O thers
extend the new pavem ent approaching the intersec-
tion farther than the new pavem ent leaving the inter-
section. In these cases, the concrete lanes
approaching the intersection m ay begin 60-120 m
(200-400 ft) from the intersections physical area, w hile
lanes leaving the intersection term inate about 15 m
(50 ft) beyond the physical area. For intersections
carrying m oderate traffic volum es and a low percent-
age of heavy vehicles, 15-30 m (50-100 ft) of new
pavem ent is usually sufficient to replace the distressed
pavem ent.
Concrete Slab Thickness
B ecause an intersections physical area carries traffic
from both roadw ays, the concrete slab thickness in
the physical area of the intersection m ay need to be
greater than the thickness on either approaching
roadw ay. The need for extra thickness w ill depend
upon the roadw ay or street classification and the aver-
age daily truck traffic (AD TT) that each route carries. Figure 1. Physical and functional areas of an intersection.
3
R eference 3 defines six roadw ay (street) classifica-
tions. These classifications depend upon traffic vol-
um e, vehicle type(s) and m axim um axle loading.
Table 1 describes these classifications.
D esigners should consider increasing the slab thick-
ness for at-grade intersections of industrial and arterial
roadw ays. The physical area w ill likely require 12-25 m m
(0.5-1.0 in.) of additional thickness (see Table 2 next
page).
W hen traffic w arrants extra concrete thickness in the
intersections physical area, it is generally easier to
change the thickness at a location before the radii for
the intersection. The slabs near the intersections radii
are built using fixed form s and separate hand-pours in
m ost cases. A transition length of about 1-2 m (3-6 ft)
for changing the thickness is usually adequate. The
decision on precisely w here to change thickness
should be left to the contractor. R equiring the transi-
tion to be at a specific location m ay com plicate con-
struction and conflict w ith other job site factors, such
as providing access to adjacent businesses.
At-grade intersections of light residential, residential,
collector, and business roadw ays should not require
any extra concrete thickness in the physical area. The
intersection thickness should be the sam e as the
thicker of the tw o approaching roadw ays.
J ointing
Joint design is arguably the m ost im portant design
aspect for concrete pavem ent intersections. At-grade
intersections often introduce jointing challenges that
do not exist along tangent sections of concrete road-
w ay- or street-pavem ents. H ow ever, these com plica-
tions can be overcom e by applying sim ple jointing
fundam entals.
Table 1. Street Classifications
(3)
.
Street Class Description Two-way Two-way Typical
Average Daily Average Daily Range of Slab
Traffic Truck Traffic Thickness
(ADT) (ADTT)
Light R esidential Short streets in subdivisions Less than 200 2-4 100-125 m m
and sim ilar residential areas -
often not through-streets. (4.0-5.0 in.)
R esidential Through-streets in subdivisions 200-1,000 10-50 125-175 m m
and sim ilar residential areas
that occasionally carry a heavy (5.0-7.0 in.)
vehicle (truck or bus).
C ollector Streets that collect traffic from 1,000-8,000 50-500 135-225 m m
several residential subdivisions,
and that m ay serve buses and (5.5-9.0 in.)
trucks.
B usiness Streets that provide access to 11,000-17,000 400-700 150-225 m m
shopping and urban central
business districts. (6.0-9.0 in.)
Industrial Streets that provide access to 2,000-4,000 300-800 175-260 m m
industrial areas or parks, and
typically carry heavier trucks (7.0-10.5 in.)
than the business class.
Arterial Streets that serve traffic from 4,000-15,000 300-600 150-225 m m
m ajor expressw ays and carry (m inor) (6.0-9.0 in.)
traffic through m etropolitan
areas. Truck and bus routes 4,000-30,000 700-1,500 175-275 m m
are prim arily on these roads. (m ajor) (7.0-11.0 in.)
4
Joints are necessary prim arily to control the location of
cracks that occur from natural actions on concrete
pavem ent. W hen designed correctly, joints accom m o-
date the expansion and contraction of concrete slabs
caused by tem perature fluctuations, and account for
stresses that develop from slab curling and w arping.
(6)
D uring construction, joints also divide the pavem ent
into suitable placem ent increm ents or elem ents for the
contractor. C ertain joints also accom m odate slab
m ovem ent against fixed structures.
For at-grade intersections, a designer should consider
three m ajor joint design elem ents: joint spacing, joint
type, and joint layout. Each factor can influence the
long-term perform ance of the pavem ent. In addition,
other factors to consider include: dow el bars for load
transfer, tiebars for tying lanes, and sealing joints*.
J oint Spacing For unreinforced concrete pave-
m ent, joint spacing or slab length depends upon slab
thickness, concrete aggregate, subbase, and cli-
m ate.
(6,7)
In m ost areas, the typical m axim um trans-
verse joint spacing for unreinforced (plain) pavem ent is
about 4.5 m (15 ft). Longitudinal joints on tw o-lane
and m ultilane street pavem ents are typically about
3.0-4.2 m (10-13 ft) apart, and serve the dual pur-
pose of crack control and lane delineation.
Equation 1 determ ines the m axim um allow able joint
spacing based on slab thickness and subbase type.
Slabs kept to dim ensions shorter than the equation
determ ines w ill have curling and w arping stresses w ith-
in safe lim its to ensure m inim al risk of random cracking:
M L = T x C S (Eq. 1)
w here:
M L = M axim um length betw een joints
(See N otes 1 and 2).
T = Slab thickness (Either m etric or English units).
C S = Support constant.
U se 24; for subgrades or granular subbases.
U se 21; for stabilized subbases, or existing
concrete or asphalt pavem ent (for conventional
overlays).
U se 12-15; for ultra-thin overlays of asphalt
(See N ote 3).
*If local experience indicates that it is necessary, joints should
be sealed to minimize infiltration of water and incompressible
particles. The effectiveness of joint sealing depends upon the
sealant type, installation technique, maintenance, concrete prop-
erties and joint configuration. For pavements with joints spaced
less than 4.5 m (15 ft), the impact of the sealant on pavement
performance is not as critical as it is for longer spacing. The
impact of joint sealing on pavement performance also may be
more noticeable in urban areas and Northern climates if pave-
ments carry heavy traffic and receive sand or salt applications
for snow and ice control. See Reference 8 for more details on
joint sealing techniques and materials.
Notes:
1. The spacing of transverse joints in plain (unreinforced)
concrete pavement should not exceed 6 m (20 ft) for slabs
less than 250 mm (10 in.) thick.
2. A general rule-of-thumb requires that the transverse joint
spacing should not exceed 150% of the longitudinal joint
spacing. This ratio is difficult to maintain within intersec-
tions due to islands, medians, auxiliary lanes and curved
areas, and can be disregarded in favor of common-sense
jointing patterns to accommodate these elements within
the intersection.
3. The spacing of transverse and longitudinal joints in ultra-
thin overlays range from 0.6 to 2.0 m (2 to 6 ft) depending
upon overlay thickness, support conditions, and lane width.
Intersecting Intersecting Physical Area Thickness*
Roadway 1 Roadway 2
Low AD TT (T1) Low AD TT (T2) T2
Low AD TT (T1) H igh AD TT (T3) T3
H igh AD TT (T3) H igh AD TT (T3) T3 + 25-50 m m **
Table 2. Slab thickness considerations for the physical area of at-grade intersections. Note that in this
table, thickness T3 is greater than T2, and T2 is greater than T1.
* Assumes thickness (T1, T2 or T3) for intersecting roadways based on anticipated traffic and
calculated in a rational design procedure such as that of AASHTO
(4)
or PCA
(3,5)
.
** The AASHTO thickness design procedure(4) shows that doubling the traffic loading requires about an
additional 25 mm (1 in.) of concrete pavement thickness. The PCA design procedure
(3,5)
shows that
an extra 12 mm (0.5 in.) of slab thickness is required when doubling traffic.
5
The clim ate and concrete aggregate com m on to som e
geographic regions m ay allow transverse joints to be fur-
ther apart, or require them to be closer together than
Equation 1 determ ines. For exam ple, concrete m ade
from granite and lim estone coarse aggregate is m uch
less sensitive to tem perature change than concrete
m ade from siliceous gravel, chert, or slag aggregate. A
less-tem perature-sensitive concrete does not expand or
contract m uch w ith tem perature change, w hich allow s a
longer spacing betw een pavem ent contraction joints
w ithout any greater chance of random cracking.
H ow ever, unless experience w ith local conditions and
concrete aggregates indicates otherw ise, use Equation 1
to determ ine the m axim um allow able transverse joint
spacing for unreinforced pavem ents.
A transverse joint spacing up to 9 m (30 ft) is allow able
for pavem ents reinforced w ith distributed steel reinforce-
m ent. The purpose of distributed steel is to hold to-
gether any interm ediate (m id-panel) cracks that w ill
develop in the long panels betw een transverse joints.**
D istributed steel neither adds to the load-carrying
capacity of the pavem ent nor com pensates for poor
subgrade conditions.
J oint Types There are three basic joint types for
concrete pavem ents: contraction, construction and iso-
lation. Specific design requirem ents for each type
depend upon orientation to the direction of the roadw ay
(transverse or longitudinal). M ost concrete intersections
w ill require each of the three joint types in both longitudi-
nal and transverse orientations. Figure 2 (page 6) pro-
vides cross-sections detailing each type.
Transverse J oints - Transverse contraction joints
run transverse to the pavem ent centerline and are
essential to control cracking from stresses caused by
shrinkage, therm al contraction, and m oisture or therm al
gradients. Typically these joints are at a right angle to
the pavem ent centerline and edges. H ow ever, som e
agencies skew transverse contraction joints to decrease
the dynam ic loading across the joints by elim inating the
sim ultaneous crossing of each w heel on a vehicles
axle.
(6,7)
R ight-angle transverse contraction joints are
preferable to skew ed joints for concrete intersections
because they do not create com plex jointing patterns
w ithin the intersections physical area. Skew ing joints is
not a substitute for the load transfer provided by dow els.
The need for dow els (sm ooth round bars) in transverse
contraction joints depends upon the roadw ay or street
classification. U ndow eled contraction joints (Type A-1,
Fig. 2) are usually sufficient for light residential, residen-
tial, or collector pavem ents. Industrial and arterial
streets that w ill carry heavy truck traffic for long periods
require dow eled contraction joints (Type A-2, Fig. 2).
(7)
D ow eled contraction joints are also necessary in pave-
m ents w ith distributed steel reinforcem ent, and should
be considered for slabs longer than 6 m (20 ft). Table 3
provides recom m ended dow el sizes.
Transverse construction joints (Type B -1, C -1, Fig. 2) are
necessary at the end of a paving segm ent, or at a place-
m ent interruption for a drivew ay or cross road. A dow -
eled butt joint (Type B -1) is preferable, and should be
used w henever the construction joint w ill correspond to
the location of a contraction joint or construction joint in
an adjacent lane. Som etim es it is not feasible to m atch
the location of a transverse joint in the adjacent lane,
w hich necessitates use of a tied construction joint (Type
C -1). The deform ed tiebars in a Type C -1 joint prevent
the joint from opening and causing sym pathy cracking in
adjacent lane(s).
** Pavements with distributed steel are often called jointed
reinforced concrete pavements (JRCP). In JRCP, the joint
spacing is purposely increased and reinforcing steel is used
to hold together intermediate cracks. If there is enough dis-
tributed steel within the pavement (0.10 to 0.25% per cross-
sectional area), the mid-panel cracks do not detract from the
pavements performance.
(9)
However, if there is not enough
steel, the steel can corrode or rupture and the cracks can
start to open and deteriorate.
Table 3. Dowel sizes for plain pavements and pavements
reinforced with distributed steel.
*Assumes thickness is based on anticipated traffic and is
calculated in a rational design procedure such as that of
AASHTO
(4)
or PCA
(3,5)
.
Slab Thickness Dowel Diameter Dowel Length
mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.)
Plain (unreinforced) Pavem ents*
<200 (<8) not necessary not necessary
200-249 (8-9.9) 32 (1.25) 450 (18)
250 (10) 38 (1.50) 450 (18)
D istributed Steel R einforced Pavem ents
150 (6) 20 (0.75) 360 (14)
165 (6.5) 22 (0.875) 360 (14)
180 (7) 25 (1.00) 400 (16)
190 (7.5) 28 (1.125) 400 (16)
200-249 (8-9.9) 32 (1.25) 450 (18)
250 (10) 38 (1.50) 450 (18)
6
Figure 2. Cross sections of different joint types.
7
Longitudinal J oints - Longitudinal contraction joints
(Type A-3, A-4, Fig. 2) also are necessary to control
cracking from stress caused by concrete volum e
changes and m oisture or therm al gradients through
the concrete. These joints run parallel to the pave-
m ent centerline and usually correspond to the edge of
a driving lane. O n tw o-lane and m ultilane pavem ents,
a spacing of 3.0 to 4.0 m (10 to 13 ft) serves the dual
purpose of crack control and lane delineation.
For unusual or special locations, such as ram ps and
turning areas betw een m edian islands, the m axim um
recom m ended slab w idth (distance betw een longitudi-
nal contraction joints) is 4.5 m (15 ft). H ow ever, this
m ay be excessive for thinner slabs, in w hich case
Equation 1 should be used to determ ine the m axi-
m um allow able longitudinal joint spacing.
The need to tie longitudinal contraction joints w ill
depend upon the degree of lateral restraint available
to prevent the joints from opening perm anently. M ost
longitudinal contraction joints on roadw ay tangent
sections contain #13M or #16M (N o. 4 or N o. 5)
deform ed reinforcing bars.

The deform ed bars are

usually about 600-750 m m (24-30 in.) long and are
spaced at 750-1000 m m (30-40 in.) intervals. W here
there are curbs on both sides of the pavem ent, it m ay
not be necessary to tie the joints unless local experi-
ence indicates otherw ise.
Longitudinal construction joints (Type B -2, C -2, Fig. 2)
join pavem ent lanes that are paved at different tim es.
C oncrete intersections require these joints because of
the num erous pours necessary to place pavem ent
around islands and m edians, and betw een the curves
connecting the tw o roadw ays.
The optional keyw ay for a tied longitudinal construc-
tion joint can be difficult to construct correctly in thin
pavem ents. Therefore, som e agencies avoid placing
keyw ays in slabs less than 250 m m (10 in.) thick.
(7)
Keyw ay shear failures can occur in thin slabs w hen
keyw ays are too large or too close to the slab sur-
face. Som e contractors report that half-round key-
w ays are easier to construct and less prone to prob-
lem s than trapezoidal keyw ays. W here a keyw ay is
deem ed necessary, the dim ensions indicated in Figure 3
w ill afford the optim um load-transfer perform ance.
Isolation J oints - Isolation joints (Type D , Fig. 2) are
essential at asym m etrical and T-intersections to isolate
the side road from the through street (Figure 4).
Isolation joints also are needed w here the pavem ent
abuts certain m anholes, drainage fixtures, sidew alks,
aprons, and structures. C ertain agencies and con-
tractors also prefer to use isolation joints at cross-
road intersections. W here used, the isolation joint w ill

For very wide roadways, there is a limit to width of pave-

ment that can be tied together without concern for cracking.
Current recommendations
(7)
limit the tied width of highway
pavement to about 14.5 m (48 ft) based on the subgrade drag
theory. However, there has been good field performance of
certain intersections with up to 21 m (70 ft) of tied pavement.
If local-experience records are not available for intersection
design, consider using an untied contraction joint (Type A-3)
or construction joint (Type C-2) near the centerline of roadway
sections that exceed 14.5 m (48 ft).
Figure 3. Keyway standard dimensions.
Figure 4. Asymmetrical and T-intersections that require
isolation joints.
8
allow independent m ovem ent of the pavem ent and
the structure, w ithout any connection that could
cause dam age. To be effective the preform ed com -
pressible filler should m eet the requirem ents of
ASTM

D 1751, D 1752, or D 994, and m ust cover

the entire depth of the concrete slab.
At asym m etrical or T-intersections, undow eled, thick-
ened-edge or sleeper-slab isolation joints (Type D -1 or
D -3, Fig. 2) are preferable to dow eled isolation joints,
because they each perm it independent lateral m ove-
m ent of the through-street concrete slabs. The
sleeper slab and thickened edge designs each pro-
vide im proved support to com pensate for the
absence of dow el bars. For a thickened edge joint,
the abutting edges of the concrete slabs should be 20%
thicker at the joint and taper back to the nom inal
thickness over about 1.5 m (5 ft).
At locations inaccessible to heavy vehicle loads, such
as those betw een a pavem ent and a structure, a
thickened-edge joint is not necessary. A butt joint
w ith a non-extruding, preform ed com pressible m aterial
is adequate.
For utility fixtures such as m anholes, catch basins and
drainage inlets, the need for isolation w ill depend
upon the casting design and potential for differential
m ovem ent. N on-telescoping m anholes w ith ribbed
cylinder w alls usually require a boxout w ith a perim e-
ter isolation joint to allow independent vertical and
horizontal slab m ovem ent. C om m on square boxouts
som etim es cause cracks to form at the boxouts cor-
ners. To avoid crack-inducing corners, consider using
rounded boxouts or placing fillets on the corners of
square boxouts. It is advantageous to place w elded-
w ire fabric or sm all-diam eter reinforcing bars in the
concrete pavem ent around any interior corners at
square boxouts to hold cracks tightly should they
develop. Figure 5 show s details for boxing out in-
pavem ent fixtures.
In som e circum stances, boxing out fixtures m ay be
undesirable. For instance, boxouts can im pede fast-
track construction because m ore tim e is needed to
place concrete around the casting after the pavem ent
gains strength. It is also very difficult to m aintain a
uniform joint pattern if there are too m any m anholes
random ly-positioned in an intersection. In these
cases it m ay be best to cast the fixtures into the con-
crete.
To isolate a fixture w ithout a boxout, som e contractors
and agencies w rap the casting w ith pliable expansion
joint filler or suitable bond breaker. If no differential

ASTM is now the official name of the organization originally

called the American Society for Testing and Materials.
Equivalent Canadian standards for all ASTM standards and
tests addressed in this publication are found on page 28.
Figure 5. Details for boxing out fixtures.
Notes: 1. Isolation joints should be at least 12 mm (1/2 in.) wide and filled with a compressible material.
2. Boxouts should be large enough to provide at least 0.3 m (1 ft) clearance between the fixture and the surrounding isolation joint.
9
m ovem ent is expected the m anhole can be cast
directly into the concrete. Telescoping m anhole fix-
tures have a tw o-piece casting, w hich allow s vertical
m ovem ent.
C oncrete pavem ent perform ance suffers if the pave-
m ent contains too m any transverse expansion (isola-
tion-type) joints. O utdated specifications som etim es
require expansion joints spaced uniform ly along tan-
gent sections. These joints create m aintenance prob-
lem s because nearby transverse contraction joints
open excessively as the expansion joint closes gradu-
ally over tim e. The open contraction joints then lose
load transfer, and develop distresses like faulting and
pum ping. Transverse expansion joints at regular inter-
vals m ay be needed w hen:
1. The pavem ent is divided into long panels [18 m (60 ft)
or m ore] w ithout contraction joints in-betw een.
2. The pavem ent is constructed w hile am bient tem -
peratures are below 4C (40F).
3. The contraction joints are allow ed to be infiltrated
by large incom pressible m aterials.
4. The pavem ent is constructed of m aterials that in
the past have show n high expansion characteristics.
In m ost situations, these criteria do not apply.
Therefore transverse expansion joints should not nor-
m ally be used.
J oint Layout A w ell-designed joint layout con-
tributes to good long-term perform ance of at-grade
intersections. A good jointing plan w ill ease construc-
tion by providing clear guidance to the contractor. It
is com m on practice for som e designers to leave inter-
section joint layout to the field engineer and contrac-
tor. These designers often justify this practice by cit-
ing the m any field adjustm ents that occur during con-
struction, w hich they contend negates the usefulness
of a jointing plan. H ow ever, it is not desirable to elim i-
nate the jointing plan entirely, except for very sim ple
intersections. A jointing plan and appropriate field
adjustm ents are both im portant for m ore com plex
intersections, because islands, m edians, and auxiliary
turning lanes com plicate joint layout and require som e
forethought before construction. A plan also enables
contractors to bid new projects m ore accurately.
D uring construction, it is likely that location changes
w ill be necessary for som e joints w ithin an intersec-
tion. The prim ary reason is to ensure that joints pass
through em bedded fixtures such as m anholes or
drainage inlets. It is com m on for the actual location
of m anholes or drainage inlets to vary from the loca-
tion show n on the plans. It w ill be necessary for the
construction crew to adjust the location of som e joints
during construction so that they coincide w ith the
actual location of a nearby m anhole or inlet. The
designer should consider placing a note on the plan
to give the field engineer and contractor the latitude to
m ake appropriate adjustm ents. R eference 10 pro-
vides a ten-step m ethod for laying out joints for con-
crete intersections.
Another im portant aspect of laying out intersection
joints is determ ining w here to use dow el bars or
tiebars near the intersections physical area. Figure 6
(page 10) show s exam ples of dow el and tiebar use in
intersections.
Phasing Construction
Phasing is alm ost alw ays a key elem ent of intersec-
tion construction plans. The need for a refined phas-
ing plan depends upon the need to m aintain traffic
flow through the intersection during construction.
There are four basic construction staging options:
com plete closure w ith detours, partial closure w ith
detours, com plete closure during tim e-w indow s, and
construction under traffic.
Intersections of rural or other low -traffic roadw ays do
not usually require the sam e level of consideration as
is necessary for intersections that carry high volum es
of traffic. C losing low -traffic intersections for the dura-
tion of construction is often the optim al solution and
should alw ays be considered. In som e cases, the
availability of convenient alternate routes (e.g., front-
age roads) m ay even perm it closing an intersection
that carries a high traffic volum e w ithout significant
concern for traffic flow or business disruption.
For the contractor, com plete closure is ideal.
C om plete closure elim inates com plex w ork-zone lane
configurations, w hich increases the safety of the con-
struction w ork zone. C om plete closure also allow s the
contractor to place m ore pavem ent in a continuous
operation, generally increasing pavem ent sm oothness,
im proving quality, and reducing construction tim e.
C om pletely closing an intersection for construction
requires developing a detour plan. C lear and under-
10
Figure 6. Use of dowel bars and tiebars in intersections
11
standable signing along the detour route w ill m ake the
detour m ore acceptable to m otorists. A sign indicat-
ing the date w hen the intersection w ill re-open also
can im prove public relations.
U nfortunately, closing intersections for the entire con-
struction period is often not viable along urban arterial
or corridor routes. For exam ple, the lack of traffic
over an extended period m ight cause businesses near
the closure to lose custom ers. In these circum -
stances one option is to lim it com plete intersection
closure to non-business hours. If it is feasible to
divert traffic around the intersection, even for a few
hours, the contractor can com plete critical construc-
tion phases quickly and expedite the entire project.
Som e agencies develop phasing plans that allow
com plete intersection closure during specific periods
(w indow s). U sually the w indow w ill begin at about 6
p.m . and last until about 6 a.m . the follow ing m orning.
The starting and ending tim e depends upon the local
rush-hour traffic pattern. W ithin the w indow the con-
tractor m ay close and occupy the entire intersection.
At the end of the w indow public traffic m ust be able
to use the intersection. In this m anner, the closure w ill
not hinder m orning, evening, or daytim e traffic flow .
U nder tim e-w indow phasing plans, contractors per-
form each sequential construction operation during
successive tim e-w indow s. For exam ple, if the project
includes rem oval of an existing pavem ent, the con-
tractor m ay place a tem porary pavem ent after rem ov-
ing the existing m aterial during one 12-hour w indow .
The tem porary pavem ent carries traffic until the con-
tractor rem oves it to pave the new concrete roadw ay
in a subsequent tim e w indow .
Another option to avoid closing an entire intersection
is to close one leg of the intersection at a tim e. This
is often feasible for intersections betw een residential
and collector streets. D etours along the closed resi-
dential street are usually short and not a burden to
local residents.
O n som e roadw ays, it m ay be unacceptable to close
the entire intersection at any tim e. M any agencies
have had good success replacing busy intersections
w ith concrete pavem ent w hile m aintaining norm al traf-
fic volum es. Figure 7 show s possible options for
phasing construction under traffic.
Figure 7. Possible options for phasing construction under traffic.
12
These options m ay reduce the num ber of available
through-lanes and m ay som ew hat lim it turning m ove-
m ents during construction. H ow ever, the degree of
these restrictions depends upon the num ber of lanes
on the approaching roadw ays. N one m ay be neces-
sary if the approaching roadw ays have at least three
through lanes in each direction. A detour for one leg
of the intersection or special alternating traffic signals
w ill be necessary if one or both of the approaching
streets has just one lane in each direction.
C onstruction under traffic can generally start on any
leg of an intersection. H ow ever, if an intersection
includes a m ajor road and a m inor cross road, the dri-
ving lanes of the m ajor roadw ay usually are built
before the cross road. C oncentrating on the m ajor
roadw ay pavem ent generally produces a sm oother-
riding intersection. After the m ajor roadw ay pavem ent
lanes are finished, other pavem ent areas are built
w ithout affecting the sm oothness through the inter-
section. This m ethod also is usually m ore productive
because the contractor can place m ore pavem ent in a
continuous operation w ithout gaps or changes in the
pavem ent w idth.
Quality Concrete Mixtures
A suitable concrete m ixture is necessary to ensure the
success of the construction phasing plan. W hether
the contractor or agency determ ines the concrete
m ixture proportions, the concrete m ust be capable of
m eeting strength requirem ents reliably w ithin any
specified tim e w indow s for construction, and m ust
have adequate long-term durability. The contractor
should have som e latitude to adjust the m ixture pro-
portions during construction if the m ixture does not
w ork properly for the required construction phasing
plan. B efore construction, contractors also m ay offer
valuable suggestions or value-engineering options to
expedite construction.
Strength C om pressive strength testing (ASTM C
39) is the m ost com m on and easiest w ay to evaluate
concrete strength. C oncrete w ith a 28-day com pres-
sive strength averaging 20-30 M Pa (3000-4000 psi) is
adequate for m ost intersections. D uring construction
the pavem ent m ay be opened to traffic at a strength
som ew hat less than the 28-day target value (see
page 22).
Som e highw ay agencies use flexural strength (ASTM
C 78) as the structural strength criterion to evaluate
load capacity. Flexural strength provides an assess-
m ent of the tensile strength at the bottom of the slab
w here w heel loads induce tensile stresses. H ow ever,
problem s casting and testing beam specim ens dis-
courage m any engineers and contractors from this
test m ethod.
Durability Strength is not a reliable m easure of
concretes durability. In frost-affected areas, a con-
crete pavem ent m ust be able to w ithstand m any
cycles of freezing and thaw ing and the effects of deic-
ing salts. This requires quality aggregate, a low
w ater-cem entitious m aterial ratio, an adequate
cem ent factor, and a sufficient quantity of entrained air
bubbles. The percentages of total air content neces-
sary for w eather-resistant concrete are show n in Table 4.
These recom m endations vary depending upon the
exposure condition of the concrete. Adequate curing
m easures also are necessary for developing durable
concrete pavem ent.
In addition to m aking the hardened concrete pave-
m ent w eather resistant, entrained air bubbles im prove
the concrete w hile it is still in a plastic state by:
1. R educing w ater required for satisfactory w orkability.
2. Preventing segregation.
3. R educing bleeding.
Table 4. Recommended* total air contents.
(11)
* Canadian standards differ, refer to CSA Standard A23.1.
** A tolerance of -1% to +2% is typical for paving concrete.
*** Severe exposure is an environment where concrete pavement is
exposed to wet freeze-thaw conditions or deicers. Moderate
exposure is an environment where concrete pavement is exposed
to freezing but will not be continually moist, exposed to water for
long periods before freezing, or in contact with deicers. Mild
exposure is an environment where concrete pavement is not
exposed to freezing conditions or deicers.
Nominal
Maximum Target** Percentage
Aggregate Air Content for Exposure
Size
mm (in.) Severe*** Moderate*** Mild***
50 (2) 5 4 2
37.5 (1-1/2) 5.5 4.5 2.5
25 (1) 6 4.5 3
19 (3/4) 6 5 3.5
12.5 (1/2) 7 5.5 4
9.5 (3/8) 7.5 6 4.5
13
B ecause of these beneficial and essential effects in both
plastic and hardened concrete, it is w ise to consider
using entrained air even in m ild exposure conditions.
The quantity of w ater in the m ixture also has a critical
influence on the durability and w eather resistance of
hardened concrete.
(11)
For a given quantity of cem en-
titious m aterials, a low er quantity of w ater w ill produce
a m ore durable m ixture in m ost cases. H ow ever, an
adequate quantity of w ater is necessary to produce a
w orkable concrete. Satisfactory pavem ent durability
is generally achieved w ith:
1. A w ater-cem entitious m aterial ratio not exceeding
0.53 w ith a m inim um cem entitious m aterial con-
tent of 310 kg/m
3
(520 lb/yd
3
) for m ild exposure
conditions.
2. A w ater-cem entitious m aterial ratio not exceeding
0.49 w ith a m inim um cem entitious m aterial con-
tent of 330 kg/m
3
(560 lb/yd
3
) for m oderate-to-
severe exposure conditions (frequent freezing and
thaw ing, and application of deicing agents).
C areful aggregate selection is im portant to avoid
future problem s w ith alkali aggregate reactions or D -
cracking. C oarse or fine aggregates that are suscep-
tible to alkali-silica or alkali-carbonate reactivity require
special m ixture proportions to produce durable con -
crete. M any agencies specify special m ixtures w hen
using locally available aggregates know n to have
reactivity potential. It is also possible to test a pro-
posed concrete m ixture to determ ine if there is reac-
tivity potential. For m ore inform ation refer to
R eferences 12 and 13.
Fast-track Concrete Mixtures Fast-track
concrete m ixtures develop strength rapidly and are
beneficial w hen early opening of the pavem ent is nec-
essary. For intersections, there are several practical
options available to produce concrete that gains
strength rapidly. The m ixture com ponents can be
selected or proportioned for rapid strength gain, and
the m ixture w ater can be heated so cem ent hydration
begins quickly.
Although proprietary cem ents are available, fast-track
m ixtures do not necessarily require these special
m aterials. R apid strength developm ent is possible by
using greater-than-norm al quantities of ordinary ASTM
C 150 Type I and Type II cem ents. H igh-early-
strength, ASTM C 150 Type III, cem ent is also com -
m only available. M ost aggregates and adm ixtures
available locally also can be used in fast-track m ix-
tures if com bined in the proper proportions.
(14,15)
Table 5 show s typical fast-track m ixture proportions.
The sooner the concrete tem perature rises, the faster
it w ill develop strength. O ne w ay to raise the tem per-
ature of plastic concrete is to heat the m ix w ater. This
m ay be practical for intersection projects that do not
require a large quantity of concrete.
Several factors influence the w ater tem perature need-
ed to produce a desirable m ixture tem perature at
placem ent. The critical factors are: am bient air tem -
perature, aggregate tem peratures, aggregate free-
m oisture content, and portland cem ent type. W hen
necessary, ready-m ix concrete producers heat w ater
to 60-66C (140-150F) to elevate m ixture tem pera-
ture sufficiently for cool-w eather construction. The
sam e practice w ill accelerate strength developm ent in
w arm er am bient tem peratures. H ow ever, to avoid a
flash set using this m ethod, com bine the hot w ater
and aggregates before adding the cem ent to the con-
crete m ixer.
(14)
Though hot w ater does facilitate early cem ent hydra-
tion, its benefits m ay be short-lived. Several hours of
heat containm ent w ith insulating blankets m ay be
necessary to achieve the desirable strength gain, par-
ticularly w hen cool w eather conditions prevail.
Table 5. Typical fast-track mix proportions.
(14)
Material Type Quantity
*
C em ent ASTM C 150 415-475 kg/m
3
Type I (700-800 lb/yd
3
)
ASTM C 150 415-475 kg/m
3
Type II (700-800 lb/yd
3
)
ASTM C 150 360-450 kg/m
3
Type III (600-750 lb/yd
3
)
Fly ash ASTM C 618 10-20% by w eight
of cem ent
W ater ASTM C 94 (See note below )
Air-entraining ASTM C 260 As necessary
adm ixture
Accelerating ASTM C 494 As necessary
Adm ixture
W ater-reducing ASTM C 494 As necessary
adm ixture
* Use quantity of water appropriate to produce sufficient workability
and maintain desired strength gain. Water-cementitious material
ratio should not exceed 0.37 - 0.43 under most circumstances.
14
Mixtures for Thin Overlays The concrete m ix-
ture for thin overlays is often selected based on
requirem ents for opening to traffic. A norm al thin-
overlay m ixture includes: cem ent, coarse and fine
aggregate, air-entraining agent, adm ixtures (w ater-
reducers or plasticizers), fibers (as specified), and a
low w ater-cem entitious m aterials ratio. C om pared to
aggregate used for thicker concrete pavem ents, the
top-size of coarse aggregate for ultra-thin w hitetop-
ping
(16)
is reduced appropriately for the thin pavem ent.
W hen fibers are used in an ultra-thin m ixture, the fiber
contents are usually in the range appropriate for the
specific fiber type, although on som e projects higher-
than-norm al dosages have been used.
Construction
Various m ethods and m achines are used to build con-
crete pavem ent intersections, including slipform and
fixed-form construction equipm ent. U nlike m ainline
roadw ay paving, intersection construction w ork usual-
ly necessitates som e use of fixed-form placem ent.
C ontractors m ay elect to use slipform equipm ent in
an intersection if the paving area is large enough to
w arrant its use, or if staging allow s the contractor to
build the driving lanes of the m ajor roadw ay through
the physical area of the intersection.
D espite the variety of possible equipm ent, the follow -
ing construction steps are typical for nearly all types of
concrete pavem ent.
1. R em oving or planing an existing pavem ent (w here
necessary).
2. Preparing the grade.
3. Setting form s (w here used).
4. Placing in-pavem ent objects (dow els, tiebars and
boxouts, w here used).
5. Placing and finishing the concrete.
6. Texturing the pavem ent surface.
7. C uring the concrete.
8. Jointing the pavem ent.
Removing or Planing Existing
Pavement
The first step in the com plete reconstruction of an
intersection is to rem ove the existing pavem ent. The
options for rem oving existing asphalt include: cold
m illing, scarifying, and excavating the m aterial w ith
equipm ent such as a front-end loader or bulldozer.
C old m illing offers productivity and suitable grade
control. C old m illing equipm ent uses carbide teeth
m ounted on a rotary drum . The teeth chip aw ay
existing asphalt as the drum rotates. The size of the
broken m aterial depends upon the tooth configura-
tion, drum rotation speed, forw ard m achine-speed,
and rem oval depth. Particle size also varies w ith the
tem perature, condition, and asphalt content of the old
hot-m ix asphalt. The ability to control particle size is
helpful w hen the asphalt m illings are reused on the
project for fill or subbase.
Attaining the desired rem oval depth m ay require sev-
eral m illing passes. C om m only available m achines
can rem ove 150 m m (6 in.) of asphalt m aterial in one
pass.
Scarifying or ripping is also com m on for rem oving thin
layers of existing asphalt. This m ethod uses m otor-
graders or bulldozers equipped w ith scarifying equip-
m ent. W hile scarifying is less expensive than cold
m illing, there is also less ability to control rem oval
depth or grade. N evertheless, scarifying equipm ent is
adequate w hen the rem oval goes below the depth of
all asphalt layers.
There also are three m ethods for rem oving existing
concrete or com posite pavem ents:
1. B reak the concrete into sm all fragm ents for
rem oval by backhoe and hand tools.
2. Lift the concrete out of place in large segm ents.
3. Scarify the concrete w ith large m illing m achines.
At urban intersections, the optim al m ethod depends
upon the size of the intersection, the allow able tim e
for rem oval, the land use in the surrounding area, and
concerns about noise and dust generation. The pres-
ence of sensitive utility pipes, conduits, or cables
beneath the pavem ent also m ay discourage use of
equipm ent that im parts im pact vibrations. In general,
the selection of the m ost productive rem oval m ethod
should be left to the contractor based on experience
and available equipm ent.
If an existing asphalt intersection w ill receive a con-
crete pavem ent overlay, rem oval of the existing
asphalt should stop short of the subbase or sub-
grade. B ecause cold m illing offers excellent grade
15
control, it is the best choice for rem oving controlled
layers of existing asphalt pavem ents. The rough sur-
face from m illing also provides an excellent bonding
surface for the overlay.
(16,17)
For ultra-thin w hitetop-
ping, an overlay less than 100 m m (4 in.) thick, cur-
rent recom m endations
(16)
suggest that at least 75 m m
(3 in.) of asphalt thickness rem ain after m illing to get
the benefits of com posite action.
Preparing the Grade
A reasonably uniform subgrade or subbase, w ith no
abrupt changes in support, is ideal for any concrete
pavem ent. Achieving this condition after pavem ent
rem oval operations w ill require som e effort even in the
relatively confined w ork area of an intersection. The
first step is to ensure that the subgrade soils are of
uniform m aterial and density.
C om pacting the subgrade surface adequately requires
a com pactor heavy enough to achieve 95 percent of
ASTM D 698 density. H ow ever, it m ay be difficult to
m aneuver large com pactors in a trench created by
rem oving an older pavem ent for an intersection. A
m ore effective strategy in a confined area m ay be to
apply m ore com paction effort using sm aller equip-
m ent.
The soil m oisture content should be reasonably uni-
form during com paction; excessively w et or dry spots
require correction to produce reasonable uniform ity.
For m ost soils, com paction should be done at m ois-
ture contents at or slightly above optim um .
Soft spots in the subgrade often becom e visible after
rem oving an old pavem ent. It is not acceptable to
m erely place a granular layer over these soft areas;
excavation is necessary to rem ove the suspect soils.
Ideally, the replacem ent soil should be of the sam e
type as in the surrounding subgrade to develop uni-
form support.
C ontractors m ust pay particular attention to sections
of the subgrade overlying any utility installations such
as sew ers, telephone and pow er conduits and w ater
lines. C areless com paction of fill m aterials in these
trenches often causes soft spots in the subgrade.
C ontrolled low -strength fill (flow able-fill) m aterials are
an econom ical alternative for these areas.
Flow able-fill m aterials do not need com paction and
flow easily to fill a trench. The m ixtures contain port-
land cem ent, sand, fly ash and w ater and typically
develop 28-day com pressive strengths of about 0.35-
0.70 M Pa (50-100 psi). Flow able-fill m aterials provide
enough strength to prevent settlem ent, but are easy
to rem ove using a bucket on a backhoe or front-end
loader if future excavation is necessary.
Subbase A subbase is a thin layer of granular
m aterial placed on top of the prepared subgrade.
Subbases provide uniform support to the pavem ent
and a stable platform for construction equipm ent.
Subbases also help prevent m ud-pum ping of fine-
grained subgrade soils at transverse pavem ent joints
in roads subject to a large volum e of unidirectional
truck traffic. Intersections at residential streets and
even som e streets that m ay carry heavier vehicles
usually do not require a subbase.
W here used, the granular subbase thickness generally
should not exceed 100 to 150 m m (4 to 6 in.). A
thicker subbase is not necessary or econom ical under
m ost conditions. G ood dense-graded, granular-sub -
base m aterials have a plasticity index of 6 or less, and
contain a m axim um of 15 percent fine particles that
pass the 75 (N o. 200) sieve. For stability, the sub-
base requires com paction to 100 percent of ASTM D
698 density.
Perm eable subbases w ith drainage system s are gen-
erally unnecessary for urban pavem ents, because in
m any cases, the presence of curbs and gutters w ith
Compacting subbase against existing curb and gutter after
removing existing pavement.
16
inlets to a m unicipal storm sew er system w ill ade-
quately rem ove surface w ater. Perm eable subbases
have becom e popular am ong state highw ay depart-
m ents for draining concrete highw ay pavem ents.
These subbases either m ay be untreated or stabilized
w ith portland cem ent or asphalt. To be effective, a
perm eable subbase requires a collector pipe and outlet
system to discharge w ater aw ay from the pavem ent.
Trimming The m ethod for trim m ing or shaping
the grade varies by project and m ay depend upon
intersection size. Typical specifications
(18)
require:
1. A subgrade surface that does not vary from the
design elevation by m ore than 12 m m (0.5 in.).
2. A granular subbase surface w ith deviations that
do not exceed 12 m m (0.5 in.), longitudinal or
transverse, by a 3 m (10 ft) straightedge.
O n large intersections, contractors m ay use autom atic
trim m ing equipm ent to shape the subbase or sub-
grade and deposit any excess m aterial outside the
paving area. For fixed-form paving, the autom atic
trim m ing m achine rides on the form s after they are
fastened into place. For slipform paving, the trim m ing
m achine references the stringline(s) for the slipform
paving m achine.
O n sm all projects and in confined w ork zones it m ay
not be practical to use autom atic trim m ing equipm ent,
and the contractor w ill probably trim the grade w ith a
m otor grader or sm all loader.
B ecause final trim m ing disturbs the subgrade or sub-
base surface slightly, additional com paction rolling is
usually necessary.
Placing Forms
Fixed-form paving is alm ost alw ays necessary for the
short paving segm ents, varying paving w idths, and
curved paving areas com m on to intersections.
Form placem ent at intersections does not vary m uch
from form placem ent along straight pavem ent sections.
Straight sections require standard 3 m (10 ft) steel form s
that fasten to the subgrade w ith three pins or stakes. A
stringline set to the top elevation of the pavem ent deter-
m ines the location and height for the form s. A stake
spacing for the stringline of about 7.5 m (25 ft) w ill pro-
duce good results for straight sections.
(19)
Each straight m etal form m ust be clean, and in
acceptable condition to produce a sm ooth pavem ent.
C ontractors should exam ine form s w ith a straightedge
or stringline before using the form s on a project.
Straight form sections that deviate by m ore than 3 m m
(0.125 in.) along the top, or 6 m m (0.25 in.) along the
inside edge should be replaced.
The quality of the support beneath the form depends
upon the trueness of the subgrade or subbase surface.
The base of the form should bear against the subbase
or subgrade surface com pletely and not lie on any
clum ps of dirt or large rocks. After setting the form s, the
form crew should visually check to ensure the form s are
aligned and fully supported, and also to be sure the form
ends are locked together securely. Adequately securing
form s also is crucial because the form s m ust support
equipm ent and rem ain in place until the concrete has
hardened. For ease of rem oval and cleaning, form s
require a thin application of oil before paving.
Standard 3 m (10 ft) straight form s are acceptable for
form ing com pound-radius curves and curve radii
exceeding 30 m (100 ft), but sm aller radii require
curved steel or flexible w ooden form s.
(19)
Short,
1.5-m (5-ft), straight form s also produce acceptable
results on curves less than 30 m (100 ft).
(20)
C urved sections require a tighter stringline staking
interval than straight sections. To ensure the form s
m eet the design location and surface elevation, a
stringline staking interval of 1.5 m (5 ft) is ideal for
curve radii less than 15 m (50 ft). Additional bracing
Forms should rest on a level surface, and should be fastened
securely and pinned in place.
17
is also som etim es necessary to secure form s around
sm aller curves; w here necessary a bracing interval of
0.6 m (2 ft) is usually sufficient.
Placing In-Pavement Objects
Ideally, in-pavem ent objects should be in position
before placing the concrete. This includes utility box-
outs, cast-in-place fixtures, traffic signal handholds,
dow el assem blies (baskets), tiebars, and w elded w ire
fabric. H ow ever, in som e cases it is necessary for the
contractor to use the prepared grade to haul concrete
to the paving equipm ent, requiring placem ent of fix-
tures as w ork progresses.
C ontraction-joint dow el assem blies should be fas-
tened to the subbase using steel staking pins for
granular m aterials or nailing clips for stabilized m ateri-
als. C are in positioning the baskets is necessary so
that the dow els align w ith the pavem ent centerline. A
perm anent m ark indicating the location of the dow el
baskets is necessary for reference w hen later saw ing
the contraction joints.
In som e cases for longitudinal joints, contractors elect
to place tiebars into position ahead of paving.
Straight deform ed bars on supporting chairs fasten to
the subbase or subgrade in a m anner sim ilar to dow el
baskets. In fixed-form construction, standard
deform ed tiebars or tw o-piece bars w ith a threaded
coupling m ay be inserted through holes in side form s
for longitudinal construction joints.
C ast-in-place utility fixtures and boxout form s that are
w ithin the paving area should be in position and
secured before paving. For either fixed-form or slip-
form paving, the boxouts top surface m ust be about
12 m m (0.5 in.) below the finished height of the slab.
This allow s a paver or screed to pass over the boxout
w ithout problem s, and eases surface shaping to pro-
vide proper drainage.
The tw o-piece casting of a telescoping m anhole has
several height positions. A position that places the
castings surface below the pavem ent surface also
allow s the paver or screed to pass. Just after the
paving equipm ent passes over the fixture, w orkers
m ust raise the casting into final position from a con-
struction bridge that spans the pavem ent.
Large-diam eter [up to 1270-m m (50-in)] coring equip-
m ent is another available option, w hich reduces con-
struction preparation tim e. The equipm ent can core
concrete around existing or planned m anholes and
elim inate the need to place utility boxouts before
paving.
In N orthern regions, consideration should be given to
leaving m anholes 6-12 m m (0.25-0.5 in.) below the
pavem ent elevation to ensure that snow plow s do not
catch on the m anhole lids.
Placing the Concrete
R egardless of placing equipm ent, the paving steadi-
ness im pacts the finished pavem ent sm oothness and
quality.
(19)
C onsistent delivery of concrete to an inter-
section project site is an im portant elem ent. D ense
urban areas require careful evaluation to predeterm ine
w hether traffic delays w ill ham per concrete delivery.
C onsideration of the concrete m ixture is also neces-
sary, w ith norm al-setting m ixtures allow ing longer trav-
el tim es than fast-track m ixtures.
G ood batch-to-batch consistency of the concrete
also im proves the quality of the finished pavem ent.
B atch-to batch consistency allow s the paving
m achine operator to m aintain the paver at a steady
forw ard speed, and produces uniform extrusion pres-
sure. B oth stationary (ready m ix) plants and on-site
batching and m ixing plants can produce concrete
w ith consistent properties.
B efore placing concrete, m oisten the subbase or sub-
grade surface. A dry surface m ay absorb w ater from Dowels, tiebars and utility fixtures in position for fixed-form paving.
18
the concrete and lead to unw anted shrinkage cracking
in the pavem ent. For larger paving areas, a w ater
truck is generally available for this purpose. R eady-m ix
trucks also have a tank that can supply the w ater nec-
essary to m oisten the subgrade in sm all paving areas.
W hen placing a concrete overlay on a m illed asphalt
surface, no m oistening is norm ally necessary. U ltra-
thin concrete overlays [overlays less than 100 m m
(4 in.)] w hich rely on bond to the asphalt, require a dry
surface. H ow ever, thick overlays, w hich do not rely
on bond, m ay require w hitew ashing to cool a dark
asphalt surface. The need for w hitew ash depends
upon the am bient and asphalt-surface tem perature.
M ore inform ation on w hitew ash is available in
R eference 17.
Fixed-Form There are a variety of fixed-form
paving m achines. The less com plex equipm ent such
as hand-operated and self-propelled vibratory
screeds, single-tube finishers and revolving triple
tubes are useful for alm ost all com plex paving
areas. The external (surface) vibration that this equip-
m ent produces is adequate to consolidate m ost pave-
m ent slabs. H ow ever, supplem entary internal vibra-
tion w ith hand-operated spud vibrators is usually nec-
essary for adequate consolidation of non-reinforced
concrete slabs thicker than 250 m m (10 in.). A com -
bination of internal- and surface-vibration is preferable
for reinforced slabs at any thickness.
(11)
B ecause sur-
face vibration of concrete is least effective near the
form s, it is beneficial to consolidate concrete along
the form s w ith a spud vibrator.
Larger, form -riding m achines can place and consoli-
date the concrete betw een form s in one pass. These
m achines either ride on the form s or pipes laid out-
side the form s. Since form -riding paving equipm ent
cannot produce acceptable results riding on w ooden
form s, m ost of the curved areas joining intersecting
pavem ents require use of hand-placem ent equipm ent,
such as vibratory or roller screeds.
Evenly depositing concrete onto the grade in front of
the fixed-form placem ent m achine eases paving.
Piling too m uch concrete in front of the m achine leads
to strikeoff difficulty. The concrete should not overly
exceed the height of the form s. H ow ever, piling too
little concrete in front of the m achine m ay produce
low spots in the pavem ent surface. Although it is
ideal to distribute the concrete evenly w ith the chute
from the ready m ix or other concrete hauling truck,
som e distribution of the concrete w ith hand tools is
usually necessary. Shovels are preferable to other
hand tools for this purpose, because they do not
cause concrete segregation.
W hen necessary, supplem ental vibration w ith hand-
held spud vibrators should precede the placem ent
screed. Standard practice for thicker slabs calls for
vertical plunges of the vibrator head. For thin slabs, it
is preferable to insert the vibrator head at an angle or
horizontally to keep it com pletely im m ersed in the
concrete. O perators should neither drag spud vibra-
tors through the concrete nor attem pt to m ove the
concrete laterally, as either w ill segregate the m ixture.
(A) Vibrating screed, (B) Roller screed, (C) Form-riding paver.
A
B
C
19
In general, proper consolidation of air-entrained con-
crete takes less tim e than non air-entrained concrete,
even w hen both m ixtures are prepared w ith the sam e
consistency (slum p). The vibration tim e necessary to
achieve adequate consolidation also depends upon
the size and type of vibrator. For m ost equipm ent,
leaving the vibrator head inserted for 5 to 15 seconds
is usually adequate.
(11,19)
Slipform U se of slipform paving equipm ent for
intersection reconstruction is probably the exception
rather than the rule. H ow ever, a contractor m ay elect
to use slipform equipm ent in an intersection if the
paving area is large enough to w arrant its use.
Paving the curb and gutter is another com m on use of
a slipform m achine for intersection construction.
There are m any sizes of slipform paving m achines,
w ith m any sm aller m odels available for urban paving.
Slipform paving m achines spread, consolidate,
screed, and float-finish the concrete in one pass w ith-
out the need for fixed side form s. G enerally, contrac-
tors preset stringlines to establish the line and grade
control for the paver.
Like fixed-form paving, depositing concrete in front of
the paver evenly w ill im prove the resulting pavem ent.
A slipform paver m ust further spread and consolidate
the concrete as it m oves forw ard, and cannot pro-
duce adequate results if it m ust push a large pile of
concrete. W hen operating properly, a w ell-consolidat-
ed and properly shaped slab em erges behind the slip-
form paver as it m oves steadily forw ard.
C ertain slipform paving equipm ent can pave curbs
and gutters, and easily pave around curves betw een
intersecting roadw ays. Som e slipform paving
m achines can place curbs integrally w ith the driving
lanes. In such cases, the contractor m ust attach a
curb m ule to the paver so that the curb section w ill
extrude out as the paver m oves forw ard. Integral
curbs elim inate a separate form ing or placing opera-
tion that is otherw ise necessary for m ost urban
roadw ays.
M ore detailed inform ation on properly setting up and
operating slipform equipm ent is available in
R eference 19.
Finishing the Surface
After the paving equipm ent passes, it m ay be neces-
sary to further finish the concrete surface to rem ove
sm all im perfections and sm ooth any bum ps. There
are a num ber of different autom atic and hand-operat-
ed finishing tools available for this purpose. In the
tight w ork zones typical of intersection construction,
m ost contractors w ill opt for hand finishing tools.
Finishing is necessary earlier w ith air-entrained con-
crete than non-air-entrained concrete because air-
entrained concrete develops m uch less bleed w ater.
It is custom ary to w ait until all bleed w ater leaves the
concrete slab surface before finishing non-air-
entrained concrete.
C hecking the surface behind the paving equipm ent
w ith a 3- to 4.8-m (10- to 16-ft) hand-operated
straightedge is a recom m ended procedure.
(19)
Successive straightedging should overlap by one-half
the length of the straightedge to ensure that the tool (A) Slipform curb and gutter. (B) Slipform pavement with integral curb.
A
B
20
rem oves high spots and fills low spots in the surface.
Experienced finishers can use the straightedge to
rem ove noticeable bum ps by em ploying a scraping
m otion. O therw ise, they use a long-handled float to
sm ooth bum ps and disturbed places in the surface.
Edging is necessary for any concrete placed against
fixed form s. The sm all edging-tool effectively
sm oothes the slab corner and separates the concrete
from the form . W ithout separation, the concrete m ay
adhere to the top of the form , and tear or spall upon
form rem oval.
Particular attention also m ay be necessary for finishing
around boxed-out fixtures and cast-in-place fixtures.
Ideally, the height adjustm ent and supplem ental vibra-
tion around the object are com plete before w orkers
need to finish the pavem ent surface. If properly posi-
tioned, the object should easily blend into the sur-
rounding pavem ent. Som e surface w arping m ay be
necessary if the object is too high or too low .
Smoothness Requirements Sm oothness or
rideability requirem ents can be applied to intersection
projects. H ow ever, less stringent requirem ents are
necessary than are norm ally required for high-speed
highw ays. W arping of slabs to m eet fixtures (m an-
holes, drainage inlets, etc.), existing curb and gutter
and cross- or side-road connections, m ake m eeting
highw ay-standard sm oothness requirem ents nearly
im possible in m any cases.
For C alifornia profilograph testing of intersection pro-
jects, the acceptable rideability index should be
relaxed, and certain areas should be excluded from
m easurem ent. Those areas at intersections w hich
should be excluded from testing include: acceleration
and deceleration tapers, auxiliary (right and left-turn)
lanes, sections less than 15 m (50 ft) and locations
that require surface w arping that m ake profile testing
irrelevant. For m ore inform ation see R eference 21.
For sm all projects, excluded areas, and odd-shaped
areas, surface testing w ith a 3-m (10-ft) straightedge
[3-5 m m (1/8 - 3/16 in.) allow able deviation] w ill pro-
duce acceptable sm oothness.
Texturing the Surface
The surface texture necessary for intersection pave-
m ents depends upon the speed lim it of the approach
roadw ays. For low -speed residential, m unicipal col-
lector or urban business streets, a burlap, turf-drag,
or coarse broom surface texture is usually sufficient to
provide the m icrotexture necessary for w et w eather
stopping.
(22)
H igh-speed [i.e., +80 km /h (+50 m ph)]
arterial roadw ays also require a good m acrotexture to
reduce the w ater film thickness enough to prevent
hydroplaning

.
The texture chosen for the intersection m ust be
applied after finishing and before curing the concrete.
Either m echanical or hand-operated equipm ent can
adequately apply the texture, how ever, confined inter-
section w ork zones m ay lim it the practical use of
m echanical equipm ent.
Curing the Concrete
C uring is the treatm ent or protection given concrete
during the hardening period. C uring m easures are
necessary to m aintain a satisfactory m oisture and
tem perature condition in the concrete, because inter-
nal tem perature and m oisture directly influence both
early and ultim ate concrete properties.
(11,14)
Proper
curing m easures prevent rapid w ater loss from the
m ixture and allow m ore thorough cem ent hydration.
Therefore to m axim ize concrete quality it is necessary
to apply curing m easures as early as possible after
placing concrete.
(11,14)
C uring is also critical to provid-
ing a durable pavem ent surface that w ill retain surface
texture.
A variety of curing m ethods and m aterials are avail-
able for concrete pavem ent, including: w ater spray or
fog, w et burlap sheets, plastic sheets, insulating blan-
kets, and liquid-m em brane-form ing com pounds.

For concrete pavement, macrotexture refers to texture

added to the surface of the slabs by mechanical means. All
state agency specifications require concrete pavement to
have a surface texture that aids stopping in wet weather. The
specific texture varies greatly among agencies, but the state-
specified texture is usually meant for high speed highways
and is commonly a transverse tine texture. One drawback to
certain transverse tine textures is that they produce high tire-
road noise levels. Fortunately noise generation is not sensi-
tive to the surface texture at low speeds, and tined, burlap-
drag, turf-drag and coarse broom textures produce similar
noise levels below 55 km/h (35 mph). Longitudinal tining also
provides a safe, quiet and durable texture. The current rec-
ommendation
(22)
for transverse tine dimensions to optimize
noise and skid resistance are as follows: tine depth: 3-6 mm
(1/8-1/4 in.); tine width: 3 mm (1/8 in.); tine spacing: 10-40
mm (1/2- 1-1/2 in.) random and variable with no more than
50% exceeding 25 mm (1 in.).
21
The application of a liquid-m em brane-form ing com -
pound to seal the concrete surface is the m ost com -
m on curing m ethod for concrete pavem ent. A liquid-
m em brane-form ing com pound that m eets ASTM C
309 m aterial requirem ents is adequate for m ost situa-
tions w hen applied at the follow ing rates:
1. 5.0 m
2
/L (200 ft
2
/gal) for norm al paving
applications.
2. 3.75 m
2
/L (150 ft
2
/gal) for fast-track concrete.
3. 2.5 m
2
/L (100 ft
2
/gal) for thin overlays.
W hite-pigm entation in the com pound is preferable to
a clear com pound so coverage is easily seen. The
pigm ent also reflects solar radiation that m ay other-
w ise heat the concrete surface excessively.
The first few hours after paving w hen the concrete
rem ains plastic are the m ost critical for good cur-
ing. As such, the contractor should apply a curing
com pound as soon as possible after the w ater sheen
has left the surface and texturing is com plete. A vari-
ety of spraying equipm ent is available, but on m ost
intersection projects sim ple hand sprayers are the
likely choice.
The initial application of curing com pound should coat
both the top and edges of slipform ed concrete. For
fixed-form paving, the curing com pound should initial-
ly coat the exposed concrete surface. If rem oving
form s early, a second coat should be applied to any
exposed vertical edges of the slab to provide a com -
plete seal.
Insulating blankets also are som etim es necessary for
curing fast-track concrete in intersection w ork. The
purpose of insulating fast-track concrete w ith blankets
is to aid early strength gain in cool w eather condi-
tions. The blankets reduce heat loss and lessen the
influence of both air tem perature and solar radiation
on the pavem ent tem perature. The blankets are not a
substitute for curing com pound, w hich is still needed
to contain m oisture for thorough hydration. Table 6
indicates w hen insulation is recom m ended for fast-
track concrete.
(14,15)
N orm al curing m easures w ithout insulation are
acceptable w here rapid strength gain is not required.
H ow ever, special precautions are necessary w hen the
intersection is being constructed either in very cold or
hot w eather. M ore inform ation on curing, including
w et curing, blanket insulation, and cold-w eather and
hot-w eather construction techniques, is available in
R eferences 11, 14 and 15.
Table 6. Recommended conditions requiring insulating blankets.
(14,15)
Minimum Air Temperature Opening Time, Hr
During Time Period 8 16 24 36 48
<10C (<50F) YES YES YES YES N O
10-18C (50-65F) YES YES YES N O N O
18-27C (65-80F) YES N O N O N O N O
>27C (>80F) N O N O N O N O N O
Curing blankets moved aside for sawing fast-track concrete.
22
J ointing the Pavement
At-grade concrete intersections usually require every
joint type. The design details and specific purpose
of each type are defined in Jointingon page 4.
Typical construction m ethods are described below .
Construction J oints At intersections, trans-
verse construction joints typically are built by hand
at predeterm ined locations. This requires a form
(header board) that can contain the concrete, and
secure dow els or tiebars positioned and aligned
properly. Vibration of concrete near the construc-
tion joint is im portant to ensure good encapsulation
of the steel bars. If the construction joint provides a
transition from concrete to asphalt pavem ent, spe-
cial transition form ing m ay be necessary (see page
24, C oncrete-to-Asphalt Transition).
For either fixed side form s or slipform construction,
the slab edge provides the longitudinal construction
joint. The contractor w ill pre-position tiebars and
keyw ays for fixed-form construction. W hile m ost
fixed form s com e w ith pre-drilled holes for the
tiebars, the contractor w ill probably have to attach a
board to the side form s to m ake a keyw ay. A con-
tractor can equip a slipform paver w ith a tool to
form a keyw ay along the slab edge as the paver
progresses forw ard. W here required, tiebars are
inserted into the slipform ed edge w hile the concrete
is plastic, or after hardening they can be anchored
into holes drilled in the pavem ent edge.
Isolation J oints T- and asym m etrical intersec-
tions m ay require a thickened edge or sleeper-slab
isolation joint. The thickened edge isolation joint is
usually preferable to a sleeper-slab isolation joint to
avoid the additional tim e necessary to build and
cure the sleeper. Specific site and staging condi-
tions w ill dictate w here a contractor positions the
isolation joint. The joint filler m aterial m ust set verti-
cally, extend com pletely through the entire slab
thickness, and be held firm ly in position (usually by
stakes driven into the subgrade.) The isolation joint
m aterial is usually a non-absorbent foam board or
bitum en-treated fiberboard. A w idth from 12-25 m m
(0.5-1.0 in.) is adequate.
A longitudinal isolation joint is necessary w herever the
pavem ent abuts sidew alks, drivew ays, or aprons.
The joint w ill perm it differential m ovem ent that m ight
otherw ise dam age the pavem ent or curb. Against
aprons and older drivew ay pavem ents, the isolation
joint elim inates sym pathycracking w here it is not
possible to m atch the joints in the other pavem ent.
The contractor m ust position a section of joint filler
against the back of the curb before placing the con-
crete for new aprons, drivew ays or w alks. If the new
concrete pavem ent w ill directly abut an older concrete
pavem ent, the filler m ust rest against the older pave-
m ent before starting construction. A w ider isolation
filler is recom m ended betw een the roadw ay pavem ent
and an abutting sidew alk or apron, than is recom -
m ended betw een sidew alks and apron or drivew ay
pavem ent (Figure 8).
Contraction J oints After paving and curing the
concrete, the final step is to place the longitudinal and
transverse contraction joints. Although there are sev-
eral m ethods to form these joints in the plastic con-
crete, saw ing the concrete after hardening is by far
the m ost com m on m ethod. C ontractors have suc-
cessfully cut contraction joints using w et-, dry-, and
early-age-saw ing equipm ent.
(14,23)
The initial saw cut provides a plane of w eakness
w here cracking w ill begin. U sing conventional saw s,
a cut depth of at least one-fourth the slab thickness
(T/4) and 3 m m (1/8 in.) w ide generally controls crack
form ation for transverse contraction joints. H ow ever,
for pavem ent on stabilized subbases, an increase in
the initial saw cut to a depth equivalent to one-third
the slab thickness (T/3) is required for transverse con-
Figure 8. Location of isolation joint for curb and gutter,
aprons and driveways near concrete intersections.
23
traction joints. The extra cut depth accentuates the
plane of w eakness to overcom e additional frictional
restraint and higher curling stresses in the concrete
caused by the stabilized subbase. Longitudinal con-
traction joints require a cut depth equivalent to one-
third of the slab thickness (T/3) regardless of the sub-
base.
The tim e of saw ing is critical for proper contraction
joint form ation. Saw ing too soon results in spalling
and raveling along the joint face. Saw ing too late
results in random cracking elsew here in the slab.
Joint saw ing w ith conventional saw s should begin
w henever the concrete strength is adequate and the
saw blades w ill not excessively ravel the concrete sur-
face. This occurs som etim e betw een 4 to 24 hours
after paving, but usually w ithin the first 12 hours.
W eather (tem perature, w ind, hum idity, and direct sun-
light) has a large influence on concrete strength gain
and the optim al tim e to begin saw ing.
The concrete m ixture itself also affects the optim al
tim e to begin saw ing. M ixtures m ade w ith softer lim e-
stone aggregates require less strength before saw ing
than do m ixtures w ith harder coarse aggregates.
(24)
Fast-track m ixtures that gain strength quickly also
require saw ing to begin m uch sooner than norm al-
setting m ixtures.
Early-age saw s allow cutting after com pressive
strengths reach about 1.0 M Pa (150 psi) usually about
an hour or tw o after paving. M ost currently available
early-age saw s provide a shallow initial cut at about
25 to 33 m m (1 to 1-1/4 in.) deep. The shallow cut
has been show n to control cracking effectively at
transverse joints w hen m ade early, before the final set
of the concrete.
(23)
The tim e of saw ing is usually not quite as critical for
longitudinal contraction joints as it is for transverse
contraction joints. H ow ever, longitudinal contraction
joint saw ing should follow closely behind saw ing of
transverse contraction joints w henever practicable.
This w ill reduce the possibility of uncontrolled longitu-
dinal cracking.
If the transverse contraction joints contain dow els, the
saw operator should reference the m arkers on either
side of the slab to determ ine w here the baskets are
and w here to position the saw cut. For typical dow el-
jointed pavem ents w ith 4.5-m (15-ft) panels, there is
usually 50-75 m m (2-3 in.) tolerance on either side of
the true center of the dow els, depending upon dow el
length. Saw cuts that are w ithin the tolerance provide
the m inim um 150 m m (6 in.) of dow el em bedm ent for
effective load transfer.
The presence of tiebars along the longitudinal con-
traction joint necessitates sim ilar care by the saw
operator to center the cut over the steel tiebars.
Soon after w et-saw ing, the crew should flush saw ed
joints w ith w ater to rem ove saw slurry. If left in place,
the slurry w ill eventually harden and becom e m ore dif-
ficult to rem ove. In som e conditions the hardened
slurry m ay even im pede joint closure during w arm
periods.
Opening to Traffic
The basis for deciding w hen to open a concrete inter-
section to construction or public traffic should be the
concretes strength and not an arbitrary tim e from
placem ent.
(14,15)
Strength directly relates to the pave-
m ents load bearing capacity.
As slab support or pavem ent thickness increases,
stress in the concrete w ill decrease for a given load.
This relationship allow s different opening strength cri-
teria for different pavem ent designs and early traffic
loads.
(14,15,24)
Table 7 provides traffic opening criteria for public vehi-
cles on concrete pavem ent. The table assum es a
0.6-m (2.0-ft) offset of traffic from the lane or pave-
m ent edge. W ide truck lanes, tied concrete shoul-
ders, and curbs and gutters can all serve to reduce
load stresses to levels equivalent to a 0.6-m (2.0-ft)
traffic offset. If the pavem ent design does not include
these features, the contractor can place barricades to
prevent edge loads. After the concrete com pressive
strength reaches 17 M Pa (2500 psi), or flexural
strength reaches 3.0 M Pa (450 psi), the contractor
generally m ay rem ove the barricades. H ow ever, it
m ay be necessary to w ait for concrete to gain full
design strength on thin m unicipal pavem ents.
24
A correlation betw een com pressive strength and flex-
ural strength can be m ade in the laboratory for each
unique m ix. Equation 2 converts com pressive
strength to third-point flexural strength.
(25)
fr = C

(f
cr
)
0.5
(Eq. 2)
w here:
fr = flexural strength (m odulus of rupture) in third-
point loading, M Pa (psi).
f
cr
= required average com pressive strength, M Pa
(psi).
C = A constant betw een 8 and 10 for norm al m ix-
tures [for high-strength concrete C ranges from
7.5 to 12 (11.7 recom m ended)].
Non-destructive Testing Som e agencies, con-
sultants and contractors use non-destructive strength
testing to evaluate concrete pavem ent at early ages.
M aturity and pulse velocity testing m ethods are com -
m on on fast-track concrete pavem ent projects.
(14,15)
M aturity testing provides strength evaluation through
m onitoring of internal concrete tem perature in the
field. The basis of m aturity is that each concrete m ix-
ture has a unique strength-tim e relationship.
Therefore, a m ixture w ill have the sam e strength at a
given m aturity no m atter w hat conditions (tim e or
tem perature) occur before m easurem ent.
(14,15)
To
im plem ent m aturity on a project, technicians m ust
develop a calibration curve in the laboratory. The cali-
bration curve is used to convert field concrete tem -
perature m easurem ents to strength values.
Pulse-velocity is another non-destructive test available
for determ ining concrete strength at early ages. It is a
true non-destructive test that m easures the tim e
required for an ultrasonic w ave to pass through con-
crete from one transducer to another. The velocity of
the w ave correlates to concrete strength or stiff-
ness.
(14,15)
Like m aturity testing, pulse-velocity testing
requires laboratory calibration to produce m eaningful
field inform ation. In the laboratory, technicians take
pulse-velocity m easurem ents through a representative
num ber of cast concrete specim ens, test the speci-
m ens for strength, and plot the results against the
pulse-velocity readings to create a calibration curve.
N on-destructive test m ethods m ay be better suited to
evaluate opening strength of concrete intersections
and other pavem ent because there is no delay
betw een sam pling and testing the concrete. W ith
standard cylinders or flexural beam s, specim ens m ust
be prepared, and som etim es transported to a testing
laboratory. R eferences 14 and 15 provide m ore infor-
m ation on non-destructive test m ethods.
Table 7. Strength necessary to open concrete pavement to public traffic (Based on References 14 and 15).
* Granular foundation assumes a Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, k=27 MPa/m (100 psi/in.). Stabilized
foundation assumes k=135 MPa/m (500 psi/in.).
** Assumes there will be 500 one-way equivalent single axle load (ESAL) repetitions between time of opening
and time concrete reaches design strength (28-day strength).
*** There was no compressive strength criteria in the original research (Reference 14). The values shown here
were developed using the correlation equation described in this section with C=9.0. It is strongly
recommended to develop a unique correlation between flexural and compressive strength for new mixtures.
Opening Strength**
Slab Thickness Foundation Flexural (3rd-Point) Compressive***
Support* MPa (psi) MPa (psi)
150 m m (6.0 in.) G ranular 3.7 (540) 24.8 (3600)
Stabilized 2.6 (370) 11.7 (1690)
200 m m (8.0 in.) G ranular 2.3 (330) 9.3 (1350)
Stabilized 2.1 (300) 7.6 (1100)
250 m m (10.0 in.) G ranular 2.1 (300) 7.6 (1100)
Stabilized 2.1 (300) 7.6 (1100)
25
Vehicle Detector Loop
Installation
Traffic signal design is based largely on the traffic vol-
um es and the geom etrics of the intersection. M ost
busily-traveled intersections require traffic control sig-
nals w ith traffic-sensing detectors. Presently, the
m ost com m on vehicle detector is the inductive loop
detector.
(26)
These detectors install into saw cuts in
the pavem ent surface, or either cast into the concrete
or fasten to the grade in preform ed loops.
Vehicle-detector loops that install into saw cuts can
last for m any years after proper installation. A 6-m m
(0.25-in.) w ide saw cut to a depth of 50 m m (2 in.) is
necessary to recess the detector below the pavem ent
surface. Figure 9A show s three com m on configura-
tions. After saw ing, detector system m anufacturers
recom m end flushing the saw cuts w ith w ater to
rem ove saw slurry, then using com pressed air to
rem ove debris that m ay puncture the w ire insulation.
R ounding the corners of diagonal or rectangular loops
w ith additional saw cuts or 18-m m (0.75-in.) diam eter
core holes w ill ease insertion of the detector w ire and
allow the w ire to rem ain m ore flexible, preventing rup-
ture.
D etector system m anufacturers
(26)
recom m end
installing 16 AW G stranded w ire w ith a coating suit-
able for the sealant. An outer jacket of 1.25 m m
(0.050 in.) polyester w ire insulation w ith an additional
0.8 m m (0.032 in.) of polyester coating provides pro-
tection from m elting to 204C (400F), and is suitable
for hot-applied sealants. C old-applied sealants and
epoxies that are specifically form ulated for installing
loop detectors also are readily available.
The detector w ire should be flexible enough to give
w ith pavem ent m ovem ent, but provide enough ten-
sion to rem ain in the bottom of the saw cut. A backer
rod placed above the w ires is recom m ended by
detector system m anufacturers to ensure the w ires
rem ain in place.
Preform ed loops can be cast into concrete and do
not require saw ing. In a preform ed loop, PVC pipe
encapsulates the detector w ires for protection and
provides rigidity to the loop during installation. The
loops m ust be fastened securely into position before
paving at a m inim um of 50 m m (2 in.) above any rein-
forcing steel. If the slab contains w elded w ire fabric
or bar m ats, the pipes should not align w ith the rein-
forcem ent grid (Figure 10). Any reinforcing steel that
aligns w ith the pipes w ill interfere w ith the inductive
loop.
The detector w ires often break near the conduit that
brings them to a signal handhold or the signal con-
troller cabinet. To avoid breakage, it is advantageous
to core drill this location to provide a larger recess
(Figure 9B ).
Figure 9. Vehicle detector loop configurations.
Figure 10. Aligning preformed vehicle loop detectors
above reinforcing steel.
26
Concrete-to-Asphalt Transition
The transition betw een a concrete pavem ent intersec-
tion and an asphalt pavem ent can be troublesom e if
poorly designed. Figure 11 show s four transition
details for different concrete pavem ents. D etails A, B
and C account for im pact loads on the transition slab
w ith extra thickness (D etails A and B are for concrete
overlays of existing asphalt pavem ent).
D etail D show s an im pact slab and is m eant for pave-
m ents that frequently carry heavy trucks and are
thicker than 175 m m (7 in.). The im pact slab protects
the asphalt pavem ent from deform ation by providing
additional support at the transition. C ontractors can
easily create the lip in the im pact slab using a false
form header.
O ne w ay to keep the slabs near the transition from
m igrating on granular subbases is to place deform ed
tiebars in the first three transverse contraction joints.
The tiebars w ill hold the slabs tightly together. Slab
m igration is not an issue w hen w hitetopping, as the
concrete w ill bond to the asphalt surface.
Adding Lanes to Existing
Concrete Pavement
Som e intersection im provem ents require additional
concrete lanes next to existing concrete pavem ent or
curb and gutter. For these im provem ents it is essen-
tial to place transverse contraction joints (Type A-1 or
A-2, Fig. 2) to m atch any existing joints or cracks in
the existing pavem ent (Figure 12). W ithout a contrac-
tion joint, m ovem ent of the old concrete pavem ent
m ay cause a sym pathy crack in the new lanes.
An alternative m ethod to avoid sym pathy cracking is
to place an isolation joint w ith a separating m edium
(Type D -4, Fig. 2) betw een the edge of the existing
pavem ent, or curb and gutter, and the new lane.
Figure 12. Aligning joints for adding auxiliary turn lanes
to existing J RCP concrete pavements.
Concrete to Asphalt Transition Details
Figure 11. Transition details for concrete pavement to
asphalt pavement.
27
References
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H eights, IL, 1992.
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Association, Arlington H eights, IL, 1991.
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Association, Arlington H eights, IL, 1993.
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Am erican C oncrete Pavem ent Association, Skokie, IL,
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13. Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in
Concrete, 1st Edition, IS413TC , Portland C em ent
Association and Am erican C oncrete Pavem ent
Association and N ational R eady M ixed C oncrete
Association and N ational Aggregates Association,
Skokie, IL 1997.
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C oncrete Pavem ent Association, Skokie, IL, 1994.
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D ecem ber 1994.
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C oncrete Pavem ent Association, Skokie, IL, 1997.
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W hitetopping Perform ance on Low Volum e R oads,
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R esearch B oard, N ational R esearch C ouncil,
W ashington, D C , 1993, pp. 104-110.
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Am erican Association of State H ighw ay and
Transportation O fficials, W ashington, D C , 1993.
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Participants Manual, FH W A H I-96-027, N ational
H ighw ay Institute, Federal H ighw ay Adm inistration,
W ashington, D C , 1996.
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R idgew ood, N J, April 15, 1996.
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Am erican C oncrete Pavem ent Association, Arlington
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Adm inistration, W ashington, D C , M ay 1996.
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This publication is based on the facts, tests, and authorities stated herein. It is intended for the use of professional personnel competent to
evaluate the significance and limitations of the reported findings and who will accept responsibility for the application of the material it con-
tains. Obviously, the American Concrete Pavement Association disclaims any and all responsibility for application of the stated principles or
for the accuracy of any of the sources other than work performed or information developed by the Association.
5420 Old Orchard Road, Suite A100, Skokie, Illinois, 60077-1059
(847) 966-2272
American Concrete Pavement Association, 1997 TB019P
ASTM ASTM Title CSA/CAN
Designation Equivalent or
Specified Test
Equivalent Canadian Standards
ASTM C 33 Standard Specification for C oncrete Aggregate A23.1
ASTM C 39 Test M ethod for C om pressive Strength of C ylindrical A23.2-9C
C oncrete Specim ens
ASTM C 78 Test M ethod for Flexural Strength of C oncrete (U sing Sim ple A23.2-8C
B eam w ith Third-Point Loading)
ASTM C 109 Test M ethod for C om pressive Strength of H ydraulic C em ent M ortar A5
ASTM C 150 Standard Specification for Portland C em ent A5
ASTM C 260 Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Adm ixtures for C oncrete ASTM C 260
ASTM C 309 Standard Specification for Liquid M em brane-Form ing C om pounds ASTM C 309
for C uring C oncrete
ASTM C 494 Standard Specification for C hem ical Adm ixtures for C oncrete ASTM C 494
ASTM C 597 Test M ethod for Pulse Velocity through C oncrete A23.2-24C
ASTM C 618 Standard Specification for Fly Ash and R aw or C alcined N atural A23.5
Pozzolan for use as a M ineral Adm ixture in Portland
C em ent C oncrete
ASTM D 698 Laboratory C om paction C haracteristics of Soil U sing Standard Effort ASTM D 698
ASTM C 803 Test M ethod for Penetration R esistance of H ardened C oncrete ASTM C 803
ASTM C 805 Test M ethod for R ebound N um ber of H ardened C oncrete ASTM C 805
ASTM C 900 Test M ethod for Pullout Strength of H ardened C oncrete ASTM C 900
ASTM C 1017 Standard Specification for C hem ical Adm ixtures for Producing ASTM C 1017
Flow ing C oncrete
ASTM C 1074 Practice for Estim ating C oncrete Strength by the M aturity N um ber ASTM C 1074
ASTM C 1150 Standard Test M ethod for the B reak-O ff N um ber of ASTM C 1150
H ardened C oncrete
ASTM D 4791 Test for Flat or Elongated Particles in C oarse Aggregate C R D -C 119