Soil Aggregate, Classification System

(Index and Engineering Properties of Geomaterials and (Index and Engineering Properties of Geomaterials and
their Determination)
Dr. Dali Naidu Arnepalli
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
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The fundamental behaviour of geomaterials depends on
Introduction
Permeability
Compressibility
Shear strength
Both in-situ and laboratory tests are employed
Quality of the sample and sampling technique
Obtaining reasonably good undisturbed sample is challenging
Field tests yield more realistic (in-situ permeability)
Both laboratory and in-situ tests are often time consuming, cost intensive,
require sophisticated equipment and skilled personal
Majority of the times planners, engineers are interested to have rough
estimate of different engineering properties (with/without conducting
extensive experiments)
The properties of soils which are not of primary interest to the The properties of soils which are not of primary interest to the
geotechnical engineer but which are indicative of the engineering
properties are called index properties
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Index properties of soils can be divided into two categories:
Introduction
Soil grain properties
Soil aggregate properties
S il i ti Soil grain properties are
dependent on the individual grains of the soil
independent of soil formation properties
determined from a remoulded disturbed soil sample determined from a remoulded, disturbed soil sample
Eg.: mineralogical composition, specific gravity of solids, size and shape of
grains
Soil aggregate properties have greater significance in engineering
practice.
Obtained on : undistured samples or in-situ tests Obtained on : undistured samples or in situ tests
Depends on : mode of soil formation, soil stress history, and soil structure
In engineering practice the soil aggregate properties are of greater
significance, since the structures are founded on undisturbed, natural
soil deposits
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Main index properties of coarse grained soils
Introduction
Grain size analysis and Grain shape (soil grain property)
Relative Density (soil aggregate property )
Main index properties of fine grained soils
Atterberg limits
Consistency Indices
Previous researchers have developed number of empirical correlations
to estimate the Engineering properties of different geomaterials based
on their Index Properties (Indicative of .)
In view of the above facts, this lecture attempts to , p
Methodologies to obtain Index, Grain-size distribution and Engineering properties
(Permeability, compressibility, shear strength)
Classification of various geomaterials based on grain-size distribution and Index Classification of various geomaterials based on grain size distribution and Index
properties
Empirical correlations
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It expresses the proportions quantitatively by mass of various
Grain-size Analysis
It expresses the proportions quantitatively, by mass, of various
sizes of particles present in a soil
Represented by a grain size distribution curve
The grain size analysis is carried out in two stages: The grain size analysis is carried out in two stages:
Sieve analysis for coarse-grained soils ( > 75 m)
Sedimentation analysis for fine-grained soils ( < 75 m)
Most of the soils contain particles of both sizes hence a combined
analysis consisting of sieve analysis and sedimentation analysis is analysis consisting of sieve analysis and sedimentation analysis is
more appropriate.
IS: 2720 (Part 4) 1985 or ASTM
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Dry soil is sieved mechanically through a series of woven-wire
Sieve-Analysis
y y g
square-mesh sieves through stack of sieves
The coarse-grained soil is further divided into:
Gravel fraction ( size > 4 75 mm) Gravel fraction ( size > 4.75 mm)
Sand fraction (75m < size < 4.75 mm)
If the amount of soil passing 75 m is substantial wet sieve analysis
should be performed
The soil retained on 75 m sieve subjected to sieve analysis after
oven drying
The percent finer than the reference sieve = 100% - cumulative
percent retained
The soil passing 75 m sieve will be used to conduct sedimentation The soil passing 75 m sieve will be used to conduct sedimentation
analysis
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Sedimentation-Analysis
According to Stokes law: The terminal velocity of falling sphere cco d g to Sto e s a e te a e oc ty o a g sp e e
depends on its grain diameter and the densities of the grains in
suspension and of the fluid
Performed by the hydrometer method or pipette method
The grain diameter D (cm) corresponding to elapsed time t and
effective depth H
e
can be calculated from equation
(min) 60
) ( 18
) (
t
cm H
cm D
e
w s

q

=
The percentage finer (N) than D is calculated from equation
R G
% 100 . .
1
s
c
s
S
W
R
G
G
N

=
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Particle size distribution of poorly and well graded geomaterial
Adapted from Rowe, 2001
(
%
)
e
n
t

f
i
n
e
r

(
P
e
r
c
e
Particle size (mm)
D
60
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Definition of C
u
and C
c
D
60
10
u
D
C
D
=
( )
2
30
c
D
C
D D
=

x
C
u
is pure number and
provide means to classify
10
D
10 60
D D
C
c
is shape factor used for
classification of granular soil
x
where
D
60
= Particle diameter at which 60% of the soil by weight is finer
D
30
= Particle diameter at which 30% of the soil by weight is finer
D
10
= Particle diameter at which 10% of the soil by weight is finer (called as mean particle
size)
For well graded soils:
C
c
lies between 1 and 3
C
u
> 4 for well graded gravels
C
u
> 6 for well graded sands
However, individual particle shape and C
u
defines the formation of void
structure and their void ratio, permeability and strength differs
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Different shapes of bulk grain (granular soil)
Roundness: defined as the ratio of the
average radius of curvature of the corners average radius of curvature of the corners
and edges of the particle to the radius of the
maximum sphere that can be inscribed
(Wadell, 1932)
For instance, the Roundness can be defined For instance, the Roundness can be defined
in the form of Fourier series:
Sphericity: defined as the ratio of the
Adapted from Mitchell and Soga, 2005
Sphericity: defined as the ratio of the
diameter of a sphere of equal volume to the
particle to the diameter of the circumscribing
sphere
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Roundness criteria and typical values (Youd, 1973)
Roundness class Description Roundness range (R)
Very angular Particles with unworn fractured 0.12-0.17
t
i
o
n
y g
surfaces and multiple sharp corners
and edges
Angular Particles with sharp corners and 0.17-0.25
d
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
approximately prismoidal or tetrahedral
shapes
Sub angular Particles with distinct but blunted or 0.25-0.35
P
o
r
e

s
i
z
e

slightly rounded corners and edges
Subroundedand
rounded
Particles with distinct but well rounded
edges and corners
0.35-0.49
P
f
f
e
c
t
Rounded Irregularly shaped rounded particles
with distinct corners and edges
0.49-0.50
Well-rounded Smooth nearly spherical or ellipsoidal
ti l
0.7-1.00
o
c
k
i
n
g

e
f
particles
I
n
t
e
r
l
o
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Generalized curves for estimating e
min
and e
max
(after Youd, 1973)
Adapted from Mitchell and Soga, 2005
u
m
e

m
a
x
i
m
e
n
i
m
u
m
e

m
i
n
Coefficient of uniformity, C
u 12/79
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Minimum and maximum densities for granular soil
Soil Type Void ratio Porosity (%) Dry unit weight (kN/m
3
)
e
max
e
min

max

min

dmin

dmax
Uniform Sphere 0.91 0.35 47.6 26 ---- ----
Standard Ottawa sand 0.80 0.50 44 33 14.5 17.3
Clean uniform sand 1.00 0.40 50 29 13.0 18.5
Uniform inorganic silt 1.10 0.40 52 29 12.6 18.5
Silty sand 0.90 0.30 47 23 13.7 20.0
Fine coarse sand 0.95 0.20 49 17 13.4 21.7
Micaceous sand 1.20 0.40 55 29 11.9 18.9
Silty sand and gravel 0.85 0.14 46 12 14.0 22.9 y g
Structure of the geomaterial dictates hydraulic and load deformation
characteristics.
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Relative Compaction and Relative Density
% 100
min max
max

=
e e
e e
orI D
D r
1 1 1 1
D
I
| || |
=
| |
min max
min min max
D
N
I

| |
\ .\ .
dfield
RC

=
max, d labtest

80 02 RC I 80 0.2
D
RC I = +
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Role of mineralogy and particle size on tensile strength
Adapted from Mitchell and Soga, 2005
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Atterberg Limits
(Liquid limit, Plastic limit and shrinkage limit)
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Liquid limit: is the water content at which a soil is practically in a liquid
Atterberg Limits (Liquid limit, Plastic limit & shrinkage limit)
state, but has infinitesimal resistance against flow which can be measured
by any standard procedure (IS: 2720 (Part 5)-1985 or ASTM standards)
Shear strength of soil at LL @2.5 kPa and corresponding suction value of
6 kPa
Plastic limit: is the water content at which the soil would just starts to
crumble when rolled into a thread of approximately 3 mm diameter (IS:
2720 (Part 5) 1985 or ASTM standards
The plastic limit has been interpreted as the water content below which
the physical properties of the water no longer correspond to those of free
water (Terzaghi, 1925a)
Lowest water content at which the cohesion between particles or groups
of particles is sufficiently low to allow movement, but sufficiently high to
allow particles to maintain the molded positions (Yong and Warkentin,
1966)
The shrinkage limit, w
s
, is the maximum water content at which a decrease
in water content does not cause any decrease in the volume of the soil
mass (IS: 2720 (Part 6) 1972 or ASTM standards), i.e., S
r
=100% at SL
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Liquid Limit Determination
Casagrande Liquid Limit apparatus
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Determination of Other Indices
Consistency index, I
C
= (w
L
w) / (w
l
-w
p
)
Used to study the in-situ behaviour of fine-grained soil deposit at its
natural water content
when w = w
L
, I
c
= 0
when w = w
P
, I
c
= 1
c
If I
C
is negative the soil mass behaves like a fluid upon disturbance.
If I
C
is greater than 1, the soil exists in semi-solid state or solid state
and the soil is very stiff to hard y
Liquidity index, I
L=
(w w
P
)/ (w
l
-w
p
)
p
purpose of liquidity index is same as that of consistency index
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Correlation of LL with Engineering Properties
Plasticity Chart for classification of soils
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Atterberg limits of different clay minerals (Lambe and Whitman, 1979)
Mineral
Exchangeable
i
LL
(%)
PL
(%)
PI
(%)
SL
(%)
Mineral
ion (%) (%) (%) (%)
M t ill it
Na 710 54 656 9.9
K 660 98 562 9.3
Ca 510 81 429 10.5
Montmorillonite
Ca 510 81 429 10.5
Mg 410 60 350 14.7
Fe 290 75 215 10.3
Fe
*
140 73 67 -
N 120 53 67 15 4
Illite
Na 120 53 67 15.4
K 120 60 60 17.5
Ca 100 45 55 16.8
Mg 95 46 49 14.7 g
Fe 110 49 61 15.3
Fe
*
79 46 33 -
Na 53 32 21 26.8
K 49 29 20
Kaolinite
K 49 29 20 -
Ca 38 27 11 24.5
Mg 54 31 23 28.7
Fe 59 37 22 29.2
Fe
*
56 35 21 -
Attapulgite H 270 150 120 7.6
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Relationship between PI and clay fraction (after Skempton, 1953)
Adapted from Mitchell and Soga, 2005
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Activity of Various Minerals
Adapted from Mitchell and Soga, 2005
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Soil Classification
Soil classification system provides a systematic method of categorizing
soils according to their probable engineering behaviour
M t l d ti th GSD d l ti it Most commonly used properties are the GSD and plasticity
However, a soil classification system does not eliminate the need for
detailed soil investigations and for testing for engineering properties
Unified Soil Classification System, USCS Unified Soil Classification System, USCS
American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM
Indian Standard Soil Classification System, ISSCS, (1959, Revised in 1970)
M h tt I tit t f T h l MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MIT
American Association of State Highway and Transport Officials, AASHTO
system
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Grain size ranges as per various soil classification systems
ASTM: American Society for
Testing
AASHTO: American
Association for state highways
and transport Officials
USCS : Unifies soil
classification system (US
bureau of reclamation, 1974;
US Army Engineers WES, 1960
MIT: Massachusetts Institute of
No Cobbles
Different
Gravel size
Technology (Taylor, 1948)
Adapted from Holtz and Kovacs., 1981
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Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Developed by Prof. A. Casagrande (1948), for use in airfield construction Developed by Prof. A. Casagrande (1948), for use in airfield construction
during World war II
Later modified in 1952 to make it applicable to foundations, dams and
other constructions other constructions
The basis for the USCS is that coarse-grained soils can be classified
according to their grain size distributions, where as the engineering
behaviour of fine-grained soils is primarily related to their Plasticity behaviour of fine grained soils is primarily related to their Plasticity
Characteristics
Sieve Analysis and Atterberg limits are necessary to classify the soil
Four major divisions in USCS System are: Four major divisions in USCS System are:
I. Coarse-grained
II. Fine-grained
III. Organic soils (if LL is less than 75% of virgin upon oven drying) g ( g p y g)
IV. Peat (a soil composed of vegetable tissue in various stages of composition usually with an organic odor, a dark-
brown to black color, a spongy consistency, and a texture ranging from fibrous to amorphous)
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USCS Definitions of particle size, size ranges and symbols
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USCS definitions of particle size, size ranges and symbols
Adapted from Holtz and Kovacs., 1981
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USCS definitions of particle size, size ranges and symbols
Adapted from Holtz and Kovacs., 1981
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Unified Soil
Classification
System
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Unified Soil Classification System (coarse grained soil)
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Unified Soil Classification System (fine grained soils)
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Unified Soil
Classification Classification
System Cont
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Unified Soil Classification System (Coarse-grained soils)
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Unified Soil Classification System (Coarse-grained soils)
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Unified Soil Classification System (Coarse Coarse--grained soils grained soils)
Gravels with 5 to 12% fines are given dual symbols
GW-GM : Well graded gravel with silt
GW-GC : Well graded gravel with clay
GP-GM : Poorly graded gravel with silt
GP GC : Poorly graded gravel with clay GP-GC : Poorly graded gravel with clay
Sands with fines 5-12% are given dual symbols Sa ds t es 5 % a e g e dua sy bo s
SW-SM : Well graded sand with silt
SW-SC : Well graded sand with clay
SP-SM : Poorly graded sand with silt
SP-SC : Poorly graded sand with clay
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Unified Soil Classification System (Fine-grained soils)
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Unified Soil Classification System (Fine-grained soils)
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Field Identification Procedure For Fine-grained Soil
Tests Performed on soil passing through sieve No.40 (400 m)
Dilatancy (reaction to shaking)
Dry strength (crushing characteristics)
Toughness (consistency near plastic limit)
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For field Identification of Fine-grained Soil: Dilatancy Test
P t f i t il d Pat of moist soil prepared
Pat placed in the open palm of one hand and shaken
vigorously against the other hand several times g y g
Appearance of water on the surface indicate a positive
reaction
Rapidity of appearance of water during shaking and
disappearance when squeezed with fingers helps in
identifying character of fines
Clean fine sand gives quick and distinct reaction
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For field Identification of Fine-grained Soil: Dry Strength
Pat made to the consistency of putty and dried completely in
air, sun or oven
Test the strength by breaking and crumbling between fingers
Strength is a measure of the quantity and character of the
colloidal matter contained in the soil colloidal matter contained in the soil
Strength increases with increasing plasticity
Clays of the group CH has high dry strength Clays of the group CH has high dry strength
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Specimen spread out on a thin layer and allowed to lose moisture
For field Identification of Fine-grained Soil: Toughness
Specimen spread out on a thin layer and allowed to lose moisture
by evaporation and rolled into 3mm diameter threads
Sample folded and refolded repeatedly
Moisture content reduces and finally the specimen crumbles at
plastic limit losing its plasticity
Threads are lumped together again and slight kneading action is Threads are lumped together again and slight kneading action is
given till the lump crumbles
Weakness of thread at plastic limit and quick loss of coherence of
lump below plastic limit indicate either inorganic clay of low lump below plastic limit indicate either inorganic clay of low
plasticity or kaolinite type clay and organic clays
Highly organic clays have a very weak and spongy feel at plastic
limit
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Unified Soil Classification System (Fine-grained soils)
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Plasticity chart for classification of fine grained soil as per USCS (Rowe, 2001)
x

(
%
)
c
i
t
y

I
n
d
e
x
P
l
a
s
t
i
c
Liquid Limit (%)
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ASTM Soil Classification
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ASTM Soil Classification
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ASTM Soil Classification
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Indian Standard Soil Classification System (ISSCS)
Based on USCS with modifications
The basis for the ISSCS (IS 1498) is that coarse-grained The basis for the ISSCS (IS 1498) is that coarse grained
soils can be classified according to their grain size
distributions, where as the engineering behaviour of fine-
grained soils is primarily related to their plasticity
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ISSCS (Basic Soil Components)
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Indian Standard Soil Classification System (ISSCS)
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ISSCS- Plasticity Chart
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American Association of State Highway and Transport
Officials (AASHTO) system
Based on both the particle size and the plasticity characteristics
Classified into eight groups such A-1 to A-7 with an additional group A-8
for peat or muck
Group Index GI = 0 2a + 0 005 ac + 0 01 bd
where
a = that part of the percent passing the 75 micron sieve greater than 35 and
Group Index, GI = 0.2a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd
a that part of the percent passing the 75 micron sieve greater than 35 and
not exceeding 75, expressed as a positive whole no (range 1 - 40)
b = that part of the percent passing the 75 micron sieve greater than 15 and
not exceeding 55, expressed as a positive whole no (range 1 - 40) not exceeding 55, expressed as a positive whole no (range 1 40)
c = that part of liquid limit greater than 40 and not greater than 60, expressed
as a positive whole no (range 1 - 20)
d = that part of plasticity index greater than 10 and not exceeding 30 d = that part of plasticity index greater than 10 and not exceeding 30,
expressed as a positive whole no (range 1 - 20)
55/79
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American Association of State Highway and Transport
Officials (AASHTO) system
Group index is used to evaluate soils within each group
Group index is empirical
Proceed from left to right in the table, and find the correct group
by the process of elimination
The first group from the left to fit the test data is the correct g p
AASHTO classification
A complete classification includes the group index to the
nearest whole number in parentheses after the AASHTO nearest whole number, in parentheses, after the AASHTO
Symbol. Ex. A-2-6(3) indicates a soil type of A-2-6 with group
index of 3
Th t th GI l th l d i bl il i f hi h The greater the GI value, the less desirable a soil is for highway
construction with in a grouo
A GI of 0 indicates a good subgrade material, while GI of 20 or
more indicates a very poor subgrade material
56/79
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American Association of State Highway and Transport
Officials (AASHTO) system- Definition of Sizes
57/79
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American Association of State Highway and Transport
Officials (AASHTO) system
58/79
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Officials (AASHTO) system- Definition of Sizes
59/79
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American Association
of State Highway and
Transport Officials
(AASHTO) system-
Definition of Sizes Definition of Sizes
60/79
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AASHTO Soil Classification System
(Auxiliary laboratory classification chart) ( y y )
61/79
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Coefficient of permeability of different geomaterials
(Rowe, 2001)
Soil k (m/s) Drainage
Gravel 10
-3
- 1 Good
Coarse sand 10
-6
- 10
-2
Good
Medium sand 10
-6
- 10
-3
Good
Fine sand 10
-7
- 10
-4
Poor good g
Silty sand 10
-7
- 10
-3
Poor - good
Silt, loess 10
-9
- 10
-5
Poor - fair
Glacial till 10
-12
- 10
-6
Very poor poor Glacial till 10 10 Very poor poor
Marine clay 10
-12
- 10
-9
Very poor poor
Clay 10
-11
- 10
-8
Very poor- poor
( )
2
10 2
D
k CD = = T l ti
10
100
k CD = = Taylors equation
62/79
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Variation of coefficient of permeability with effective size of the particle
Adapted from Taylor, 1948
63/79
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Adapted from Tiwari and Ajmera, 2010
Estimation of compression index, C
c
, based on measured liquid limit, LL
64/79
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Determination of Compressibility Index from PI
65/79
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Determination of Compressibility Index, C
c
For undisturbed soil
0.009( 10)
c L
C w =
For disturbed soil 0.007( 10)
c L
C w =
0.005
P
C D I =
Wroth and Wood, 1978
0.005
c r P
C D I
P
I
C
Kulhawy and Mayne 1990
74
P
c
C =
Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990
For Specific D
r
= 2.6
C
C
values for uniform sand 0.05 to 0.06 for loose sands --- 100 to 400 kPa
0.02 to 0.03 for dense sands --- 100 to 400 kPa
66/79
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Adapted from Tiwari and Ajmera, 2010 p j ,
Estimation of swelling, C
s
, based on measured initial
void ratio corresponding to liquid limit, w
l
67/79
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Adapted from Tiwari and Ajmera, 2010
Estimation of swelling, C
s
, based on measured initial
void ratio corresponding to liquid limit, w
l
)
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Correlation between Swelling Potential and Index Properties
5 2.67
(%) 41.13 10 ( )
S
S I

=
Ramganatham and Satyanarayana, 1965
Where I
S
is the shrinkage Index = w
L
-w
S
2
2 1.12
(%) 3.5817 10 ( ) 3.7912
P
i
C
S I
w

| |
= +
|
\ . \ .
Nayak and Christensen
3 1.45
( ) 3.32 10 ( ) 0.925
S P
i
C
P kPa I
w

| |
= +
|
\ .
(1971)
i \ .
Where Cis percent clay fraction and w
i
is the initial moisture content
(nearness to shrinkage limit influences the swelling pressure)
69/79
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Relationship between coefficient of consolidation and liquid limit
(
m
2
/
s
e
c
)
C
v
in range of recompression
lies above the lower limit
10
-6
Adapted from NAVFAC, 1982
l
i
d
a
t
i
o
n

(
Undisturbed samples
C in the range of virgin compression
o
f

c
o
n
s
o
l
C
v
in the range of virgin compression
10
-7
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

o
C
o
e
f
Completely remolded
Samples C
v
lies below the
upper limit
10
-8
Liquid Limit (%)
70/79
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Determination of Preconsolidation Pressure
'
10
log 1.11 1.62
P
L
I
o
| |
=
|
Stas and Kulhawy, 1984
10
log 1.11 1.62
L
a
I
p
|
\ .
| |
'
3.54
P
uVaneShear
S
o
| |
=
|
\ .
Kulhawy and Mayne (1990)
uVaneShear \ .
P
L
L P
w w
I
w w
| |

=
|

\ .
Where I
L
is the liquidity Index
L P \ .
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Correlation between effective friction angle,
cv
and plasticity index of fine gained soils
Adapted from Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990
72/79
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Estimation of undrained shear strength of
normally consolidated clay
Skemptons equation
/ ' 0.11 0.0037
u vo P
S I o = +
u vo P
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Ranges in effective stress failure envelopes for
pure clay minerals and quartz (after Olson, 1974)
Adapted from Mitchell and Soga, 2005
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Strength envelopes for a range of soil types(after Bishop, 1966)
Adapted from Mitchell and Soga, 2005
75/79
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Friction angles for clayquartz mixtures (after Kenney, 1967)
Adapted from Mitchell and Soga, 2005
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Relation between S
u
/
vo
and plasticity Index
Adapted from Tavenas and Lerouelil, 1987
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Topics for self study-Soil aggregate relationships
1. Define the following terms:
G i t i t t t l t i t t t id ti it d f Gravimetric water content; volumetric water content; void ratio; porosity; degree of
saturation; air content; percent air voids ratio; bulk unit weight; dry unit weight; saturated
unit weight; submerged unit weight; specific gravity and particle size distribution
characteristics using sieve analysis, Atterberg limits. Explain the methodologies to
determine these properties from basics (including calculation)
Methodology to determine in-situ density of soil (including calculations)
Particle size distribution characteristics using hydrometer analysis (derive the associated
equations form basics) and correction to be applied with appropriate technical reasons
2 D i th f ll i i t l ti hi f b i 2. Derive the following inter relationships from basics:
Relationship between bulk unit weight (
b
), dry unit weight (
d
) and moisture content (w)
i.e., [
b
=
d
(1+w)]
Relationship between void ratio (e) and porosity () i.e., [e=/(1-) or =e/(1+e)] ( ) y (
Relationship between void ratio (e), water content (w), specific gravity (G) and degree
of saturation (S
r
) i.e., [eS
r
=wG]
Relationship for bulk unit weight (
b
) in terms of specific gravity (G), void ratio (e),
water content (w), and unit weight of water (
w
) i.e., {
b
= [(G
w
)(1+w)/(1+e)} or {
b
= water content (w), and unit weight of water (
w
) i.e., {
b
[(G
w
) (1 w)/(1 e)} or {
b
[(G+eS
r
)/(1=e)]
w
}
Relationship for dry unit weight (
d
) in terms of specific gravity (G), void ratio (e) and
unit weight of water (
w
) i.e., {
d
= (G
w
)/(1+e)}
Relationship for dry unit weight ( ) in terms of specific gravity (G) water content (w) Relationship for dry unit weight (
d
) in terms of specific gravity (G), water content (w)
degree of saturation (S
r
) and unit weight of water (
w
) i.e., {
d
= (G
w
)/(1+wG)}
Relationship for dry unit weight (
d
) in terms of specific gravity (G), void ratio (e) and
percentage air voids (n
a
) i.e., {
d
= [(1-n
a
)G
w
]/[1+wG]}
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Soil Aggregate, Classification System
(Index and Engineering Properties of Geomaterials and (Index and Engineering Properties of Geomaterials and
their Determination)
Dr. Dali Naidu Arnepalli Dr. Dali Naidu Arnepalli
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
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