Variousexamplesofphysicalphenomena

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Physics(fromAncientGreek:
()phusik(epistm)knowledgeofnature,
fromphsis"nature"
[1][2][3]
)isthenatural
sciencethatinvolvesthestudyofmatter
[4]
andits
motionthroughspaceandtime,alongwithrelated
conceptssuchasenergyandforce.
[5]
Morebroadly,it
isthegeneralanalysisofnature,conductedinorder
tounderstandhowtheuniversebehaves.
[a][6][7]
Physicsisoneoftheoldestacademicdisciplines,
perhapstheoldestthroughitsinclusionof
astronomy.
[8]
Overthelasttwomillennia,physics
wasapartofnaturalphilosophyalongwith
chemistry,certainbranchesofmathematics,and
biology,butduringtheScientificRevolutioninthe
17thcentury,thenaturalsciencesemergedasuniqueresearchprogramsintheirownright.
[b]
Physics
intersectswithmanyinterdisciplinaryareasofresearch,suchasbiophysicsandquantumchemistry,
andtheboundariesofphysicsarenotrigidlydefined.Newideasinphysicsoftenexplainthe
fundamentalmechanismsofothersciences
[6]
whileopeningnewavenuesofresearchinareassuchas
mathematicsandphilosophy.
Physicsalsomakessignificantcontributionsthroughadvancesinnewtechnologiesthatarisefrom
theoreticalbreakthroughs.Forexample,advancesintheunderstandingofelectromagnetismor
nuclearphysicsleddirectlytothedevelopmentofnewproductswhichhavedramaticallytransformed
moderndaysociety,suchastelevision,computers,domesticappliances,andnuclearweapons;
[6]
advancesinthermodynamicsledtothedevelopmentofindustrialization;andadvancesinmechanics
inspiredthedevelopmentofcalculus.
1History
1.1Ancientastronomy
1.2Naturalphilosophy
1.3Classicalphysics
1.4Modernphysics
2Philosophy
3Coretheories
3.1Classicalphysics
3.2Modernphysics
3.3Differencebetweenclassicalandmodernphysics
4Relationtootherfields
4.1Prerequisites
4.2Applicationandinfluence
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AncientEgyptianastronomyis
evidentinmonumentslikethe
ceilingofSenemut'stombfromthe
EighteenthDynastyofEgypt.
5Research
5.1Scientificmethod
5.2Theoryandexperiment
5.3Scopeandaims
5.4Researchfields
5.4.1Condensedmatter
5.4.2Atomic,molecular,andopticalphysics
5.4.3Highenergyphysics(particlephysics)andnuclearphysics
5.4.4Astrophysics
6Currentresearch
7Seealso
8Notes
9References
10Workscited
11Externallinks
Ancientastronomy
Astronomyistheoldestofthenaturalsciences.Theearliest
civilizationsdatingbacktobeyond3000BCE,suchasthe
Sumerians,AncientEgyptians,andtheIndusValleyCivilization,
allhadapredictiveknowledgeandabasicunderstandingofthe
motionsoftheSun,Moon,andstars.Thestarsandplanetswere
oftenatargetofworship,believedtorepresenttheirgods.While
theexplanationsforthesephenomenawereoftenunscientific
andlackinginevidence,theseearlyobservationslaidthe
foundationforlaterastronomy.
[8]
AccordingtoAsgerAaboe,theoriginsofWesternastronomycan
befoundinMesopotamia,andallWesterneffortsintheexact
sciencesaredescendedfromlateBabylonianastronomy.
[9]
Egyptianastronomersleftmonumentsshowingknowledgeofthe
constellationsandthemotionsofthecelestialbodies,
[10]
whileGreekpoetHomerwroteofvarious
celestialobjectsinhisIliadandOdyssey;laterGreekastronomersprovidednames,whicharestillused
today,formostconstellationsvisiblefromthenorthernhemisphere.
[11]
Naturalphilosophy
NaturalphilosophyhasitsoriginsinGreeceduringtheArchaicperiod,(650BCE480BCE),when
PreSocraticphilosopherslikeThalesrejectednonnaturalisticexplanationsfornaturalphenomena
andproclaimedthateveryeventhadanaturalcause.
[12]
Theyproposedideasverifiedbyreasonand
observation,andmanyoftheirhypothesesprovedsuccessfulinexperiment;
[13]
forexample,atomism
wasfoundtobecorrectapproximately2000yearsafteritwasfirstproposedbyLeucippusandhis
pupilDemocritus.
[14]
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SirIsaacNewton
(16431727),whoselaws
ofmotionanduniversal
gravitationweremajor
milestonesinclassical
physics
AlbertEinstein
(18791955),whosework
onthephotoelectriceffect
andthetheoryofrelativity
ledtoarevolutionin20th
centuryphysics
MaxPlanck(18581947),
theoriginatorofthetheory
ofquantummechanics
Classicalphysics
PhysicsbecameaseparatesciencewhenearlymodernEuropeansused
experimentalandquantitativemethodstodiscoverwhatarenow
consideredtobethelawsofphysics.
[15]
Majordevelopmentsinthisperiodincludethereplacementofthe
geocentricmodelofthesolarsystemwiththeheliocentricCopernican
model,thelawsgoverningthemotionofplanetarybodiesdeterminedby
JohannesKeplerbetween1609and1619,pioneeringworkontelescopes
andobservationalastronomybyGalileoGalileiinthe16thand17th
Centuries,andIsaacNewton'sdiscoveryandunificationofthelawsof
motionanduniversalgravitationthatwouldcometobearhisname.
[16]
Newtonalsodevelopedcalculus,
[c]
themathematicalstudyofchange,
whichprovidednewmathematicalmethodsforsolvingphysical
problems.
[17]
Thediscoveryofnewlawsinthermodynamics,chemistry,and
electromagneticsresultedfromgreaterresearcheffortsduringthe
IndustrialRevolutionasenergyneedsincreased.
[18]
Thelaws
comprisingclassicalphysicsremainverywidelyusedforobjectson
everydayscalestravellingatnonrelativisticspeeds,sincetheyprovidea
verycloseapproximationinsuchsituations,andtheoriessuchas
quantummechanicsandthetheoryofrelativitysimplifytotheirclassicalequivalentsatsuchscales.
However,inaccuraciesinclassicalmechanicsforverysmallobjectsandveryhighvelocitiesledtothe
developmentofmodernphysicsinthe20thcentury.
Modernphysics
Modernphysicsbeganintheearly20th
centurywiththeworkofMaxPlanckin
quantumtheoryandAlbertEinstein's
theoryofrelativity.Bothofthesetheories
cameaboutduetoinaccuraciesinclassical
mechanicsincertainsituations.Classical
mechanicspredictedavaryingspeedof
light,whichcouldnotberesolvedwiththe
constantspeedpredictedbyMaxwell's
equationsofelectromagnetism;this
discrepancywascorrectedbyEinstein's
theoryofspecialrelativity,whichreplaced
classicalmechanicsforfastmovingbodies
andallowedforaconstantspeedof
light.
[19]
Blackbodyradiationprovided
anotherproblemforclassicalphysics,
whichwascorrectedwhenPlanck
proposedthatlightcomesinindividual
packetsknownasphotons;this,alongwiththephotoelectriceffectanda
completetheorypredictingdiscreteenergylevelsofelectronorbitals,
ledtothetheoryofquantummechanicstakingoverfromclassicalphysicsatverysmallscales.
[20]
QuantummechanicswouldcometobepioneeredbyWernerHeisenberg,ErwinSchrdingerandPaul
Dirac.
[20]
Fromthisearlywork,andworkinrelatedfields,theStandardModelofparticlephysicswas
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derived.
[21]
FollowingthediscoveryofaparticlewithpropertiesconsistentwiththeHiggsbosonat
CERNin2012,
[22]
allfundamentalparticlespredictedbythestandardmodel,andnoothers,appearto
exist;howeverphysicsbeyondtheStandardModel,withtheoriessuchassupersymmetry,isanactive
areaofresearch.
Inmanyways,physicsstemsfromancientGreekphilosophy.FromThales'firstattempttocharacterize
matter,toDemocritus'deductionthatmatteroughttoreducetoaninvariantstate,thePtolemaic
astronomyofacrystallinefirmament,andAristotle'sbookPhysics(anearlybookonphysics,which
attemptedtoanalyzeanddefinemotionfromaphilosophicalpointofview),variousGreek
philosophersadvancedtheirowntheoriesofnature.Physicswasknownasnaturalphilosophyuntil
thelate18thcentury.
Bythe19thcentury,physicswasrealizedasadisciplinedistinctfromphilosophyandtheother
sciences.Physics,aswiththerestofscience,reliesonphilosophyofsciencetogiveanadequate
descriptionofthescientificmethod.
[23]
Thescientificmethodemploysapriorireasoningaswellasa
posteriorireasoningandtheuseofBayesianinferencetomeasurethevalidityofagiventheory.
[24]
Thedevelopmentofphysicshasansweredmanyquestionsofearlyphilosophers,buthasalsoraised
newquestions.Studyofthephilosophicalissuessurroundingphysics,thephilosophyofphysics,
involvesissuessuchasthenatureofspaceandtime,determinism,andmetaphysicaloutlookssuchas
empiricism,naturalismandrealism.
[25]
Manyphysicistshavewrittenaboutthephilosophicalimplicationsoftheirwork,forinstanceLaplace,
whochampionedcausaldeterminism,
[26]
andErwinSchrdinger,whowroteonquantummechanics.
[27][28]
ThemathematicalphysicistRogerPenrosehasbeencalledaPlatonistbyStephenHawking,
[29]
aviewPenrosediscussesinhisbook,TheRoadtoReality.
[30]
Hawkingreferstohimselfasan
"unashamedreductionist"andtakesissuewithPenrose'sviews.
[31]
Thoughphysicsdealswithawidevarietyofsystems,certaintheoriesareusedbyallphysicists.Each
ofthesetheorieswereexperimentallytestednumeroustimesandfoundcorrectasanapproximation
ofnature(withinacertaindomainofvalidity).Forinstance,thetheoryofclassicalmechanics
accuratelydescribesthemotionofobjects,providedtheyaremuchlargerthanatomsandmovingat
muchlessthanthespeedoflight.Thesetheoriescontinuetobeareasofactiveresearch,anda
remarkableaspectofclassicalmechanicsknownaschaoswasdiscoveredinthe20thcentury,three
centuriesaftertheoriginalformulationofclassicalmechanicsbyIsaacNewton(16421727).
Thesecentraltheoriesareimportanttoolsforresearchintomorespecialisedtopics,andanyphysicist,
regardlessoftheirspecialisation,isexpectedtobeliterateinthem.Theseincludeclassicalmechanics,
quantummechanics,thermodynamicsandstatisticalmechanics,electromagnetism,andspecial
relativity.
Classicalphysics
Classicalphysicsincludesthetraditionalbranchesandtopicsthatwererecognisedand
welldevelopedbeforethebeginningofthe20thcenturyclassicalmechanics,acoustics,optics,
thermodynamics,andelectromagnetism.Classicalmechanicsisconcernedwithbodiesactedonby
forcesandbodiesinmotionandmaybedividedintostatics (studyoftheforcesonabodyorbodiesnot
subjecttoanacceleration),kinematics(studyofmotionwithoutregardtoitscauses),anddynamics
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Classicalphysicsimplementedinan
acousticengineeringmodelof
soundreflectingfromanacoustic
diffuser
SolvayConferenceof1927,with
prominentphysicistssuchasAlbert
Einstein,WernerHeisenberg,Max
Planck,HendrikLorentz,NielsBohr,
MarieCurie,ErwinSchrdingerand
PaulDirac.
(studyofmotionandtheforcesthataffectit);mechanicsmay
alsobedividedintosolidmechanicsandfluidmechanics(known
togetherascontinuummechanics),thelatterincludingsuch
branchesashydrostatics,hydrodynamics,aerodynamics,and
pneumatics.Acousticsisthestudyofhowsoundisproduced,
controlled,transmittedandreceived.
[32]
Importantmodern
branchesofacousticsincludeultrasonics,thestudyofsound
wavesofveryhighfrequencybeyondtherangeofhuman
hearing;bioacousticsthephysicsofanimalcallsandhearing,
[33]
andelectroacoustics,themanipulationofaudiblesoundwaves
usingelectronics.
[34]
Optics,thestudyoflight,isconcernednot
onlywithvisiblelightbutalsowithinfraredandultraviolet
radiation,whichexhibitallofthephenomenaofvisiblelight
exceptvisibility,e.g.,reflection,refraction,interference,
diffraction,dispersion,andpolarizationoflight.Heatisaformof
energy,theinternalenergypossessedbytheparticlesofwhicha
substanceiscomposed;thermodynamicsdealswiththe
relationshipsbetweenheatandotherformsofenergy.Electricity
andmagnetismhavebeenstudiedasasinglebranchofphysics
sincetheintimateconnectionbetweenthemwasdiscoveredin
theearly19thcentury;anelectriccurrentgivesrisetoa
magneticfieldandachangingmagneticfieldinducesanelectric
current.Electrostaticsdealswithelectricchargesatrest,
electrodynamicswithmovingcharges,andmagnetostaticswith
magneticpolesatrest.
Modernphysics
Classicalphysicsisgenerallyconcernedwithmatterandenergy
onthenormalscaleofobservation,whilemuchofmodern
physicsisconcernedwiththebehaviorofmatterandenergy
underextremeconditionsoronaverylargeorverysmallscale.
Forexample,atomicandnuclearphysicsstudiesmatteronthe
smallestscaleatwhichchemicalelementscanbeidentified.The
physicsofelementaryparticlesisonanevensmallerscaleasitis
concernedwiththemostbasicunitsofmatter;thisbranchof
physicsisalsoknownashighenergyphysicsbecauseofthe
extremelyhighenergiesnecessarytoproducemanytypesof
particlesinlargeparticleaccelerators.Onthisscale,ordinary,
commonsensenotionsofspace,time,matter,andenergyareno
longervalid.
Thetwochieftheoriesofmodernphysicspresentadifferent
pictureoftheconceptsofspace,time,andmatterfromthat
presentedbyclassicalphysics.Quantumtheoryisconcerned
withthediscrete,ratherthancontinuous,natureofmanyphenomenaattheatomicandsubatomic
level,andwiththecomplementaryaspectsofparticlesandwavesinthedescriptionofsuch
phenomena.Thetheoryofrelativityisconcernedwiththedescriptionofphenomenathattakeplacein
aframeofreferencethatisinmotionwithrespecttoanobserver;thespecialtheoryofrelativityis
concernedwithrelativeuniformmotioninastraightlineandthegeneraltheoryofrelativitywith
acceleratedmotionanditsconnectionwithgravitation.Bothquantumtheoryandthetheoryof
relativityfindapplicationsinallareasofmodernphysics.
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Thebasicdomainsofphysics
Thisparabolashapedlavaflow
illustratestheapplicationof
mathematicsinphysicsinthis
case,Galileo'slawoffallingbodies.
Mathematicsand
ontologyare
usedinphysics.
Physicsisused
inchemistryand
cosmology.
Differencebetweenclassicalandmodernphysics
Whilephysicsaimstodiscoveruniversallaws,
itstheorieslieinexplicitdomainsof
applicability.Looselyspeaking,thelawsof
classicalphysicsaccuratelydescribesystems
whoseimportantlengthscalesaregreater
thantheatomicscaleandwhosemotionsare
muchslowerthanthespeedoflight.Outside
ofthisdomain,observationsdonotmatch
theirpredictions.AlbertEinsteincontributed
theframeworkofspecialrelativity,which
replacednotionsofabsolutetimeandspace
withspacetimeandallowedanaccurate
descriptionofsystemswhosecomponentshavespeedsapproachingthespeedoflight.MaxPlanck,
ErwinSchrdinger,andothersintroducedquantummechanics,aprobabilisticnotionofparticlesand
interactionsthatallowedanaccuratedescriptionofatomicandsubatomicscales.Later,quantumfield
theoryunifiedquantummechanicsandspecialrelativity.Generalrelativityallowedforadynamical,
curvedspacetime,withwhichhighlymassivesystemsandthelargescalestructureoftheuniversecan
bewelldescribed.Generalrelativityhasnotyetbeenunifiedwiththeotherfundamentaldescriptions;
severalcandidatetheoriesofquantumgravityarebeingdeveloped.
Prerequisites
Mathematicsisthelanguageusedfor
compactdescriptionoftheorderinnature,
especiallythelawsofphysics.Thiswasnoted
andadvocatedbyPythagoras,
[35]
Plato,
[36]
Galileo,
[37]
andNewton.
Physicstheoriesusemathematics
[38]
to
obtainorderandprovidepreciseformulas,
preciseorestimatedsolutions,quantitative
resultsandpredictions.Experimentresults
inphysicsarenumericalmeasurements.
Technologiesbasedonmathematics,like
computationhavemadecomputationalphysicsanactiveareaofresearch.
Ontologyisaprerequisiteforphysics,butnotformathematics.Itmeansphysicsis
ultimatelyconcernedwithdescriptionsoftherealworld,whilemathematicsis
concernedwithabstractpatterns,evenbeyondtherealworld.Thusphysics
statementsaresynthetic,whilemathematicalstatementsareanalytic.
Mathematicscontainshypotheses,whilephysicscontainstheories.Mathematics
statementshavetobeonlylogicallytrue,whilepredictionsofphysicsstatements
mustmatchobservedandexperimentaldata.
Thedistinctionisclearcut,butnotalwaysobvious.Forexample,mathematical
physicsistheapplicationofmathematicsinphysics.Itsmethodsare
mathematical,butitssubjectisphysical.
[39]
Theproblemsinthisfieldstartwitha
"mathematicalmodelofaphysicalsituation"anda"mathematicaldescriptionofa
physicallaw".Everymathematicalstatementusedforsolutionhasahardtofindphysicalmeaning.
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Thedistinctionbetween
mathematicsandphysicsis
clearcut,butnotalwaysobvious,
especiallyinmathematicalphysics.
Archimedes'screw,a
simplemachinefor
lifting
Theapplicationof
physicallawsinlifting
liquids
Thefinalmathematicalsolutionhasaneasiertofindmeaning,
becauseitiswhatthesolverislookingfor.
Physicsisabranchoffundamentalscience,notpractical
science.
[40]
Physicsisalsocalled"thefundamentalscience"
becausethesubjectofstudyofallbranchesofnaturalsciencelike
chemistry,astronomy,geologyandbiologyareconstrainedby
lawsofphysics,
[41]
similartohowchemistryisoftencalledthe
centralsciencebecauseofitsroleinlinkingthephysical
sciences.Forexample,chemistrystudiesproperties,structures,
andreactionsofmatter(chemistry'sfocusontheatomicscale
distinguishesitfromphysics).Structuresareformedbecause
particlesexertelectricalforcesoneachother,propertiesinclude
physicalcharacteristicsofgivensubstances,andreactionsare
boundbylawsofphysics,likeconservationofenergy,massand
charge.
Physicsisappliedinindustrieslikeengineeringandmedicine.
Applicationandinfluence
Appliedphysicsisageneraltermforphysicsresearchwhichisintendedfor
aparticularuse.Anappliedphysicscurriculumusuallycontainsafew
classesinanapplieddiscipline,likegeologyorelectricalengineering.It
usuallydiffersfromengineeringinthatanappliedphysicistmaynotbe
designingsomethinginparticular,butratherisusingphysicsorconducting
physicsresearchwiththeaimofdevelopingnewtechnologiesorsolvinga
problem.
Theapproachissimilartothatofappliedmathematics.Appliedphysicists
canalsobeinterestedintheuseofphysicsforscientificresearch.For
instance,peopleworkingonacceleratorphysicsmightseektobuildbetter
particledetectorsforresearchintheoreticalphysics.
Physicsisusedheavilyinengineering.Forexample,statics,asubfieldof
mechanics,isusedinthebuildingofbridgesandotherstaticstructures.The
understandinganduseofacousticsresultsinsoundcontrolandbetter
concerthalls;similarly,theuseofopticscreatesbetteropticaldevices.An
understandingofphysicsmakesformorerealisticflightsimulators,video
games,andmovies,andisoftencriticalinforensicinvestigations.
Withthestandardconsensusthatthelawsofphysicsareuniversalanddo
notchangewithtime,physicscanbeusedtostudythingsthatwould
ordinarilybemiredinuncertainty.Forexample,inthestudyoftheoriginof
theearth,onecanreasonablymodelearth'smass,temperature,andrateof
rotation,asafunctionoftimeallowingonetoextrapolateforwardand
backwardintimeandsopredictpriorandfutureconditions.Italsoallows
forsimulationsinengineeringwhichdrasticallyspeedupthedevelopment
ofanewtechnology.
Butthereisalsoconsiderableinterdisciplinarityinthephysicist'smethodsandsomanyother
importantfieldsareinfluencedbyphysics,e.g.thefieldsofeconophysicsandsociophysics.
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TheastronautandEartharebothin
freefall
Lightningisanelectriccurrent
Scientificmethod
Physicistsusethescientificmethodtotestthevalidityofaphysicaltheory,usingamethodical
approachtocomparetheimplicationsofthetheoryinquestionwiththeassociatedconclusionsdrawn
fromexperimentsandobservationsconductedtotestit.Experimentsandobservationsarecollected
andcomparedwiththepredictionsandhypothesesmadebyatheory,thusaidinginthedetermination
orthevalidity/invalidityofthetheory.
Ascientificlawisaconciseverbalormathematicalstatementofarelationthatexpressesa
fundamentalprincipleofatheory,likeNewton'slawofuniversalgravitation.
[42]
Theoryandexperiment
Theoristsseektodevelop
mathematicalmodelsthat
bothagreewithexisting
experimentsand
successfullypredictfuture
experimentalresults,while
experimentalistsdeviseand
performexperimentstotest
theoreticalpredictionsand
explorenewphenomena.
Althoughtheoryand
experimentaredeveloped
separately,theyarestrongly
dependentuponeachother.
Progressinphysicsfrequentlycomesaboutwhen
experimentalistsmakeadiscoverythatexistingtheoriescannot
explain,orwhennewtheoriesgenerateexperimentallytestablepredictions,whichinspirenew
experiments.
Physicistswhoworkattheinterplayoftheoryandexperimentarecalledphenomenologists.
Phenomenologistslookatthecomplexphenomenaobservedinexperimentandworktorelatethem
tofundamentaltheory.
Theoreticalphysicshashistoricallytakeninspirationfromphilosophy;electromagnetismwasunified
thisway.
[d]
Beyondtheknownuniverse,thefieldoftheoreticalphysicsalsodealswithhypothetical
issues,
[e]
suchasparalleluniverses,amultiverse,andhigherdimensions.Theoristsinvoketheseideas
inhopesofsolvingparticularproblemswithexistingtheories.Theythenexploretheconsequencesof
theseideasandworktowardmakingtestablepredictions.
Experimentalphysicsexpands,andisexpandedby,engineeringandtechnology.Experimental
physicistsinvolvedinbasicresearchdesignandperformexperimentswithequipmentsuchasparticle
acceleratorsandlasers,whereasthoseinvolvedinappliedresearchoftenworkinindustrydeveloping
technologiessuchasmagneticresonanceimaging(MRI)andtransistors.Feynmanhasnotedthat
experimentalistsmayseekareaswhicharenotwellexploredbytheorists.
[43]
Scopeandaims
Physicscoversawiderangeofphenomena,fromelementaryparticles(suchasquarks,neutrinos,and
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Physicsinvolvesmodelingthe
naturalworldwiththeory,usually
quantitative.Here,thepathofa
particleismodeledwiththe
mathematicsofcalculustoexplain
itsbehavior:thepurviewofthe
branchofphysicsknownas
mechanics.
electrons)tothelargestsuperclustersofgalaxies.Includedin
thesephenomenaarethemostbasicobjectscomposingallother
things.Thereforephysicsissometimescalledthe"fundamental
science".
[41]
Physicsaimstodescribethevariousphenomena
thatoccurinnatureintermsofsimplerphenomena.Thus,
physicsaimstobothconnectthethingsobservabletohumansto
rootcauses,andthenconnectthesecausestogether.
Forexample,theancientChineseobservedthatcertainrocks
(lodestone)wereattractedtooneanotherbysomeinvisible
force.Thiseffectwaslatercalledmagnetism,andwasfirst
rigorouslystudiedinthe17thcentury.Alittleearlierthanthe
Chinese,theancientGreeksknewofotherobjectssuchasamber,
thatwhenrubbedwithfurwouldcauseasimilarinvisible
attractionbetweenthetwo.Thiswasalsofirststudiedrigorously
inthe17thcentury,andcametobecalledelectricity.Thus,
physicshadcometounderstandtwoobservationsofnaturein
termsofsomerootcause(electricityandmagnetism).However,
furtherworkinthe19thcenturyrevealedthatthesetwoforces
werejusttwodifferentaspectsofoneforceelectromagnetism.
Thisprocessof"unifying"forcescontinuestoday,and
electromagnetismandtheweaknuclearforcearenowconsideredtobetwoaspectsofthe
electroweakinteraction.Physicshopestofindanultimatereason(TheoryofEverything)forwhy
natureisasitis(seesectionCurrentresearchbelowformoreinformation).
Researchfields
Contemporaryresearchinphysicscanbebroadlydividedintocondensedmatterphysics;atomic,
molecular,andopticalphysics;particlephysics;astrophysics;geophysicsandbiophysics.Somephysics
departmentsalsosupportphysicseducationresearch.
Sincethe20thcentury,theindividualfieldsofphysicshavebecomeincreasinglyspecialized,andtoday
mostphysicistsworkinasinglefieldfortheirentirecareers."Universalists"suchasAlbertEinstein
(18791955)andLevLandau(19081968),whoworkedinmultiplefieldsofphysics,arenowvery
rare.
[f ]
Themajorfieldsofphysics,alongwiththeirsubfieldsandthetheoriestheyemploy,areshowninthe
followingtable.
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Field Subfields Majortheories Concepts
Astrophysics
Astronomy,Astrometry,
Cosmology,Gravitation
physics,Highenergy
astrophysics,Planetary
astrophysics,Plasma
physics,SolarPhysics,
Spacephysics,Stellar
astrophysics
BigBang,Cosmicinflation,
Generalrelativity,Newton'slaw
ofuniversalgravitation,
LambdaCDMmodel,
Magnetohydrodynamics
Blackhole,Cosmic
backgroundradiation,
Cosmicstring,Cosmos,
Darkenergy,Darkmatter,
Galaxy,Gravity,
Gravitationalradiation,
Gravitationalsingularity,
Planet,Solarsystem,Star,
Supernova,Universe
Atomic,
molecular,
andoptical
physics
Atomicphysics,
Molecularphysics,
AtomicandMolecular
astrophysics,Chemical
physics,Optics,
Photonics
Quantumoptics,Quantum
chemistry,Quantuminformation
science
Photon,Atom,Molecule,
Diffraction,
Electromagnetic
radiation,Laser,
Polarization(waves),
Spectralline,Casimir
effect
Particle
physics
Nuclearphysics,
Nuclearastrophysics,
Particleastrophysics,
Particlephysics
phenomenology
StandardModel,Quantumfield
theory,Quantum
electrodynamics,Quantum
chromodynamics,Electroweak
theory,Effectivefieldtheory,
Latticefieldtheory,Latticegauge
theory,Gaugetheory,
Supersymmetry,Grand
unificationtheory,Superstring
theory,Mtheory
Fundamentalforce
(gravitational,
electromagnetic,weak,
strong),Elementary
particle,Spin,Antimatter,
Spontaneoussymmetry
breaking,Neutrino
oscillation,Seesaw
mechanism,Brane,String,
Quantumgravity,Theory
ofeverything,Vacuum
energy
Condensed
matter
physics
Solidstatephysics,
Highpressurephysics,
Lowtemperature
physics,Surface
Physics,Nanoscaleand
Mesoscopicphysics,
Polymerphysics
BCStheory,Blochwave,Density
functionaltheory,Fermigas,
Fermiliquid,Manybodytheory,
StatisticalMechanics
Phases(gas,liquid,solid),
BoseEinsteincondensate,
Electricalconduction,
Phonon,Magnetism,
Selforganization,
Semiconductor,
superconductor,
superfluid,Spin,
Applied
Physics
Acceleratorphysics,Acoustics,Agrophysics,Biophysics,ChemicalPhysics,
CommunicationPhysics,Econophysics,Engineeringphysics,Fluiddynamics,
Geophysics,LaserPhysics,Materialsphysics,Medicalphysics,Nanotechnology,Optics,
Optoelectronics,Photonics,Photovoltaics,Physicalchemistry,Physicsofcomputation,
Plasmaphysics,Solidstatedevices,Quantumchemistry,Quantumelectronics,
Quantuminformationscience,Vehicledynamics
Condensedmatter
Condensedmatterphysicsisthefieldofphysicsthatdealswiththemacroscopicphysicalpropertiesof
matter.
[44]
Inparticular,itisconcernedwiththe"condensed"phasesthatappearwheneverthe
numberofparticlesinasystemisextremelylargeandtheinteractionsbetweenthemarestrong.
[45]
Themostfamiliarexamplesofcondensedphasesaresolidsandliquids,whicharisefromthebonding
bywayoftheelectromagneticforcebetweenatoms.
[46]
Moreexoticcondensedphasesincludethe
PhysicsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
10of21 9/6/20142:44PM
Velocitydistributiondataofagasofrubidiumatoms,
confirmingthediscoveryofanewphaseofmatter,the
BoseEinsteincondensate
superfluid
[47]
andtheBoseEinstein
condensate
[48]
foundincertainatomic
systemsatverylowtemperature,the
superconductingphaseexhibitedby
conductionelectronsincertainmaterials,
[49]
andtheferromagneticandantiferromagnetic
phasesofspinsonatomiclattices.
[50]
Condensedmatterphysicsisthelargestfield
ofcontemporaryphysics.Historically,
condensedmatterphysicsgrewoutof
solidstatephysics,whichisnowconsidered
oneofitsmainsubfields.
[51]
Theterm
condensedmatterphysicswasapparently
coinedbyPhilipAndersonwhenherenamed
hisresearchgrouppreviouslysolidstate
theoryin1967.
[52]
In1978,theDivisionof
SolidStatePhysicsoftheAmericanPhysicalSocietywasrenamedastheDivisionofCondensedMatter
Physics.
[51]
Condensedmatterphysicshasalargeoverlapwithchemistry,materialsscience,
nanotechnologyandengineering.
[45]
Atomic,molecular,andopticalphysics
Atomic,molecular,andopticalphysics(AMO)isthestudyofmattermatterandlightmatter
interactionsonthescaleofsingleatomsandmolecules.Thethreeareasaregroupedtogetherbecause
oftheirinterrelationships,thesimilarityofmethodsused,andthecommonalityoftheirrelevant
energyscales.Allthreeareasincludebothclassical,semiclassicalandquantumtreatments;theycan
treattheirsubjectfromamicroscopicview(incontrasttoamacroscopicview).
Atomicphysicsstudiestheelectronshellsofatoms.Currentresearchfocusesonactivitiesinquantum
control,coolingandtrappingofatomsandions,
[53][54][55]
lowtemperaturecollisiondynamicsand
theeffectsofelectroncorrelationonstructureanddynamics.Atomicphysicsisinfluencedbythe
nucleus(see,e.g.,hyperfinesplitting),butintranuclearphenomenasuchasfissionandfusionare
consideredpartofhighenergyphysics.
Molecularphysicsfocusesonmultiatomicstructuresandtheirinternalandexternalinteractionswith
matterandlight.Opticalphysicsisdistinctfromopticsinthatittendstofocusnotonthecontrolof
classicallightfieldsbymacroscopicobjects,butonthefundamentalpropertiesofopticalfieldsand
theirinteractionswithmatterinthemicroscopicrealm.
Highenergyphysics(particlephysics)andnuclearphysics
Particlephysicsisthestudyoftheelementaryconstituentsofmatterandenergy,andtheinteractions
betweenthem.
[56]
Inaddition,particlephysicistsdesignanddevelopthehighenergyaccelerators,
[57]
detectors,
[58]
andcomputerprograms
[59]
necessaryforthisresearch.Thefieldisalsocalled"high
energyphysics"becausemanyelementaryparticlesdonotoccurnaturally,butarecreatedonlyduring
highenergycollisionsofotherparticles.
[60]
Currently,theinteractionsofelementaryparticlesandfieldsaredescribedbytheStandardModel.
[61]
Themodelaccountsforthe12knownparticlesofmatter(quarksandleptons)thatinteractviathe
strong,weak,andelectromagneticfundamentalforces.
[61]
Dynamicsaredescribedintermsofmatter
particlesexchanginggaugebosons(gluons,WandZbosons,andphotons,respectively).
[62]
The
StandardModelalsopredictsaparticleknownastheHiggsboson.
[61]
InJuly2012CERN,the
PhysicsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
11of21 9/6/20142:44PM
AsimulatedeventintheCMS
detectoroftheLargeHadron
Collider,featuringapossible
appearanceoftheHiggsboson.
Thedeepestvisiblelightimageof
theuniverse,theHubbleUltraDeep
Field
Europeanlaboratoryforparticlephysics,announcedthe
detectionofaparticleconsistentwiththeHiggsboson,
[63]
an
integralpartofaHiggsmechanism.
NuclearPhysicsisthefieldofphysicsthatstudiesthe
constituentsandinteractionsofatomicnuclei.Themost
commonlyknownapplicationsofnuclearphysicsarenuclear
powergenerationandnuclearweaponstechnology,butthe
researchhasprovidedapplicationinmanyfields,includingthose
innuclearmedicineandmagneticresonanceimaging,ion
implantationinmaterialsengineering,andradiocarbondatingin
geologyandarchaeology.
Astrophysics
Astrophysicsandastronomy
aretheapplicationofthe
theoriesandmethodsofphysicstothestudyofstellarstructure,
stellarevolution,theoriginofthesolarsystem,andrelated
problemsofcosmology.Becauseastrophysicsisabroadsubject,
astrophysiciststypicallyapplymanydisciplinesofphysics,
includingmechanics,electromagnetism,statisticalmechanics,
thermodynamics,quantummechanics,relativity,nuclearand
particlephysics,andatomicandmolecularphysics.
ThediscoverybyKarlJanskyin1931thatradiosignalswere
emittedbycelestialbodiesinitiatedthescienceofradio
astronomy.Mostrecently,thefrontiersofastronomyhavebeen
expandedbyspaceexploration.Perturbationsandinterference
fromtheearth'satmospheremakespacebasedobservations
necessaryforinfrared,ultraviolet,gammaray,andXray
astronomy.
Physicalcosmologyisthestudyoftheformationandevolutionoftheuniverseonitslargestscales.
AlbertEinstein'stheoryofrelativityplaysacentralroleinallmoderncosmologicaltheories.Inthe
early20thcentury,Hubble'sdiscoverythattheuniverseisexpanding,asshownbytheHubble
diagram,promptedrivalexplanationsknownasthesteadystateuniverseandtheBigBang.
TheBigBangwasconfirmedbythesuccessofBigBangnucleosynthesisandthediscoveryofthe
cosmicmicrowavebackgroundin1964.TheBigBangmodelrestsontwotheoreticalpillars:Albert
Einstein'sgeneralrelativityandthecosmologicalprinciple.Cosmologistshaverecentlyestablished
theCDMmodeloftheevolutionoftheuniverse,whichincludescosmicinflation,darkenergy,and
darkmatter.
NumerouspossibilitiesanddiscoveriesareanticipatedtoemergefromnewdatafromtheFermi
GammaraySpaceTelescopeovertheupcomingdecadeandvastlyreviseorclarifyexistingmodelsof
theuniverse.
[64][65]
Inparticular,thepotentialforatremendousdiscoverysurroundingdarkmatteris
possibleoverthenextseveralyears.
[66]
Fermiwillsearchforevidencethatdarkmatteriscomposed
ofweaklyinteractingmassiveparticles,complementingsimilarexperimentswiththeLargeHadron
Colliderandotherundergrounddetectors.
IBEXisalreadyyieldingnewastrophysicaldiscoveries:"NooneknowswhatiscreatingtheENA
(energeticneutralatoms)ribbon"alongtheterminationshockofthesolarwind,"buteveryoneagrees
thatitmeansthetextbookpictureoftheheliosphereinwhichthesolarsystem'senvelopingpocket
PhysicsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
12of21 9/6/20142:44PM
FeynmandiagramsignedbyR.P.
Feynman
Atypicaleventdescribedby
physics:amagnetlevitatingabovea
superconductordemonstratesthe
Meissnereffect.
filledwiththesolarwind'schargedparticlesisplowingthroughtheonrushing'galacticwind'ofthe
interstellarmediumintheshapeofacometiswrong."
[67]
Researchinphysicsiscontinuallyprogressingonalargenumber
offronts.
Incondensedmatterphysics,animportantunsolvedtheoretical
problemisthatofhightemperaturesuperconductivity.Many
condensedmatterexperimentsareaimingtofabricateworkable
spintronicsandquantumcomputers.
Inparticlephysics,thefirstpiecesofexperimentalevidencefor
physicsbeyondtheStandardModelhavebeguntoappear.
Foremostamongtheseareindicationsthatneutrinoshave
nonzeromass.Theseexperimentalresultsappeartohavesolved
thelongstandingsolarneutrinoproblem,andthephysicsof
massiveneutrinosremainsanareaofactivetheoreticaland
experimentalresearch.Particleacceleratorshavebegunprobing
energyscalesintheTeVrange,inwhichexperimentalistsare
hopingtofindevidencefortheHiggsbosonandsupersymmetric
particles.
[68]
Theoreticalattemptstounifyquantummechanicsandgeneral
relativityintoasingletheoryofquantumgravity,aprogram
ongoingforoverhalfacentury,havenotyetbeendecisively
resolved.ThecurrentleadingcandidatesareMtheory,
superstringtheoryandloopquantumgravity.
Manyastronomicalandcosmologicalphenomenahaveyettobe
satisfactorilyexplained,includingtheexistenceofultrahigh
energycosmicrays,thebaryonasymmetry,theaccelerationof
theuniverseandtheanomalousrotationratesofgalaxies.
Althoughmuchprogresshasbeenmadeinhighenergy,quantum,andastronomicalphysics,many
everydayphenomenainvolvingcomplexity,
[69]
chaos,
[70]
orturbulence
[71]
arestillpoorly
understood.Complexproblemsthatseemliketheycouldbesolvedbyacleverapplicationof
dynamicsandmechanicsremainunsolved;examplesincludetheformationofsandpiles,nodesin
tricklingwater,theshapeofwaterdroplets,mechanismsofsurfacetensioncatastrophes,and
selfsortinginshakenheterogeneouscollections.
Thesecomplexphenomenahavereceivedgrowingattentionsincethe1970sforseveralreasons,
includingtheavailabilityofmodernmathematicalmethodsandcomputers,whichenabledcomplex
systemstobemodeledinnewways.Complexphysicshasbecomepartofincreasingly
interdisciplinaryresearch,asexemplifiedbythestudyofturbulenceinaerodynamicsandthe
observationofpatternformationinbiologicalsystems.In1932,HoraceLambsaid:
[72]
Iamanoldmannow,andwhenIdieandgotoheaventherearetwomattersonwhichI
hopeforenlightenment.Oneisquantumelectrodynamics,andtheotheristheturbulent
motionoffluids.AndabouttheformerIamratheroptimistic.
HoraceLamb,AnnualReviewsinFluidMechanics
PhysicsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
13of21 9/6/20142:44PM
General
Glossaryofclassicalphysics
Glossaryofphysics
Indexofphysicsarticles
Listofelementaryphysicsformulae,Elementary
physicsformulae
Listofimportantpublicationsinphysics
Listofphysicists
Listofphysicsconceptsinprimaryandsecondary
educationcurricula
Perfectioninphysicsandchemistry
Relationshipbetweenmathematicsandphysics
Timelineofdevelopmentsintheoreticalphysics
Timelineoffundamentalphysicsdiscoveries
Mainbranches
ClassicalMechanics
ElectricityandMagnetism
ModernPhysics
Optics
Thermodynamics
Relatedfields
Astronomy
Chemistry
Engineering
Mathematics
QuantumMechanics
Science
Interdisciplinaryfieldsincorporating
physics
Acoustics
Biophysics
Econophysics
Geophysics
Nanotechnology
Neurophysics
Psychophysics
^Theterm'universe'isdefinedaseverythingthatphysicallyexists:theentiretyofspaceandtime,all
formsofmatter,energyandmomentum,andthephysicallawsandconstantsthatgovernthem.However,
theterm'universe'mayalsobeusedinslightlydifferentcontextualsenses,denotingconceptssuchasthe
cosmosorthephilosophicalworld.
a.
^FrancisBacon's1620NovumOrganumwascriticalinthedevelopmentofscientificmethod. b.
^CalculuswasindependentlydevelopedataroundthesametimebyGottfriedWilhelmLeibniz;while
Leibnizwasthefirsttopublishhiswork,anddevelopedmuchofthenotationusedforcalculustoday,
Newtonwasthefirsttodevelopcalculusandapplyittophysicalproblems.SeealsoLeibnizNewton
calculuscontroversy
c.
^See,forexample,theinfluenceofKantandRitteronOersted. d.
^Conceptswhicharedenotedhypotheticalcanchangewithtime.Forexample,theatomofnineteenth
centuryphysicswasdenigratedbysome,includingErnstMach'scritiqueofLudwigBoltzmann's
formulationofstatisticalmechanics.BytheendofWorldWarII,theatomwasnolongerdeemed
hypothetical.
e.
PhysicsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
14of21 9/6/20142:44PM
^Yet,universalismisencouragedinthecultureofphysics.Forexample,theWorldWideWeb,whichwas
innovatedatCERNbyTimBernersLee,wascreatedinservicetothecomputerinfrastructureofCERN,
andwas/isintendedforusebyphysicistsworldwide.ThesamemightbesaidforarXiv.org
f.
^"physics"(http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=physics&allowed_in_frame=0).Online
EtymologyDictionary.
1.
^"physic"(http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=physic&allowed_in_frame=0).Online
EtymologyDictionary.
2.
^(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=fu/sis),
(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=fusiko/s),
(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper
/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=e)pisth/mh).Liddell,HenryGeorge;Scott,Robert;AGreek
EnglishLexiconatthePerseusProject
3.
^AtthestartofTheFeynmanLecturesonPhysics,RichardFeynmanofferstheatomichypothesisasthe
singlemostprolificscientificconcept:"If,insomecataclysm,all[]scientificknowledgeweretobe
destroyed[save]onesentence[...]whatstatementwouldcontainthemostinformationinthefewest
words?Ibelieveitis[...]thatallthingsaremadeupofatomslittleparticlesthatmovearoundin
perpetualmotion,attractingeachotherwhentheyarealittledistanceapart,butrepellinguponbeing
squeezedintooneanother..."(Feynman,Leighton&Sands1963,p.I2)
4.
^"Physicalscienceisthatdepartmentofknowledgewhichrelatestotheorderofnature,or,inother
words,totheregularsuccessionofevents."(Maxwell1878,p.9)
5.
^
a

c
Young&Freedman2014,p.9 6.
^"Physicsisthestudyofyourworldandtheworldanduniversearoundyou."(Holzner2006,p.7) 7.
^
a

b
Krupp2003 8.
^Aaboe1991 9.
^Clagett1995 10.
^Thurston1994 11.
^Singer2008,p.35 12.
^Lloyd1970,pp.108109 13.
^Gill,N.S."AtomismPreSocraticPhilosophyofAtomism"(http://ancienthistory.about.com
/od/presocraticphiloso/p/Atomism.htm).Ancient/ClassicalHistory.About.com.Retrieved20140401.
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^BenChaim2004 15.
^Guicciardini1999 16.
^Allen1997 17.
^"TheIndustrialRevolution"(http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/IoP/1416/biogs/biogs5.html).
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^
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O'Connor&Robertson1996b 20.
^DONUT2001 21.
^Cho2012 22.
^Rosenberg2006,Chapter1 23.
^GodfreySmith2003,Chapter14:"BayesianismandModernTheoriesofEvidence" 24.
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^GodfreySmith2003,Chapter15:"Empiricism,Naturalism,andScientificRealism?" 25.
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wherehestressedmathematicsasawayofunderstandingmoreaboutreality.Inparticular,hewas
convincedthatgeometrywasthekeytounlockingthesecretsoftheuniverse.Thesignabovethe
Academyentranceread:'Letnooneignorantofgeometryenterhere.'"(Mastin2010)
36.
^"Philosophyiswritteninthatgreatbookwhicheverliesbeforeoureyes.Imeantheuniverse,butwe
cannotunderstanditifwedonotfirstlearnthelanguageandgraspthesymbolsinwhichitiswritten.
Thisbookiswritteninthemathematicallanguage,andthesymbolsaretriangles,circlesandother
geometricalfigures,withoutwhosehelpitishumanlyimpossibletocomprehendasinglewordofit,and
withoutwhichonewandersinvainthroughadarklabyrinth."Galileo(1623),TheAssayer,asquotedin
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physicsthatis,theapplicationofmathematicstoproblemsinphysicsandthedevelopmentof
mathematicalmethodssuitableforsuchapplicationsandfortheformulationofphysicaltheories."
39.
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b
Feynman,Leighton&Sands1963,Chapter3:"TheRelationofPhysicstoOtherSciences";seealso
reductionismandspecialsciences
41.
^Honderich1995,pp.474476 42.
^"Infactexperimentershaveacertainindividualcharacter.They...veryoftendotheirexperimentsina
regioninwhichpeopleknowthetheoristhasnotmadeanyguesses."(Feynman1965,p.157)
43.
^Taylor&Heinonen2002 44.
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b
Cohen2008 45.
^Moore2011,pp.255258 46.
^Leggett1999 47.
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b
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53.
^"KoreaUniversity,PhysicsAMOGroup"(http://physics.korea.ac.kr/research/research_amo.php).
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Lookupphysicsin
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Thurston,H.(1994).EarlyAstronomy.Springer.
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deHaas,Paul,HistoricPapersinPhysics(20thCentury)
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//home.tiscali.nl/physis/HistoricPaper/)attheWayback
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PhysicsCentral(http://www.physicscentral.com/)Web
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UsenetPhysicsFAQ(http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez
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physicsnewsgroups
WebsiteoftheNobelPrizeinphysics(http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/)
WorldofPhysics(http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/)Anonlineencyclopedic
dictionaryofphysics
Nature:Physics(http://www.nature.com/naturephysics)
Physics(http://physics.aps.org/)announced17July2008bytheAmericanPhysicalSociety
PhysicsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
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Physics/Publications(http://www.dmoz.org//Science/Physics/Publications/)atDMOZ
Physicsworld.com(http://physicsworld.com/)NewswebsitefromInstituteofPhysics
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PhysicsCentral(http://physlib.com/)includesarticlesonastronomy,particlephysics,and
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TheVegaScienceTrust(http://www.vega.org.uk/)sciencevideos,includingphysics
Video:Physics"Lightning"TourwithJustinMorgan(https://archive.org/details
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52partvideocourse:TheMechanicalUniverse...andBeyond(http://www.learner.org
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HyperPhysicswebsite(http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/Hbase/hframe.html)
HyperPhysics,aphysicsandastronomymindmapfromGeorgiaStateUniversity
Organizations
AIP.org(http://www.aip.org/index.html)WebsiteoftheAmericanInstituteofPhysics
APS.org(http://www.aps.org/)WebsiteoftheAmericanPhysicalSociety
IOP.org(http://www.iop.org/)WebsiteoftheInstituteofPhysics
PlanetPhysics.org(http://planetphysics.org/)
RoyalSociety(http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/)Althoughnotexclusivelyaphysicsinstitution,it
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SPSNational(http://www.spsnational.org/)WebsiteoftheSocietyofPhysicsStudents
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