Presented by:

Mohammad Bakhshandeh
M80039325
Networking Fundamentals
Identify and describe the functions of each of the seven layers of the OSI reference model
Identify the reasons why the networking industry uses a layered model
Define and explain the conversion steps of data encapsulation
Define and describe the function of a MAC address
Describe connection-oriented network service and connectionless network service, and
identify the key differences between them
Objectives
Introduction to Networking
Computer network, or simply network
Refers to the connection of two or more computers by some type of medium
You can connect computer using the following:
Public telephone system
Wire cable
Fiber-optic cable
Infrared equipment
Radio equipment
Origin of Networking
Industry experts find it difficult to date the precise origin of networking
Because many devices have been networked throughout history
Mainframe computers were sometimes connected to each other by cables
Today, systems that are part of a network do not have to be identical
A modern network can include a wide variety of computers, peripheral components, and even other
networks
Why Do We Use Networks?
This question can be answered in one word: convenience
People expect interoperability from electronic devices
Computer networks allow:
For the transfer of files, data, and even shared applications without copying anything to floppy disk
Computers to share items such as printers, scanners, fax machines, processors, disk drives, and other
resources
Networked computers can share data and peripherals
Networking Terminology
Media
Refers to the wire cabling that form the connections in most networks
Some networks use wireless transmission media, such as infrared or radio signals
Client/server networks
Servers host the resources for the clients to use and provide security
A client is the computer that requests resources from the server
Client/server networks
Types of servers include:
Print server/File server/Database server
Remote access server (RAS)/Web server
Peer-to-peer network
When every computer on a network acts as both a client and a server, Also known as workgroups
Networking Terminology (continued)
LAN, WAN, MAN, SAN
Local area network (LAN) is contained within a company or department and located in a single geographic
area
Wide area network (WAN) spans multiple geographic areas and is usually connected by common
telecommunication carriers
Metropolitan area network (MAN) refers to the intermediate stage between a LAN and a WAN
Storage area network (SAN) refers to a series of storage devices that are networked together to provide very
fast data storage for a network or sub network
Network Operating System (NOS)
Allows communication, security, and distribution of data, files, and applications over a network
Network Interface Card (NIC)
A device that allows a computer or other device to connect to a network through the media
Networking hardware
All the physical components of a network, such as the NIC, cable, hub, switch, router, and any related connectors
or devices
Networking software
The programs used to run a network
Virtual private networks
Network that uses a public communications infrastructure (like the Internet) to facilitate private communication
between a company LAN and remote employees
VPN: Extranet is the part of the companys network that allows access to nonemployees
VPN: Intranet is the part of the companys network that allows access to employees
Networking Terminology (continued)
Understanding the OSI Model
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
Presented in 1984 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
Based on examination of existing protocols, ISO recommended a seven-layer network model
Allows vendors to implement networks that permit communication among the wide variety of network
implementations
The OSI model is not an absolute standard for computer networks
Used as a reference model
Reasons for Layering
Advantages
Simplifies the networking model
Enables programmers to specialize in a particular level or layer
Provides design modularity
Encourages interoperability
Allows networking vendors to produce standardized interfaces
Reasons for Layering (continued)
Protocol
Defined method for communicating between systems
Computers must use a common protocol to communicate properly
Examples: TCP/IP and IPX/SPX
Peer OSI Communication
Peer communication
Each layer will only talk to its peer on the opposite side of the communications process
Each layer is unaware of the activities of all other layers of the model
Allows error checking to occur on two separate layers simultaneously
Each layer does provide services to the layer above it and receives services from the layer below it
Layers do not acknowledge these services in any way
LAYER FUNCTIONS
The OSI model was developed as an industry standard
For companies to use when developing network hardware and software to ensure complete compatibility
Each layer in the OSI model performs a specific function in the transmission process
Most modern networks do not implement the OSI model exactly as it is defined
DONT GET CONFUSED.
ISO - International Organization for Standardization
OSI - Open System Interconnection
IOS - Internetwork Operating System
The ISO created the OSI to make the IOS more
efficient. The ISO acronym is correct as shown.
To avoid confusion, some people say International
Standard Organization.
LAYER FUNCTIONS (CONTINUED)
Physical (Layer 1) responsibilities
Defines the physical characteristics of the network hardware, including cable and connectors
Represents binary digits as voltages (encoding)
Transmits signals on the wire
EIA/TIA:
Electronic Industrial
Association /
Telecommunication
Industrial Association :
The 568B specification
define a wiring system
for data grad cable
LAYER 1 - THE PHYSICAL LAYER
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
This is the physical media
through which the data,
represented as electronic
signals, is sent from the
source host to the
destination host.
Examples:
CAT5 (what we have)
Coaxial (like cable TV)
Fiber optic
PDU - Bits
LAYER FUNCTIONS (CONTINUED)
Data Link (Layer 2) responsibilities
NIC software functions, including the identification of the source and destination nodes via their physical
addresses (Media Access Control addresses)
Definition of how data is packaged for transport in smaller units known as frames
Error notification
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) created two sublayers to identify and isolate the
separate responsibilities required at this level of the protocol stack
The Data Link sub-layers:
Logical Link Control (LLC) layer
Media Access Control (MAC) layer
LAYER FUNCTIONS (CONTINUED)
LAYER FUNCTIONS (CONTINUED)
LAYER 2 - THE DATA LINK LAYER
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
This layer provides reliable
transit of data across a
physical link.
Makes decisions based on
physical addresses (usually
MAC addresses).
PDU - Frames
LAYER FUNCTIONS:
DATA LINK (LAYER 2)
MAC layer defines the media access method and provides a unique identifier for the network card
The unique identifier is a 48-bit address represented as 12-digit hexadecimal number given to
each network card during production
Every network interface card must have a unique physical address (also called the MAC address)
LAYER FUNCTIONS:
DATA LINK (LAYER 2)
Figure 1-5:
MAC address
MAC ADDRESS FORMAT
LAYER FUNCTIONS:
DATA LINK (LAYER 2)
Ethernet
A standard networking architecture that defines the physical
layout, lengths, and types of media that can be used
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD)
Network access method used by Ethernet networks
LAYER FUNCTIONS (CONTINUED)
Network (Layer 3) functions
Software/logical addressing for data packets, such as IP, IPX, and AppleTalk
Data routing and connectivity
Best path selection
Protocols at the Network layer allow computers to route packets to remote networks using a
logical address
LAYER 3 - THE NETWORK LAYER
25
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
Sometimes referred to as
the Cisco Layer.
Makes Best Path
Determination decisions
based on logical addresses
(usually IP addresses).
PDU - Packets
LAYER FUNCTIONS (CONTINUED)
Transport (Layer 4) responsibilities
End-to-end, error-free transmission and delivery between the ultimate sender and ultimate receiver
Flow control
Data segmentation into maximum transmission unit (MTU) size
Messaging service for the Session layer
Protocols that reside at the Transport layer can be connection-oriented or connectionless
Data sent by a connectionless transport is called a datagram
LAYER 4 - THE TRANSPORT LAYER
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
This layer breaks up the
data from the sending host
and then reassembles it in
the receiver.
It also is used to insure
reliable data transport
across the network.
PDU - Segments
LAYER FUNCTIONS (CONTINUED)
Session (Layer 5) services
Control for data exchange (full or half duplex)
Clocking or timing
Failure recovery
Initial link setup and link termination when communications complete
The Session layer allows the transfer of a large set of data across the network
Examples of Session layer protocols include NetBIOS, SQL, RPC, and X-Windows
LAYER 5 - THE SESSION LAYER
29
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
This layer establishes,
manages, and terminates
sessions between two
communicating hosts.
Example:
Client Software
( Used for logging in)
PDU - Formatted Data
LAYER FUNCTIONS (CONTINUED)
Presentation (Layer 6) responsibilities
Data translation
Data formatting
Data syntax restructuring
Data encryption
Data compression
This layer also provides encryption services when data encryption is used in network
communications
Prepares the data from Application layer for transmission over the network
Components include extensions and coding schemes such as:
BMP
WAV
HTML
JPEG
EBCDIC
ASCII
LAYER 6 - THE PRESENTATION LAYER
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
This layer is responsible
for presenting the data in
the required format
which may include:
Encryption
Compression
PDU - Formatted Data
LAYER FUNCTIONS (CONTINUED)
Application (Layer 7) responsibilities
Initiating the request for network services
Providing network services to applications such as e-mail and Web browsers
This layer is concerned with user interaction with the computer and the network
Contains many protocols and utilities, such as telnet, FTP, HTTP, DNS, SMTP, and SNMP
Data encapsulation
Data is sent from one computer to another in a data packet
Each layer in the protocol stack may add a protocol data unit (PDU) to the data as it is passed down the
layers
The addition of a header and/or trailer is called encapsulation
LAYER 7 - THE APPLICATION LAYER
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
This layer deal with
networking
applications.
Examples:
Email
Web browsers
PDU - User Data
LAYER FUNCTIONS
(CONTINUED)
DATA ENCAPSULATION
Figure 1-6: Encapsulation
LAYER FUNCTIONS
(CONTINUED)
SUMMARY
Two or more computers connected by media form a network
Before computers were networked, file transfers were usually conducted by users
physically walking copies of data to another computer
The ISO developed the OSI model in the mid-1980s to standardize networking
models
Data transmission can be connection-oriented or connectionless
The OSI networking model has seven layers
The Physical layer handles the physical transmission of data across the network
The Data Link layer, the second layer of the OSI model, interacts with the
networking hardware
SUMMARY (CONTINUED)
The Network layer supports logical addressing and routing of data packets
The Transport layer segments data that is to be sent out on the network into MTUs
The Session layer, the fifth layer, establishes and maintains connections between
computers during data transfers
The Presentation layer, the sixth layer, handles data translation, encryption, and
formatting for transmission on the network or for interpretation by the Application
layer
The Application layer, the seventh and highest layer, handles the interface
between the network and the user
When the network user sends data to the network, it goes through a five-step data
encapsulation process
Routing Protocols
OBJECTIVES
Differentiate between non-routable, routed, and routing protocols
Define Interior Gateway Protocols, Exterior Gateway Protocols, distance-vector
routing protocols, and link-state routing protocols
Explain the concepts of count-to-infinity, split horizon, split horizon with poison
reverse, and hold-down timers
Describe, configure, and monitor the interior routing protocol RIP
Explain static routing and administrative distance
Configure static routing and default routes
NON-ROUTABLE PROTOCOLS
In the early days of networking, networks were small collections of computers linked
together
For the purposes of sharing information and expensive peripherals
Early networks were sometimes configured as peer-to-peer networks
Computers communicate with and provide services to their peers
All communication occurs on the same network segment
NON-ROUTABLE PROTOCOLS (CONTINUED)
NON-ROUTABLE PROTOCOLS (CONTINUED)
Several non-routable protocols exist in todays networking world
NetBEUI (NetBIOS Enhanced User Interface)
The most common non-routable protocol
Ships with all Microsoft Windows operating systems
NetBEUI cannot scale into large internetworks
Cannot hold Network layer information in its network header
ROUTED PROTOCOLS
Routed protocols
Have packet headers that can contain Network layer addresses
Developed to support networks consisting of multiple networks or
subnetworks
Protocols that can carry Network layer information
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX)
ROUTED PROTOCOLS (CONTINUED)
For routed protocols to work on a network
Every device must be configured with a unique IP or IPX address
(logical address)
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
Routing protocols
Protocols used by routers to make path determination choices and to
share those choices with other routers
Hop count
The number of routers a packet must pass through to reach a particular
network
Metric
A value used to define the suitability of a particular route
Routers use metrics to determine which routes are better than other
routes
ROUTING PROTOCOLS (CONTINUED)
ROUTING PROTOCOLS (CONTINUED)
Autonomous system (AS)
Uses Interior Gateway Protocols as routing protocols
A group of routers under the control of a single administration
Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) are
Routing protocols used within an AS
Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs)
Routing protocols used to route information between multiple
autonomous systems
ROUTING PROTOCOLS (CONTINUED)
ROUTING PROTOCOLS (CONTINUED)
Examples of IGPs
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Example of EGP
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
TWO TYPES OF IGPS
Distance-vector routing protocols
Broadcast their entire routing table to each neighbor router at
predetermined intervals
The actual interval depends on the distance-vector routing protocol
in use
Varies between 30 and 90 seconds
Sometimes referred to as routing by rumor
Suffer from slow time to convergence
A state where all routers on the internetwork share a common view
of the internetwork routes
Distance-vector routing protocols (continued)
Routing loops
Often referred to as count-to-infinity problems
Loops, without preventive measures, will cause packets to bounce
around the internetwork infinitely
Defining a maximum
One of the easiest ways to limit count-to-infinity problems
Split horizon and split horizon with poison reverse
Two other common ways to prevent routing loops when using
distance-vector routing protocols
Distance-vector routing protocols (continued)
Hold-down timer
Another common technique used to stop routing
loops
Allow a router to place a route in a state where it will
not accept any changes to that route
Link-state routing protocols
Use link-state advertisements (LSAs) to inform
neighbor routers on the internetwork
LSAs contain only the local links for the advertised
router
Link-state routing protocols (continued)
Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm
Uses the link information to compute the routes
Router CPU resources are used instead of bandwidth
Link-state packets (LSPs)
Packets used to send out LSAs
Allow every router in the internetwork to share a common view of the
topology of the internetwork
A link-state routing protocol floods, or multicasts, LSPs to the network
Later updates will be triggered updates
Link-state routing protocols (continued)
Routers using link-state protocols must be configured
with more memory and processing power
Than those using distance-vector routing protocols
Link-state routing protocols such as OSPF are much
more complicated to configure on the routers
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
The easiest Interior Gateway Protocol to configure is RIPv1
A distance-vector routing protocol that broadcasts entire routing tables
to neighbors every 30 seconds
RIP uses hop count as its sole metric
RIP has a maximum hop count of 15
As a result, RIP does not work in large internetworks
RIP is capable of load balancing
RIP is susceptible to all the problems normally associated with
distance-vector routing protocols
To start configuring RIP, you must:
Enter privileged mode first
Enter global configuration mode on your router
Enable RIP with the router rip command
CONFIGURING RIP ROUTING FOR
EACH MAJOR NETWORK
network command
Turns on RIP routing for a network
An individual network command must be issued for each separate
network directly connected to the router
show ip route command
Displays a routers routing table
Administrative distance
A value used to determine the reliability of the information regarding a
particular route
Administrative distances range from 0255
CONFIGURING RIP ROUTING FOR
EACH MAJOR NETWORK (CONTINUED)
CONFIGURING RIP ROUTING FOR
EACH MAJOR NETWORK (CONTINUED)
SHOW IP PROTOCOL AND
DEBUG IP RIP COMMANDS
Commands used to monitor RIP
A route is considered invalid if six consecutive update intervals
pass without an update from that route
Flush interval
The time at which a route will be totally removed from the routing table if
no updates are received
debug ip rip command
Displays real-time rip updates being sent and received and places very
high processing demands on your router, which could affect network
performance
SHOW IP PROTOCOL AND DEBUG IP RIP
COMMANDS (CONTINUED)
SHOW IP PROTOCOL AND DEBUG IP RIP
COMMANDS (CONTINUED)
SHOW IP PROTOCOL AND DEBUG IP RIP
COMMANDS (CONTINUED)
SHOW IP PROTOCOL AND DEBUG IP RIP
COMMANDS (CONTINUED)
IGRP is a proprietary distance-vector routing protocol
Created by Cisco to solve some of the problems associated with RIP
A larger hop-count metric allows IGRP to be used on larger
networks
IGRP supports a hop count of 255, although 100 is the default if hop count
is configured to be used as a metric
The metric maximum-hops command allows you to set the
maximum hop count for IGRP
The default metrics for IGRP are bandwidth and delay only
Metrics that can be configured for IGRP
Hops: number of routers between source and destination networks
Load: the load on a link in the path
Bandwidth: the speed of the link (default)
Reliability: measures reliability with a scale of 0 to 255
Delay: the delay on the medium (default)
MTU: the size of the datagram
Some networks are so small that using a routing protocol creates:
Unnecessary traffic
An inefficient use of router processor resources
Stub routers
Routers with only one route out
Stub routers are usually the last router in a chain
Stub networks
Networks with one route to the Internet
Static routes are configured by a network administrator using the
ip route command
Syntax for the ip route command:
ip route [destination network address] [destination
network mask] [ip address next hop interface]
[administrative distance]
Examples:
ip route 172.32.3.0 255.255.255.0 172.32.2.2
ip route 172.32.4.0 255.255.255.0 172.32.2.2
Changing administrative distance
The ip route command allows you to configure an administrative
distance
Unless you add an administrative distance value to the end of your ip
route command
The administrative distance will be 1
Configuring a default route
All packets that are not defined specifically in your routing table will go
to the specified interface for the default route
Configuring a default route (continued)
A default route is a type of static route that the administrator configures
You can use the ip default-network command or the ip route
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 command to configure a default route
Default routes are sometimes called quad zero routes
A default route is used only if no other route to a network exists in the
routing table
Some protocols are designed to be used in small networks without
the need for Network layer addressing
The most common nonroutable protocol is NetBEUI
Other protocols were designed with the ability to move between
multiple networks via Network layer addressing
The most common routed protocol suite is TCP/IP
Protocols must be available that can find the best path throughout
an internetwork and relay that information to routers
Routing protocols are classed in two major groups: Interior
Gateway Protocols and Exterior Gateway Protocols
Interior routing protocols are further divided into distance-vector
and link-state routing protocols
These two types of Interior Gateway Protocols use very different
methods to determine the best path in an internetwork
Distance-vector protocols periodically broadcast entire routing
tables to neighbor routers
Link-state protocols multicast link updates to routers in their area
upon startup and when network topology changes
Two common distance-vector IGPs discussed in this chapter are
the Routing Information Protocol and the Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol
Static routes are used to conserve bandwidth and lower memory
and CPU load on a router while still allowing for correct routing
table creation
Advanced Routing
Protocols
Describe classful and classless routing protocols
Describe and configure RIPv2
Describe and configure EIGRP
Describe and configure OSPF
Control routing traffic
Classful routing protocols
Summarize networks to their major network boundaries (Class A, B, or C)
Do not carry subnet mask information in their routing table updates
Cannot be used in networks with either discontiguous subnets or
networks using variable length subnet masks (VLSM)
Examples: RIPv1 and IGRP
Classless routing protocols
Allow dynamic routing in discontiguous networks
Carry subnet mask information in the routing table updates
Examples: RIPv2, EIGRP, OSPF, and BGP
RIPv2 is a set of extensions to RIPv1
Still a distance-vector routing protocol that uses the normal measures of
hold-down timers and split horizon to prevent routing loops
Suffers from RIPv1s major drawback
The major change from RIPv1 is RIPv2s ability to carry subnet mask
information
RIPv2 multicasts its updates using the multicast address of 224.0.0.9
RIPv2 provides a way to authenticate routing peers to provide
enhanced security to a network
Another enhancement of RIPv2: ability to authenticate routing
peers
Configuring RIPv2 authentication requires the following steps:
Define a key chain
Define keys in the key chain
Enable authentication on the interface by specifying the key chain to be
used
Enable either clear text or MD5 authentication
Manage the keys (optional key lifetimes)
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
A Cisco proprietary classless protocol designed to overcome the
limitations found in IGRP
Still a distance-vector routing protocol at its core
Protocol Dependent Modules (PDMs)
Allow EIGRP to carry multiple routed protocols within their own native
packet formats
EIGRP uses nonperiodic, partial, and bounded routing table
updates
EIGRP makes use of a composite metric comprised of six different
factors:
Hops, Load, Bandwidth, Reliability, Delay, MTU
By default, the formula used for metric calculation in EIGRP is:
Metric = [(K1*Bandwidth + (K2*Bandwidth)/(256-load)
+ K3*Delay)*K5/(reliability + K4)]*256
Protocol Dependent Modules (PDM)
Allow EIGRP to support multiple Network layer routed protocols
Neighbor discovery and maintenance
Allow EIGRP to discover neighbors and keep track of their status
EIGRP must be able to keep updates bounded, sent only to those peers
that need the information
EIGRP must build a neighbor table of directly connected peers
Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP)
Because EIGRP is protocol-independent, it cannot use existing Transport
layer protocols to carry its various packet types
Instead, Cisco developed an entirely new layer 4 protocol
RTP can actually provide both reliable and unreliable delivery
Routing table updates are an example of an EIGRP packet type that uses
reliable multicast via RTP
Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL)
The heart and soul of EIGRP
Allows EIGRP to quickly recover from a link outage and route around
network problems
Key terms associated with DUAL
Successor
Feasible distance (FD)
Reported distance (RD)
Feasible successor
Feasibility condition
Adjacency
DUAL uses the EIGRP topology table to track the status of all links
in a network
The EIGRP topology table contains information about all the networks a
router can reach
The show ip eigrp topology command
Displays information garnered from the DUAL process
EIGRP configuration is nearly identical to IGRP configuration
EIGRP is classless
However, it summarizes to classful network boundaries by default
The no auto-summary command turns off this default behavior
Highly recommended to use the bandwidth command to set the
actual bandwidth on serial links
EIGRP supports optional authentication of routing peers
Configuring EIGRP authentication requires the following steps:
Define a key chain
Define keys in the key chain
Enable authentication on the interface by specifying the key chain to be
used
Manage the keys (optional key lifetimes)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
An open standards, link-state routing protocol that supports classless
routing, variable-length subnet masks, and authentication
Link-state routing protocols allow routers to share a common view of
the entire network
Each router sends out link-state advertisements (LSAs) describing its
attached links to all routers in an area
Each router needs to hold a topological database of the entire area
OSPF is ideally suited for large networks
Uses a concept known as areas to bound link-state advertisements
An area is the portion of a network within which LSAs are contained
All OSPF routers configured with the same area identification will accept
LSAs from one another
Link
A routers interface
Link-state
The status of a link on a router
Area
Defines the confines within which LSAs are contained
Cost
The default metric for OSPF
Adjacencies database
Contains information about all OSPF peers with which a router has
successfully exchanged Hello packets
Topological database
Holds the common view of the network formed from the link-state
advertisements that are received
Designated routers (DRs)
Backup designated routers (BDRs)
Steps
An OSPF router forms adjacencies with neighbors
A DR and BDR are elected in OSPF
Routers will flood their link-state advertisements and go through the
process of selecting the best route to each network
OSPF uses Dijkstras Shortest Path First algorithmto find the best
path
Each router sees itself as the central point from which a loop-free, best-
cost path to each network is determined
OSPF offers a huge number of configuration options
Including multiple areas of different types
Routing update authentication is a basic security requirement for all
modern routing protocols
OSPF provides authentication of routing table updates via several
methods
No authentication (the default)
Authentication with passwords sent in clear text
Authentication using MD5 hashing of a shared secret key
To perform MD5 authentication of routing updates in OSPF, two
steps must be completed:
Configuration of authentication keys on each OSPF interface
Configuration of area authentication
passive-interface command
An important entry-level command for controlling route traffic
Disrupts the function of EIGRP and OSPF
The command causes a router to listen only on the passive interface
Therefore, if used with EIGRP or OSPF, the router will not send Hellos out
the interface
The result is a link that is seen as having no neighbors on it
Therefore, it will not be used to form adjacencies
Large, complex internetworks using variable-length subnet masks
require routing protocols that can handle the task
RIPv2 is a classless routing protocol built as an extension to RIPv1
EIGRP is a Cisco proprietary protocol designed to incorporate
some of the features of link-state routing protocols
The open standards protocol OSPF is the link-state protocol of
choice in many networks
Advanced Switching
Concepts
Explain how the Spanning Tree Protocol works and describe its
benefits
Describe the benefits of virtual LANs
Configure a VLAN
Understand the Purpose of the VLAN trunking protocol (VTP)
Configure VTP
Physical path loops
A physical connection created when network devices are connected to
one another by two or more physical media links
Help improve a networks fault tolerance
Drawback
Can result in endless packet looping
Spanning Tree Protocol (SP)
A layer 2 link management protocol designed to prevent looping on
bridges and switches
The specification for STP is IEEE 802.1d
STP uses the Spanning Tree Algorithm (STA)
To interrupt the logical loop created by a physical loop in a
bridged/switched environment
STP does this by ensuring that certain ports on some of the bridges and
switches do not forward frames
Building a logical path
Switches and bridges on a network use an election process to configure
a single logical path
First, a root bridge (root device) is selected
Then, the other switches and bridges configure their ports, using the root
bridge as a point of reference
Bridges use STP to transfer the information about each bridges
MAC address and priority number
Bridge protocol data units (BPDU) or configuration bridge
protocol data units (CBPDU)
The messages the devices send to one another
Each bridge or switch determines which of its own ports offers the
best path to the root bridge
Root ports
The BPDU messages are sent between the root bridge and the best ports
on the other devices
If BPDUs are not received for a certain period of time
The non-root-bridge devices will assume that the root bridge has failed,
and a new root bridge will be elected
Once the root bridge is determined and the switches and bridges
have calculated their paths to the root bridge
The logical loop is removed by one of the switches or bridges
Port states
STP will cause the ports on a switch or bridge to settle into a stable state
Stable states
The normal operating states of ports when the root bridge is available
and all paths are functioning as expected
Transitory states
Prevent logical loops during a period of transition from one root bridge
to another
The stable states are as follows:
Blocking
Forwarding
Disabled
The transitory states are as follows:
Listening
Learning
STP devices use the transitory states on ports while a new root
bridge is being elected
Ports on STP-enabled devices move through the different states as
indicated in the following list:
From bridge/switch bootup to blocking
From blocking to listening (or to disabled)
From listening to learning (or to disabled)
From learning to forwarding (or to disabled)
From forwarding to disabled
Topology changes
When the topology is changed, STP-enabled devices react automatically
If a device in an STP-enabled network stops receiving CBPDUs, then that
device will claim to be the root bridge
Will begin sending CBPDUs describing itself as such
Per-VLAN STP (PVSTP)
Operates on VLANs and treats all VLANs connected as separate physical
networks
Spanning Tree PortFast
Allows you to configure a switch to bypass some of the latency (delay)
Associated with the switch ports transitioning through all of the STP transitory
states before they reach the forwarding state
Configuring STP
See Table 13-1
Rapid STP (RSTP) 802.1w
Takes the basis of 802.1d (STP) and incorporates some additional
features (such as portfast) that overcome some of the flaws of STP
Virtual LAN (VLAN)
A grouping of network devices that is not restricted to a physical
segment or switch
Can be configured on most switches to restructure broadcast domains
Broadcast domain
Group of network devices that will receive LAN broadcast traffic from
each other
Management VLAN (also known as the default VLAN)
By default, every port on a switch is in VLAN 1
You can create multiple VLANs on a single switch
Or even create one VLAN across multiple switches
A VLAN is a layer 2 implementation, and does not affect layer 3
logical addressing
Benefits:
Ease of adding and moving stations on the LAN
Ease of reconfiguring the LAN
Better traffic control
Increased security
VLANs help to reduce the cost of moving employees from one
location to another
Many changes can be made at the switch
Physical moves do not necessitate the changing of IP addresses and
subnets
Because the administrator can set the size of the broadcast domain
The VLAN gives the administrator added control over network traffic
Dividing the broadcast domains into logical groups increases
security
Requires a hacker to perform the difficult feat of tapping a network port
and then figuring out the configuration of the LAN
VLANs can be configured by network administrators to allow
membership only for certain devices
Static VLANs
Configured port-by-port, with each port being associated with a
particular VLAN
The network administrator manually types in the mapping for each port
and VLAN
Dynamic VLAN
Ports can automatically determine their VLAN configuration
Uses a software database of MAC address-to-VLAN mappings that is
created manually
Dynamic VLAN could prove to be more time-consuming than the
static VLAN
Dynamic VLAN allows the network administration team to keep the
entire administrative database in one location
On a dynamic VLAN, moving a cable from one switch port to another
is not a problem
Because the VLAN will automatically reconfigure its ports on the basis of
the attached workstations MAC address
Before VLAN was an IEEE standard
Early implementations depended on the switch vendor and on a method
known as frame filtering
Frame filtering
Complex process that involved one table for each VLAN
Had a master table that was shared by all VLANs
The IEEE 802.1q specification that defines VLANs recommends
frame tagging
Also known as frame identification
Frame tagging
Involves adding a four-byte field to the actual Ethernet frame to identify
the VLAN and other pertinent information
Makes it easier and more efficient to ship VLAN frames across network
backbones
Switches on the other side of the backbone can simply read the frame instead
of being required to refer back to a frame-filtering table
The two most common types of frame tagging (encapsulation) are
802.1q and Inter-Switch Link (ISL) protocol
You can create VLANs by entering the (config-vlan)# mode and
using the VLAN command
Or you can enter the VLAN database and use the VLAN configuration
mode
To use the config-vlan mode, you type the following:
Rm410HL(config)#VLAN 2
Rm410HL(config-vlan)name production
To use the VLAN configuration mode, you start by entering the VLAN
database
The next step is to assign switch ports to the new VLANs
Ports can be assigned as static or dynamic
To remove a VLAN, use the no parameter:
Rm410HL(config)#no vlan 2
Two types of links are on Cisco switches: trunk links and access
links
Trunk links
Switch-to- switch or switch-to-router links that can carry traffic from
multiple VLANs
Access links
Links to non-VLAN-aware devices such as hubs and individual
workstations
You choose from five different states for a trunk link:
Auto
Desirable
Nonegotiate
Off
On
To configure a trunk link on a Catalyst 2950, you must be in the
appropriate interface configuration mode
Switch interface descriptions
You can configure a name for each port on a switch
This is useful when you begin to define roles for a switch port on a more
global basis
VLAN trunking protocol (VTP)
Created by Cisco to manage all of the configured VLANs that traverse
trunks between switches
A layer 2 messaging protocol that manages all the changes to the VLANs
across networks
VTP domains
VTP devices are organized into domains
Each switch can only be in one VTP domain at a time
All devices that need to share information must be in the same VTP domain
VTP device modes
Server
Device can add, rename, and delete VLANs and propagate those changes to the
rest of the VTP devices
Client
Device is not allowed to make changes to the VLAN structure, but it can receive,
interpret, and propagate changes made by a server
Transparent
A device is not participating in VTP communications, other than to forward that
information through its configured trunk links
VTP pruning option
Reduces the number of VTP updates that traverse a link
Off by default on all switches
If you turn VTP pruning on
VTP message broadcasts are only sent through trunk links that must have
the information
VLAN 1 is not eligible to be pruned because it is an administrative
(and default) VLAN
Important considerations:
If you insert a hub into a port on the switch and then connect several
devices to the hub, all the systems attached to that hub will be in the
same VLAN
If you must move a single workstation that is attached to a hub with
several workstations, you will have to physically attach the device to
another hub or switch port to change its VLAN assignment
The more hosts that are attached to individual switch ports, the greater
the microsegmentation and flexibility the VLAN can offer
Routers can be used with VLANs to increase security
Must be used to manage traffic between different VLANs
Routers can implement access lists
Which increase inter-VLAN security
A router allows restrictions to be placed on station addresses,
application types, and protocol types
Router can either be an onboard Route Switch Module (RSM) or
an external router
The router will accept the frame tagged by the sending VLAN and
determine the best path to the destination address
The router will then switch the packet to the appropriate interface and
forward it to the destination address
Router-on-a-stick
If a single link is used to connect an external router with the switch
containing multiple VLANs
Trunking is required for inter-VLAN routing
Trunking is the process of using either ISL or 802.1q to allow
multiple VLAN traffic on the same link
For instance, an ISL trunk link would encapsulate each packet with the
associated VLAN information and allow the router to route the packet
accordingly
The Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) allows administrators to create
physical loops between bridges and switches
Without creating logical loops that would pose a problem for packet
delivery
The Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP) has enhanced STP to
reduce the latency associated with convergence
Implementing VLANs via switches provides another way to
increase the performance, flexibility, and security of a network
VLANs are separate broadcast domains that are not limited by
physical configurations
Performance benefits associated with VLANs are derived from
limiting the amount of broadcast traffic that would naturally pass
through a switch without filtration
Because traffic on a VLAN broadcast can be limited to a specific
group of computers, security is also enhanced by making it more
difficult for eavesdropping systems to learn the configuration of a
network
VLAN information is communicated to switches using the VLAN
trunking protocol (VTP)
T-carrier
North America, Japan
E-carrier
Europe, Mexico, South America
PCM PCM PCM
PCM PCM PCM
MUX
DEMUX
DS-1 frame
T - CARRIER
DSI
DSIC
DS2
DS3
DS4
DSIC
DS2 DS2 DS2 DS2 DS2 DS2
DS3 DS3 DS3 DS3 DS3
DSI
Two 1.544 Mbps DS1 channels are multiplexed into a
single 3.152 Mbps DS1C channel
Two DS1C channels are multiplexed into a single
6.312 Mbps DS2 channel
Seven DS2 channels
are multiplexed into a
single 44.736 Mbps DS3
channel
Six DS3 channels are multiplexed into a single
274.176 Mbps DS4 channel
E1-FRAME
0 1 2 16 31
125 ms = 32 time slots = 2.048 Mbps
frame synchronization
signaling channel
30 voice channel+2 control
channel
E - CARRIER
E1 E1 E1 E1
E2 E2 E2 E2
E3 E3 E3 E3
E4 E4 E4 E4
E5
Thirty 64 kbps channels are multiplexed to
create one 2.048 Mbps E1 channel
Four E1 channels are multiplexed into a single
8.448 Mbps E2 channel
Four E2 channels are multiplexed into a
single 34.368 Mbps E3 channel
Four E3 channels are
multiplexed into a single 139.264
Mbps E4 channel
Four E4 channels are multiplexed into a single 565.148
Mbps E5 channel
DIGITAL CARRIER COMPARISON
2.048 8.448 34.368 139.264 564.992
1.544 6.312 44.736 274.176
1.544 6.312 32.064 97.728 397.200
64
J1
E1
T1
J2
E2
T2
J3
E3
T3
J4
E4
T4
J5
E5 x31
x24
x24
x 4
x 4
x 4
x 4
x 7
x 5
x 4
x 6
x 3
x 4
x 4
Europ
e
USA
Japan
PDH
Digital tramsmission systems (T-carrier, E carrier) combine lower
order multiplex stream to get higher bit rate
Different streams have small differences in clock signals.
Solve by adding justification bit
PDH = Plesiochronous Digital Hierachy
almost synchronous
PDH DEFICIENCIES (I)
140 M
LTE
140
34
34
8
8
2
140
34
34
8
8
2
140 M
LTE
34 Mbps
8 Mbps
2 Mbps
Customer site
Lack of flexibility
impossible to identify a lower bit rate channel from the higher-order
bit stream.
demux the high bit
rate down to the lower level
remux back into higher
level for onward transmission
Extraction of 2 Mbps channel from 140 Mbps channel
PDH DEFICIENCIES (I)
140 M
LTE
140
34
34
8
8
2
140
34
34
8
8
2
140 M
LTE
34 Mbps
8 Mbps
2 Mbps
Customer site
Lack of flexibility
impossible to identify a lower bit rate channel from the higher-order
bit stream.
demux the high bit
rate down to the lower level
remux back into higher
level for onward transmission
Extraction of 2 Mbps channel from 140 Mbps channel
PDH DEFICIENCIES (II)
Lack of performance
No standard for monitoring the performance of traffic channel
No management channel
PDH DEFICIENCIES (III)
Lack of id-Fibre meet
undefined interface specification on the line side of a line
transmission
LTE
G.703
interface
non standard
line code and
optical levels
standard Network
Node Interface (NNI)
functional integration
of MUX and LTE
PDH
SDH
SDH & SONET
What is SDH/SONET ?
Standard interface developed for using in the public network
multiplexing standard for optical fiber transmission
SONET = Synchronous Optical Network
refers to the system used within the U.S. and Canada
SDH = Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
international community term (ITU-T recommendtions)
Goals
make it possible for different carrier to interwork
unify the U.S., European and Japanese digital system
Provide a way to multiplex multiple digital signal togethers
provide support for operations, administration, and maintenace
Characteristics
use single master clock to synchronize
Bit stream can be a added or extracted directly
Basic transmission rate = 155.52 Mbps
SIGNALING RATES
SONET SDH Bit rate (Mbps)
STS-1/OC-1 51.84
STS-3/OC-3 STM-1 155.52
STS-9/OC-9 STM-3 466.56
STS-12/OC-12 STM-4 622.08
STS-18/OC-18 STM-6 933.12
STS-24/OC-24 STM-8 1244.16
STS-36/OC-36 STM-12 1866.24
STS-48/OC-48 STM-16 2488.32
STS = Synchronous Transport Signal
OC = Optical Carrier
STM = Synchronous Transport Module
SYNCHRONOUS CONTAINER
Each PDH stream is carried
in an appropiate container
container
1.5 Mbps
2 Mbps 6 Mbps
PDH signal
1.5 Mbps 2 Mbps 6 Mbps
virtual
container
Path overhead for
monitoringpurpose
Objectives
Upon completion of this course, you will be able to:
Understand the basic of SDH multiplexing
standard
Know the features, applications and advantages
of SDH based equipment
References
SDH Principle Manual
ITU-T G.701, G.702, G.707
Content
1.SDH Overview
2. Frame Structure & Multiplexing Methods
3.Overheads & Pointers
SDH Principle
What is SDH?
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
It defines a standard frame structure, a specific
multiplexing method, and so on.
l Why did SDH emerge?
p Need for a system to process increasing amounts of
information.
p New standard that allows interconnecting equipment
of different suppliers.
SDH is the abbreviation of Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy.
SDH is a transmission system (protocol)
which defines the characteristic of digital
signals, including frame structure,
multiplexing method, digital rates hierarchy,
and interface code pattern, and so on.
ADVANTAGES OF SDH
l Interfaces
p PDH electrical interfaces
n Only 3 regional standards:
European (2.048 Mb/s),
Japanese, North American
(1.544 Mb/s)
p PDH optical interfaces
n No standards,
manufacturers develop at
their will.
p SDH electrical interfaces
n Universal standards
p SDH optical interfaces
n Can be connected to
different vendors optical
transmission equipments.
As PDH system adopts asynchronous multiplexing method, the locations of the low-rate signals are not
regular nor fixed when they are multiplexed into higher-rate signals. That is to say, the locations of the lower
signals are unable to be identified from the higher speed signals. Therefore, low-rate signals can not be
directly added/dropped from PDH high-rate signals. For example, 2Mb/s signals can not be directly
added/dropped from 140Mb/s signals. Here arise two problems:
Adding/dropping low-rate signals from high-rate signals must be conducted level by level. This not only
enlarges the size and increases cost, power consumption and complexity of equipment, but also
decreases the reliability of the equipment.
Since adding/dropping low-rate signals to high-rate ones must go through many stages of multiplexing
and de-multiplexing, impairment to the signals during multiplexing/de-multiplexing processes will
increase and transmission performance will deteriorate. This is unbearable in large capacity transmission.
That's the reason why the transmission rate of PDH system has not being improved further.
No universal network management interface in PDH system
Different parts of the network may use different network management systems, which are obstacles in
forming an integrated telecommunication management system (TMN).
140 Mb/s
34 Mb/s
34 Mb/s
8 Mb/s
8 Mb/s
2 Mb/s
140 Mb/s
Not suitable for huge-volume transmission
Headache for network planners
More equipment to achieve this functionality
More equipment More floor space
More power More costs
Demultiplexers Multiplexers
Multiplexing methods: Level by level
DISADVANTAGES OF PDH
As low-rate SDH signals are multiplexed into the frame structure of high-rate SDH signals via byte
interleaved multiplexing method, their locations in the frame of high-rate SDH signal are fixed and regular,
or say, predictable. Therefore, low-rate SDH signals, e.g. 155Mb/s, (Synchronous Transport Module STM-
1 ), can be directly added to or dropped from high-rate signals, e.g., 2.5Gb/s (STM-16 ). This simplifies the
multiplexing and de-multiplexing processes of signals and makes SDH hierarchy especially suitable for
high rate and large capacity optical fiber transmission systems.
As synchronous multiplexing method and flexible mapping structure are employed, PDH low-rate
tributary signals (e.g., 2Mb/s ) can also be multiplexed into SDH signal frame (STM-N). Their locations in
STM-N frame are also predictable. So low-rate tributary signals can be directly added to or dropped from
STM-N signals. Note that this is different from the above process of directly adding/dropping low-rate SDH
signals to/from high-rate SDH signals. Here it refers to direct adding/dropping of low-rate tributary
signals, such as 2Mb/s, 34Mb/s, and 140Mb/s, to/from SDH signals. This saves lots of multiplexing/de-
multiplexing equipment (back-to-back equipment), enhances reliability, and reduces signal impairment,
and the cost, power consumption and complexity of the equipment. Adding/dropping of services is
further simplified.
ADVANTAGES OF SDH
Lower rate SDH to higher rate SDH
(STM-1 STM-4 STM-16 STM-64)
4:1
STM-1
A
STM-1
B
STM-1
C
STM-1
D
A
B
D
C
B
A
D
C
B
A

STM-4
One Byte
from STM-1
B
--- Synchronous multiplexing method and
flexible mapping structure
--- Multistage pointer to align PDH loads
in SDH frame, thus, dynamic drop-and-
insert capabilities
What about PDH?
l Multiplexing methods: byte interleaved
As low-rate SDH signals are multiplexed into the frame structure of high-rate SDH signals via byte
interleaved multiplexing method, their locations in the frame of high-rate SDH signal are fixed and regular,
or say, predictable. Therefore, low-rate SDH signals, e.g. 155Mb/s, (Synchronous Transport Module STM-
1 ), can be directly added to or dropped from high-rate signals, e.g., 2.5Gb/s (STM-16 ). This simplifies the
multiplexing and de-multiplexing processes of signals and makes SDH hierarchy especially suitable for
high rate and large capacity optical fiber transmission systems.
As synchronous multiplexing method and flexible mapping structure are employed, PDH low-rate
tributary signals (e.g., 2Mb/s ) can also be multiplexed into SDH signal frame (STM-N). Their locations in
STM-N frame are also predictable. So low-rate tributary signals can be directly added to or dropped from
STM-N signals. Note that this is different from the above process of directly adding/dropping low-rate SDH
signals to/from high-rate SDH signals. Here it refers to direct adding/dropping of low-rate tributary
signals, such as 2Mb/s, 34Mb/s, and 140Mb/s, to/from SDH signals. This saves lots of multiplexing/de-
multiplexing equipment (back-to-back equipment), enhances reliability, and reduces signal impairment,
and the cost, power consumption and complexity of the equipment. Adding/dropping of services is
further simplified.
l OAM function
p PDH
n In the frame structure of
PDH signals, there are
few overhead bytes used
for OAM.
n Weak OAM function
p SDH
n Abundant overheads
bytes for OAM
n Remote & Centralized
Management
n Fast circuit provisioning
from centralized point
PDH OAM function
In the frame structure of PDH signals, there are few overhead bytes used for operation, administration
and maintenance (OAM). The fact that few overhead bytes are used for the OAM of PDH signals is also a
disadvantage for layered management, performance monitoring, real-time service dispatching,
bandwidth control, and alarm analyzing and locating of the transmission network.
SDH OAM function
Abundant overhead bits for operation, administration and maintenance (OAM) functions are arranged
in the frame structures of SDH signals. This greatly enforces the network monitoring function, i.e.
automatic maintenance. Some redundancy bits must be added during line coding for line performance
monitoring because few overhead bytes are arranged in PDH signals. For example, in the frame
structure of PCM30/32 signals, only the bits in TS0 and TS16 time slots are used for OAM function.
The abundant overheads in SDH signals account for 1/20 of the total bytes in a frame. It greatly
enhances the OAM function and reduces the cost of system maintenance that occupies most of the
overall cost of telecommunication equipments. The overall cost of SDH system is less than that of PDH
system and estimated to be only 65.8% of that of the later.
Processing
PDH ATM SDH Ethernet
Pack
SDH Network
Processing
PDH ATM SDH Ethernet
Transmit
Receive
Container
STM-N
STM-N
Container
Service Signal Flow Model
Unpack
l Compatibility
SDH has high compatibility, which means that the SDH transmission network and the existing PDH
transmission network can work together while establishing SDH transmission network. SDH network
can be used for transmitting PDH services, as well as signals of other hierarchies, such as
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) signals and FDDI signals.
How does the SDH transmission network achieve such compatibility? The basic transport module
(STM-1) of SDH signals in SDH network can accommodate three PDH digital signal hierarchies and
other hierarchies such as ATM, FDDI and DQDB. This reflects the forward and backward
compatibility of SDH and guarantees smooth transitions from PDH to SDH network and from SDH to
ATM.
How does SDH accommodate signals of these hierarchies? It simply multiplexes the low-rate signals
of different hierarchies into the frame structure of the STM-1 signals at the boundary of the network
(e.g. SDH/PDH start point) and then de-multiplexes them at the boundary of the network (end point).
In this way, digital signals of different hierarchies can be transmitted in the SDH transmission
network.
COMPARISON BETWEEN SDH AND PDH
l Low bandwidth utilization ratio
p In PDH, E4 signal (140Mbits/s) can contain 64 E1 signals.
p In SDH, STM-1 (155 Mbits/s) can only carry 63 E1 signals.
l Complex mechanism of pointer justification
l Influence of excessive use of software on system security
Low bandwidth utilization ratio
One significant advantage of SDH is that system reliability is greatly enhanced (highly automatic OAM) since
many overhead bytes for OAM function are employed in SDH signals. To transmit the same amount of valid
information, PDH signals occupy less frequency bandwidth (transmission rate) than SDH signals, i.e. PDH signals
use lower rate. In other words, STM-1 occupies a frequency bandwidth larger than that needed by PDH E4 signals
(they have the same amount of information).
Complex mechanism of pointer justification
The pointer constantly indicates the location of low-rate signals so that specific low-rate signals can be properly
de-multiplexed in time of "unpacking". However, the pointer function increases the complexity of the system. Most
of all, it generates a kind of special jitter in SDH system ---- a combined jitter caused by pointer justification. This
jitter will deteriorate the performance of low-rate signals being de-multiplexed.
Influence of excessive use of software on system security
One of the features of SDH is its highly automatic OAM, which means that software constitutes a large proportion in
the system. As a result, SDH system is vulnerable to computer viruses, manual mis-operation and software fault on
network layer.
Item Description
Alarm name R_LOS
Full name Receive loss of signal
Alarm level Critical
Causes
(1) Fiber broken;
(2) Too much attenuation on the line;
(3) Opposite end laser damaged, line transmission failed;
Handling
(1) Generally, it is due to broken fiber, too much fiber attenuation, board failure, etc.
(2) Check whether the optical cable is intact and the optical connector is in good contact.
Clean the optical cable connector.
(3) If the receiving optical power is overloaded, add an attenuator.
(4) If the board is faulty, replace it.
Item Description
Alarm name R_LOF
Full name Receive loss of frame
Alarm level Critical
Causes
1) Too much attenuation from the receiving signal;
(2) Transmitting signal of opposite end has no frame;
(3) Fault in devices of the receiving direction
Handling
(1) Check whether the fiber is intact.
(2) Check whether the connector of the fiber is in good contact and
clean the connector of
the fiber.
(3) If the board is faulty, replace it.
Item Description
Alarm name R_OOF
Full name Receive out of frame
Alarm level Critical
Causes
(1) Too much attenuation from the receiving signal;
(2) Excessive bit error in transmission process;
(3) Fault in the transmission direction of the opposite end;
(4) Fault in devices of the receiving direction
Handling
1) Generally, it is due to broken fiber, too much fiber attenuation,
board failure, etc.
(2) Check whether the optical cable is intact and the optical
connector is in good contact.
Clean the optical cable connector.
(3) If the receiving optical power is overloaded, add an attenuator.
(4) If the board is faulty, replace it.
Item Description
Alarm name EXT_SYNC_LOS
Full name Loss of external synchronous source
Alarm level Critical
Causes (1) Signal of External synchronous clock source lost.
Handling
(1) Check whether the input cable of external clock is connected
properly;
(2) Check whether the equipment which provides external clock is
working normally.
Item Description
Alarm name TF
Full name Laser failure
Alarm level Critical
Causes Fault in laser of this board.
Handling
1) Reset or swap the board;
(2) Replace the faulty board.
Item Description
Alarm name HARD_BAD
Full name Hardware fails
Alarm level Critical
Causes Hardware failure.
Handling Changed Faulty Hardware .
Item Description
Alarm name AU_AIS
Full name
AU alarm indication(Alarm Indication Signal)
Alarm level Major
Causes
(1) Received AU-AIS signal of opposite end;
(2) Fault in transmitting part of opposite end;
(3) Fault in receiving part of this station.
Handling
(1) MS_AIS, R_LOS and R_LOF alarms of the home station trigger AU_AIS
alarm in the
corresponding VC-4 path.
(3) Replace the corresponding cross-connect board and line board of the
opposite station.
(4) Replace the line board and cross-connect board at the home station.
Item Description
Alarm name MS_AIS
Full name Multiplex section alarmindication signal
Alarm level Major
Causes
(1) Received MS-AIS signal of opposite end;
(2) No clock or signal (internal) of opposite end;
(3) Fault in receiving part of this station.
Handling
(1) Check whether the line board of the opposite station fails. Reset
or replace the board to
check whether the alarm disappears.
(2) Check the line board of the home station. Reset or replace the
board to check whether
the alarm disappears.
Item Description
Alarm name HP_RDI
Full name Higher order path remote defect indication
Alarm level Minor
Causes
(1) Opposite end received AU-AIS/AULOP signal;
(2) Fault in receiving part of opposite end;
(3) Fault in transmitting part of this station.
Handling
(1) Check the corresponding path of the line board at the
opposite station for AU-AIS and
AU-LOP alarms. If it has the alarm, process it. After
processing, HP-RDI alarm should
disappear.
(2) If the opposite station has no alarm or after the
corresponding alarm stops, HP-RDL
alarm still continues, it can be decided that the board fails,
and replace the board.
Item Description
Alarm name BD_STATUS
Full name Board not in position alarm
Alarm level Major
Causes
(1) Not install board;
(2) Jack of board becomes loose;
Handling
(1) Check whether the board is in position;
(2) Swap the faulty board, if the problem remains, replace the
board;
(3) If the alarm occurs in multiple boards of the same NE, Unplug
all the boards
and then plug them one by one, so as to find the faulty board and
replace it.
Item Description
Alarm name HP_UNEQ
Full name No loading error in the higher order path
Alarm level Minor
Causes The value of C2 Byte is 0.
Handling
Check whether the C2 byte is correctly configured. If it wrongly
configured, modify and
re-send the configuration. If it is correctly configured, it can be
determined that the board
fails. Replace the board.
R_LOF alarm indicates receive loss of frame,

Probable Causes:
The received signal attenuation is excessive.
There is no frame structure in the signal from the opposite
station.
The receiver of the board fails.
Item Description
Alarm name MS_RDI
Full name Multiplex section remote defect indication
Alarm level Minor
Causes
(1) Opposite end received LOS/LOF/MS-AIS signal;
(2) Fault in receiving part of opposite end;
(3) Fault in transmitting part of this station.
Handling
(1) Check whether there are R-LOS, R-LOF and MS-AIS alarms on the line
board of the
opposite station. If there are, remove them. Then the MS-RDI alarm at the
home station
should disappear.
(2) If there is no alarm or MS-RDI alarm still exists after the corresponding
alarms
disappear, it can be decided that the board is failed. Replace it.
(3) Fiber cut seldom happens, because this alarm can only occur when the
transmitting
fiber is broken, while the receiving fiber of the home station is intact. If the
transmitting/receiving fibers are all broken, MS-RDI alarm can not be
returned to the home
station.
Item Description
Alarm name HP_REI
Full name Higher order path remote error indication
Alarm level Prompt
Causes Opposite end received B3 error
Handling
(1) Check whether the opposite station has B3 bit errors. If yes, and at the same time alarms
B1 and B2 occur, it is usually due to excessive line attenuation or optical interface board
failure.
(2) If only a few B3 bit errors appear at the remote, generally, it is not caused by optical path
failure, while it is often the problem of the equipment itself. It is necessary to check whether
the cross-connect board and tributary board on the opposite equipment are normal.
(3) Check whether the cross-connect board and tributary board at the home station are
normal.
(4) Check whether the equipment is well grounded or there is a great interference source
near the equipment.