Purchase intention for luxury brands: A cross cultural comparison

Qin Bian, Sandra Forsythe

Department of Consumer Affairs, College of Human Science, Auburn University, 308 Spidle Hall, Auburn, AL 36849, United States
a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 1 June 2010
Received in revised form 1 February 2011
Accepted 1 September 2011
Available online 27 December 2011
Keywords:
Luxury brands
Individual characteristics
Social-function attitude
Purchase intention
Cross-cultural
This cross-cultural study examines the effects of individual characteristics (i.e., consumers' need for unique-
ness and self-monitoring) and brand-associated variables (i.e., social-function attitudes toward luxury brands
and affective attitude) on U.S. and Chinese consumers' purchase intention for luxury brands. A total of 394
college students in U.S. and China participated in the survey. Using structural equation modeling (SEM),
this study nds that U.S. and Chinese consumers' self-monitoring positively inuences social-function atti-
tudes toward luxury brands. Social-function attitudes toward luxury brands positively inuence consumers'
purchase intention through affective attitude. Attitude plays an important mediating role between social-
function attitudes toward luxury brands and purchase intentions. The article closes with theoretical and prac-
tical implications.
2011 Published by Elsevier Inc.
1. Introduction
Luxury brands represent substantial consumer product sales
worldwide; global sales of high-end apparel, accessories, watches
and jewelry, and other products are projected to rise to 170 billion
Euros ($236 billion) in 2009 (Roberts, 2010). Major markets for luxu-
ry brands are no longer limited to developed countries in the West,
but have expanded to new rich markets in the East (Sherman,
2009). However, the factors driving luxury brand purchase behavior
among consumers in individualistic versus collectivist cultures differ
considerably. Because a clear understanding of the factors that inu-
ence consumers to purchase luxury brands is necessary to inform
marketing strategies for global luxury brands, understanding how
consumers' underlying motivations to purchase luxury brands differ
by culture and what accounts for those differences is important.
Most studies on cultural comparison are limited to examining the
impact of cultural differences on purchase intention for luxury brands
(Li & Su, 2007; Wong & Ahuvia, 1998). The current study responds to
Wilcox, Kim, and Sen's (2009) call for research into the relationship
between attitude and cultural identity both within and across cul-
tures, aiming at a richer understanding of purchase intention forma-
tion for luxury brands by examining how need for uniqueness, self-
monitoring, social-function attitudes, and affective attitude impact
purchase intentions for luxury brands among consumers in Eastern
and Western cultures. The U.S. and China, two major luxury brand
markets, are good examples of individualistic and collectivist cul-
tures, respectively, and thus, may differ considerably with respect to
motivation to purchase luxury brands.
By examining cross cultural differences in consumers' underlying
motivations to purchase luxury brands, this study contributes to the
literature on the role of need for uniqueness, self-monitoring, social-
functional attitudes, and affective attitude on consumers' purchase
intention in two different cultures (collectivist versus individualist).
Findings support the functional theory of attitude showing that atti-
tudes serve important social-functions as they impact both affect
and behavior. This study also shows that emotions are linked to cen-
tral attitudes and play an important role in purchase intention forma-
tion. Furthermore, the ndings expand previous research and theory
development by examining purchase intention formation for luxury
brands across cultures.
These ndings also provide important implications for luxury
brands' branding strategies both within and across cultures. Only by
understanding the underlying purchase motivations among con-
sumers in each market segment can marketers most effectively ap-
peal to those motivations in their marketing campaigns.
2. Conceptual background
Luxury brands provide consumers with a sense of indulgence and
are expensive for the individual (Nueno & Quelch, 1998). Although
luxury brands possess characteristics of premium quality, a heritage
of craftsmanship, recognizable style, premium price, uniqueness,
and global reputation (Nueno & Quelch, 1998), consumers buy luxury
brands primarily for symbolic reasons to reect their individual or
Journal of Business Research 65 (2012) 14431451
The authors thank Wi-Suk Kwon and Sang-Eun Byun, Department of Consumer
Affairs, College of Human Science, Auburn University, for their helpful comments on
an earlier version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 334 844 6458.
E-mail addresses: cindy.qbian@yahoo.com (Q. Bian), forsysa@auburn.edu
(S. Forsythe).
0148-2963/$ see front matter 2011 Published by Elsevier Inc.
doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.10.010
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Journal of Business Research
social goals (Wilcox et al., 2009). However, perceptions of luxury
brands are not consistent across market segments, because luxury is
a subjective concept (Phau & Prendergast, 2000) that depends on
each consumer's perception of indulgent value.
Consumption of luxury brands is largely determined by social-
function attitudes (i.e. self-expression attitude and self-presentation
attitude) as consumers express their individuality (e.g., need for
uniqueness) and exhibit their social standing (e.g., self monitoring)
through luxury brands (Wilcox et al., 2009). Consumers in both
Western and Eastern cultures seek to purchase luxury brands to por-
tray their individuality and/or social standing (Nueno & Quelch, 1998;
Vigneron & Johnson, 2004).
Luxury brands' distinctive image, along with their scarcity value,
can meet consumers' need for uniqueness (Vigneron & Johnson,
2004), thereby arousing a self-expression attitude (Katz, 1960). Fur-
thermore, the ability of luxury brands to symbolize social classica-
tions and group afliations can strengthen social image, arousing a
self-presentation attitude (Park, Rabolt, & Jeon, 2008; Snyder &
DeBono, 1985).
Regardless of whether consumption of luxury brands differs by
culture, underlying motivations to purchase the same luxury brand
may differ by culture. Those in collective societies are more closely
bound together sharing common values and norms such as emotional
predispositions, common interests, and mutually agreed upon social
practices (Etzioni, 1968). Therefore, people in collective societies
may perceive self in a depersonalized way through which individual
personalities are blurred (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell,
1987). Thus, collectivist consumers are likely to engage in more
self-monitoring and display a stronger self-presentation attitude to
portray their individuality and/or their social standing. By contrast,
people in individualist societies emphasize I consciousness, emotional
independence, and individual initiative (Hofstede, 1980) which may
strengthen their need for uniqueness and bolster their self-
expression attitude (c.f., Hofstede, 1991).
These largely cultural differences (between the U.S. and China)
suggest motivations to purchase luxury brands will differ for con-
sumers in these two cultures. For example, collectivism may result
in greater self-monitoring among Chinese consumers that will inten-
sify their self-presentation attitude and thus their desire for luxury
brands to enhance their self presentation. By contrast, individualism
may strengthen U.S. consumers' need for uniqueness and bolster
their self-expression attitude (c.f., Hofstede, 1991) prompting these
consumers to desire luxury brands to emphasize their individuality.
Both self-expression and self-presentation attitudes can lead to
affect one's feelings or emotions a powerful predictor of behavior.
In addition to the social-function of self-expression and self-
presentation attitudes, consumers choose luxury brands as a result
of their affective attitude (Batra, Ramaswamy, Alden, Steenkamp, &
Ramachander, 2000) because luxury brands provide hedonic rewards
and sensory fulllment (Vigneron & Johnson, 2004). Thus social-
function attitudes (self-expression and self-presentation attitude)
may impact purchase intentions either directly or indirectly through
affective attitude.
2.1. Theoretical framework
This study draws on the functional theory of attitude (Katz, 1960;
Shavitt, 1989; Smith, Bruner, & White, 1956), showing that attitudes
serve important social-functions such as facilitating self-expression
and self-presentation (DeBono, 1987; Grewal, Mehta, & Kardes,
2004; Katz, 1960; Shavitt, 1989). A self-expression attitude toward
luxury brands is dened as an orientation to respond toward luxury
brands so as to display individual identity and underlying values
(Shavitt, 1989) and communicate central beliefs (Katz, 1960; Wilcox
et al., 2009). A self-presentation attitude toward luxury brands is de-
ned as a predisposition to use luxury brands to convey social image
(Wilcox et al., 2009). Consumers may purchase a luxury brand be-
cause it reects their central values and beliefs (self-expression) or
because it reects the social image they wish to convey (self-presen-
tation) or both (Shavitt, 1989; Wilcox et al., 2009).
However, those central values and beliefs (self-expression and
self-presentation) probably differ for consumers in Eastern versus
Western cultures as reected in the growing interest in understand-
ing the inuence of culture on how people think, feel and behave
(e.g., Brewer & Chen, 2007). The inuence of individualism and col-
lectivism has received much attention as a fundamental dimension
of cultural variation inuencing consumer behavior; many published
studies in cross-cultural research cite individualism and collectivism
as at least a partial explanation for observed differences across cul-
tures (Hui & Yee, 1994). Although not without criticisms, the individ-
ualism versus collectivism framework for examining cross cultural
consumer behavior (typically attributed to Hofstede although the
concept predates that work) is supported by considerable research
over the past 30 years. An understanding of individualism and collec-
tivism is critical to better understand consumers' characteristics, atti-
tudes and behavior in a changing society.
The power of attitude is reected in both cognitive (what we think
and believe) and affective (what we feel and experience) responses
(Keller, 2001; Morris, Woo, Geason, & Kim, 2002; Petty, Wegener, &
Fabrigar, 1997). Both self-expression and self-presentation attitudes
reect consumers' cognitive responses toward luxury brands, given
that consumers attempt to communicate both their central beliefs
and social status through luxury brands. Consumers' affective attitude
also plays an important role in their cognitiveaffective purchase in-
tention formation (Kumar, Lee, & Kim, 2009; Lee, Kim, Pelton, Knight,
& Forney, 2008; Zajonc & Markus, 1982); this recognition is based on
the understanding that consumers are both rational and emotional
(Zajonc & Markus, 1982). Consumers' affective attitude toward luxury
brands is derived from the feelings generated by the luxury brands
(Sweeney & Soutar, 2001). Prior cognitiveaffective models suggest
that affect also impacts consumers' purchase intentions (Li, Monroe,
& Chan, 1994) and that affect has a stronger association with pur-
chase intention toward fashion products than cognition. For example,
affective attitude, but not cognition, positively inuences purchase in-
tentions for an apparel brand among both Mexican and Indian con-
sumers (Kumar et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2008). Affect may explain
why consumers are willing to pay a premium price for luxury brands
even though they can achieve equal functional benets through less
expensive non-luxury brands.
The theory of reasoned action is based on the assumption that in-
dividuals are rational and make systematic use of the information
available to them (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975); that is, the individual's
attitude affects a person's behavioral intention. Given that attitude
has a direct impact on intention toward a behavior (Eastlick & Lotz,
1999; Penz & Stottinger, 2005; Szymanski & Hise, 2000), both self-
expression attitude and self-presentation attitude toward luxury
brands predict purchase intentions for luxury brands.
This study examines (a) whether need for uniqueness is anteced-
ent to consumers' self-expression attitude toward luxury brands,
(b) whether self-monitoring is antecedent to self-presentation atti-
tude toward luxury brands, (c) and whether self-expression attitude
and self-presentation attitude impact affective attitude and purchase
intention for luxury brands either directly or indirectly through
their impact on affective attitude (Fig. 1).
3. Hypotheses
3.1. Need for uniqueness and self-expressive attitude
Need for uniqueness (NFU) may be thought of as an individual
characteristic to pursue brands and products to convey an individual
identity that will distinguish oneself from others (Tian, Bearden, &
1444 Q. Bian, S. Forsythe / Journal of Business Research 65 (2012) 14431451
Hunter, 2001). Because luxury brands are inherently scarce due to
their high price and restricted distribution, they can become a tool
to convey uniqueness (Fromkin, Olson, Dipboye, & Barnaby, 1971;
Snyder & Fromkin, 1980; Vigneron & Johnson, 2004). Furthermore,
luxury brands' recognizable designs visibly help to communicate con-
sumers' intrinsic values (Park et al., 2008).
Attitude toward luxury brands is a predisposition to respond to-
ward luxury brands in a specic way (Katz, 1960; Rosenberg, 1960;
Tsai, 2005). Self-expression attitudes toward luxury brands commu-
nicate central beliefs (Katz, 1960; Wilcox et al., 2009), thereby moti-
vating individuals to consume the luxury brand to express their
individual characteristics (Snyder & DeBono, 1985; Wilcox et al.,
2009). Therefore, NFU may inuence self-expression attitude toward
luxury brands.
H1a. NFU inuences self-expression attitude toward luxury brands.
3.2. Self-monitoring and self-presentation attitude
Self-monitoring, a sense that indicates what self presentation is
appropriate in a given situation (Snyder, 1974, 1979), governs an
individual's behaviors. Theoretically, self-monitoring is dened both
as the degree to which people can regulate their response to others
in social situations and also the extent to which people are sensitive
to social cues (Snyder, 1986; Snyder, Berscheid, & Matwychuk,
1988). High self-monitoring individuals are sensitive to social images
(Snyder, 1974) and tailor their behavior to t social norms (Lippa,
1976); thus, they may purchase luxury brands that convey the
desired image (Park et al., 2008; Snyder & DeBono, 1985).
Given that personal characteristics (such as self-monitoring)
shape attitude (Katz, 1960; Shavitt, 1989), self-monitoring likely in-
uences self-presentation attitude toward luxury brands.
H1b. Self-monitoring has a positive inuence on self-presentation
attitudes toward luxury brands.
3.3. Social-function attitudes and purchase intention
Intention toward a behavior is predicted by attitude (Fishbein &
Ajzen, 1975); therefore, social-function attitudes (self-expression at-
titude and self-presentation attitude) toward luxury brands are
expected to predict purchase intention for luxury brands. Consumers
with a salient self-expression attitude tend to buy real luxury brands
over fake ones because consumers who hold high self-expression at-
titudes tend to maximize the consistency between the products they
consume and their intrinsic beliefs and values (Wilcox et al., 2009).
Those consumers who desire self-expression seek luxury brands
that possess characteristics that reect their intrinsic values and be-
liefs. Building on the ndings of Wilcox et al. (2009), self-expression
attitude is expected to also predict purchase intentions for luxury
brands.
H2a. Self-expression attitude toward luxury brands inuences pur-
chase intentions for luxury brands positively.
Those who pay more attention to their image, self-presentation
consumers, are motivated to consume luxury brands because they
convey prestige, social hierarchy, and an upscale image (Grossman
& Shapiro, 1988; Nueno & Quelch, 1998; Shavitt, Lowrey, & Han,
1992; Wilcox et al., 2009). Extant research conrms that consumers'
self-presentation attitudes promote their purchase intentions toward
luxury brands as symbols of prosperity and social status (Park et al.,
2008) and that consumers who have a strong self-presentation atti-
tude buy premium brands for their symbolic value (Park & Young,
1986; Van Kempen, 2004).
H2b. Self-presentation attitude toward luxury brands has a positive
inuence on purchase intentions for luxury brands.
3.4. Social-function attitudes and affective attitude
Consumers develop a strong emotional attachment to brands that
are linked to central attitudes (Grewal et al., 2004). Affective attitude re-
ects emotional responses (Wood, 2000) and is derived fromfeelings or
experience such as joy and pleasure (Keller, 2001; Kumar et al., 2009;
Sweeney & Soutar, 2001). Consumers often respond favorably to luxury
brands that are perceived to be consistent with their values and goals
(e.g., self-expression and self-presentation) because they are guided by
their desire to maximize the consistency between their brands and
their attitudes (Snyder & DeBono, 1985). Thus, successful self-
presentation, by conveying one's status and garnering esteem,
strengthens the emotional rewards from possession and use of luxury
brands (Lee et al., 2008; Vigneron & Johnson, 2004). Likewise, self-
expression, which conveys individuality, strengthens the emotional re-
wards from luxury brands. Given that attitudes toward brands have a
positive impact on affective attitude (Kumar et al., 2009; Lee et al.,
2008), it is expected that social-function attitudes of self-expression
and self-presentation will have a positive impact on consumers' attitude
towardluxury brands (e.g., Kumar et al., 2009; Sweeney &Soutar, 2001).
H3a. Self-expression attitude toward luxury brands has a positive in-
uence on affective attitude.
H3b. Self-presentation attitude toward luxury brands has a positive
inuence on affective attitude.
3.5. Affective attitude and purchase intentions
Affective attitude associated with positive feelings derived from
using the brands predicts intention to purchase the brands in the
Self-expression
Attitude
Self-presentation
Attitude
Self-
Monitoring
Purchase
Intention
Need for
Uniqueness
Affective
Attitude
Fig. 1. Conceptual model.
1445 Q. Bian, S. Forsythe / Journal of Business Research 65 (2012) 14431451
future (Compeau, Grewal, & Monroe, 1998; Gobe, 2001; Gountas &
Gountas, 2007; Jang & Namkung, 2009; Sweeney & Soutar, 2001). Be-
cause luxury brands satisfy social-functions of attitudes, affective atti-
tude may be aroused. Affect has greater impact on intentions and
behaviors than cognition (Batra & Homer, 2004), which suggests
that affective attitude has a positive impact on purchase intentions
for luxury brands.
H4. Affective attitude has a positive impact on purchase intentions
for luxury brands.
3.6. Cultural difference in need for uniqueness
The locus of identity among individualists stress individual
uniqueness (Brewer & Chen, 2007), or need for uniqueness (NFU).
U.S. and Chinese consumers probably differ in NFU. Burns and
Brady (1992) nd that NFU varies for Western and Eastern cultures
in that U.S. students display NFU regardless of others' opinions or
ideas.
Thus, more individualistic U.S. consumers tend to have a greater
NFU than Chinese consumers who rely more heavily on interpersonal
relationships to dene the social norm and appropriate social
behaviors.
H5. U.S. consumers have a higher NFU than Chinese consumers.
3.7. Cultural differences in attitude and purchase intention
People in a collectivist society dene themselves in terms of social
identication and group value, seek collective interdependence, and
are obliged to conform to social norms (Brewer & Chen, 2007). Chi-
nese consumers may hold a stronger self-presentation attitude than
U.S. consumers. First, because Chinese culture places emphasis on col-
lective identity and maintenance of social group esteem (Hofstede,
1991; Li & Su, 2007), they emphasize public reputation through dis-
play of luxury brands (Wong & Ahuvia, 1998) and choose product
brands to maintain face (Li & Su, 2007). Second, Chinese consumers
regard individuals in the context of their relations with others. For ex-
ample, a Chinese man views himself as a son, a brother, a husband
and a father (Chu, 1985), therefore, the individual not only represents
one's own prestige but also that of one's family, relatives and friends
(Joy, 2001).
Thus, Chinese consumers tend to associate brands with prestige
and social hierarchy more than U.S. consumers do (Li & Su, 2007) be-
cause possession of luxury brands implies their position in society
and the reference group to which they belong.
H6. Self-presentation attitude has a stronger impact on (a) affective
attitude and (b) purchase intention among Chinese consumers than
among U.S. consumers.
Individualist consumers desire to emphasize individual unique-
ness and pursue self-actualization (Brewer & Chen, 2007; Hofstede,
1991; Li & Su, 2007). Thus, the individual consumer (not the group)
in an individualist culture represents the unit for social behavior
and prestige, which suggests that self-expression may be more im-
portant for U.S. consumers than for Chinese consumers. Because U.S.
consumers have a strong self-expression attitude that is highly asso-
ciated with affective attitude, it is expected that self-expression atti-
tude toward luxury brands will have greater impact on affective
attitude and purchase intentions for luxury brands among U.S. con-
sumers than Chinese consumers.
H7. Self-expression attitude has a stronger impact on (a) affective at-
titude and (b) purchase intention among U.S. consumers than Chi-
nese consumers.
4. Methods
4.1. Research design and sample
A survey of U.S. and Chinese students was conducted to collect
data to measure all constructs. The questionnaire was initially devel-
oped in English, then translated into Chinese and back translated into
English. The original and back-translated English questionnaires were
then compared and modied as necessary to eliminate discrepancies
between the two versions to verify the accuracy of the translation.
Participants were college students attending major public universities
in the Southeast U.S. and Shanghai, China. Students are an important
future market for luxury brands for several reasons: they represent a
major consumer group for apparel products, they have access to the
styles of celebrities, they are knowledgeable about luxury brands,
and they are establishing life-long buying patterns and loyalties.
Students in multiple classes in each university completed the self-
administered questionnaire. After removing incomplete question-
naires, a nal sample of 194 U.S. students and 200 Chinese students
remained. Sixty three percent of the total sample was female 54%
of the U.S. sample and 72% of the Chinese sample. The mean age
was 20 for the U.S. sample and 19 for the Chinese sample.
Participants listed their favorite luxury apparel and accessory
brands and used their favorite brand as a point of reference when an-
swering the brand-associated questions to avoid framing all re-
sponses with a single researcher chosen brand. Results show that
85% of the U.S. students had purchased one of their favorite luxury
brands compared to 31% of the Chinese students and that 95% of the
US students had browsed at their favorite luxury brand store com-
pared to 82% of the Chinese students. U.S. students report spending
more on luxury apparel and accessories 54% of the US students
compared to 29% of the Chinese students spend more than $50 dollars
per month on luxury apparel and accessories. Ralph Lauren Polo and
Coach are the most popular luxury brands among the U.S. students;
Louis Vuitton and Nike are the most popular luxury brands among
the Chinese students.
4.2. Construct measures
Measures for individual characteristics (i.e., NFU and self-
monitoring) and brand-associated variables (i.e., self-expression atti-
tude, self-presentation attitude, affective attitude and purchase inten-
tion) were rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly
disagree to strongly agree. NFU was measured by Tian et al.'s (2001)
scale measuring three dimensions of NFU creative choice counter-
conformity, unpopular choice counter-conformity and similarity
avoidance counter-conformity (Tables 1 and 2). Tian et al.'s (2001)
scale demonstrates good internal consistency reliability, testretest
reliability, discriminant validity and nomological validity. Lennox
and Wolfe's (1984) revised self-monitoring scale, which exhibits
good face validity and internal consistency, was used to measure
self-presentation attitude; Wilcox et al.'s (2009) value-expressive at-
titude and social-adjustive attitude scales were used to measure self-
expression attitude and self-presentation attitude toward luxury
brands; Sweeney and Soutar's (2001) emotional value scale was
used to measure affective attitude; and Dodds, Monroe, and Grewal's
(1991) intention to purchase scale was used to measure purchase
intention.
5. Results and discussion
The model examining U.S. and Chinese students' purchase inten-
tions for luxury brands consist of two exogenous variables (i.e. NFU
and self-monitoring) and four endogenous variables (i.e. self-
expression attitude toward luxury brands, self-presentation attitude
toward luxury brands, affective attitude and purchase intention
1446 Q. Bian, S. Forsythe / Journal of Business Research 65 (2012) 14431451
toward luxury brands). Hypotheses are tested using structural equa-
tion modeling (SEM). Parameters are estimated using the maximum
likelihood method. Data analysis, following the two-step approach
(Anderson & Gerbing, 1988), is used to validate the measurement
model and test the proposed hypotheses. The former is accomplished
primarily through conrmatory factor analysis (CFA); the structural
models displaying the relationships among the latent variables are
then analyzed to test the hypotheses. In addition, one-way multivar-
iate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) are used to test Hypotheses H5 through H7.
5.1. Measurement model
Before establishing the measurement models, exploratory factor
analysis (EFA) using principal component analysis with varimax rota-
tion is used to identify the factor structure of the observed variables
for U.S. and Chinese students separately. Researchers retain factors
with an eigenvalue greater than 1.00 for both U.S. and Chinese groups
and items with factor loading greater than 0.63 (Comrey & Lee, 1992).
Following Tian et al.'s (2001) study, the researchers assessed NFU as a
second-order factor structure with three rst-order dimensions: cre-
ative choice counter-conformity (3 items), unpopular choice counter-
conformity (2 items), and similarity avoidance counter-conformity (2
items) (Table 1). The measurement result for the second-order factor
model with the three rst-order dimensions is good:
2
(11)=20.08,
p=0.044,
2
/df ratio=1.83; GFI =0.98; CFI =0.98; RMSEA=0.05.
Mean scores for the three dimensions of NFU are then used as three
separate observed items for the NFU latent variable and tested again
using CFA to measure the construct. However, the CFA result shows
that unpopular choice is a poor measurement item for NFU because
of the low factor loadings (less than 0.50), so unpopular choice is
deleted from further study.
Examination of the EFA for self-expression attitude and self-
presentation attitude toward luxury brands show that Chinese stu-
dents do not discriminate between self-expression attitude and self-
presentation attitude toward luxury brands, requiring researchers to
merge these two constructs (self-expression attitude and self-
presentation attitude) as social-function attitudes, a rst-order con-
struct. CFA was then used to validate the measurement model con-
sisting of ve constructs measured by 21 observed items. No
standardized residuals are greater than 2.58, so no error items are
highly correlated (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004). The nal model of
ve constructs with the 21 observed items (Table 2) shows a fair
model t:
2
(179)=550.43, pb0.001,
2
/df ratio=3.08; IFI =0.93;
TLI =0.91; CFI =0.93; RMSEA=0.07. Given the known sensitivity of
the statistic to sample size, use of the
2
index provides little guid-
ance in inuencing the extent to which the model lacks t. Thus,
decisions are made on other indices of t (Byrne, 2010). The model
shows a fair t when the RMSEA is below 0.10 and the TLI (Tucker
Lewis index) are above 0.90 (McDonald & Ho, 2002).
The construct validities of the latent constructs are evaluated by
both convergent and discriminant validity. All composite reliabilities
Table 2
Scale items, factor loadings, t-value and reliability measures for each latent variable.
Latent constructs Scale items Factor
loading
t-value Composite
reliability
Need for uniqueness Creative choice 0.90 9.74

0.65
Similarity avoidance 0.55 7.93

Self monitoring Once I know what the situation calls for, it's easy for me to regulate my actions accordingly. 0.71 15.43

0.86
When I feel the image I am portraying isn't working, I can readily change it to something that does. 0.62 12.80

I have the ability to control the way I come across to people, depending on the impression I wish to give them. 0.74 16.43

In social situations, I have the ability to alter my behavior if I feel the need to do so. 0.74 16.31

I can usually tell when I've said something inappropriate by reading it in the listener's eyes. 0.80 18.34

I am often able to read people's true emotions correctly through their eyes. 0.64 13.54

Social-function attitudes This luxury brand reects the kind of person I see myself to be. 0.82 19.29

0.89
This luxury brand helps me communicate my self-identity. 0.67 14.51

This luxury brand helps me express myself. 0.74 16.46

This luxury brand is a symbol of social status. 0.75 17.04

This luxury brand helps me t into important social situations. 0.79 18.25

I like to be seen wearing this luxury brand. 0.72 15.87

Affective attitude This luxury brand would give me pleasure. 0.86 20.93

0.88
This luxury brand would make me feel good. 0.82 19.24

This luxury brand is one that I would enjoy. 0.85 20.34

Purchase intention If I were going to purchase a luxury product, I would consider buying this brand. 0.84 20.28

0.90
If I were shopping for a luxury brand, the likelihood I would purchase this luxury brand is high. 0.79 18.46

My willingness to buy this luxury brand would be high if I were shopping for a luxury brand. 0.89 22.13

The probability I would consider buying this luxury brand is high. 0.81 19.20

Signicant at pb0.001.
Table 1
CFA factor loadings for NFU as a second-order variable.
Second-order factor Items for rst-order factors Factor
loading
Cronbach's
alpha
Need for uniqueness Creative 0.75 0.77
I'm often on the lookout for new products or brands that will add to my personal uniqueness 0.67
Having an eye for products that are interesting and unusual assists me in establishing a distinctive image. 0.81
I often try to nd a more interesting version of run-of-the-mill products because I enjoy being original 0.71
Unpopular 0.61 0.67
I often dress unconventionally even when it's likely to offend others. 0.75
If someone hinted that I had been dressing inappropriately for a social situation, I would continue dressing in the same manner. 0.67
Similarity 0.83 0.79
I dislike brands or products that are customarily purchased by everyone. 0.72
I often try to avoid products or brands that I know are bought by the general population. 0.91
1447 Q. Bian, S. Forsythe / Journal of Business Research 65 (2012) 14431451
are greater than the minimum criteria of 0.70 (Nunnally & Bernstein,
1994) (Table 3) showing the constructs are related as expected theo-
retically, and all path weights are signicant (pb0.001), demonstrat-
ing high convergent validity. In addition to the composite reliabilities,
average variance extracted (AVE) provides evidence of the overall
convergent validity of each construct, as it indicates the amount of
variance explained by the construct relative to the amount of variance
that may be attributed to measurement error, and should exceed 0.50
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981). All AVE values exceed 0.50 (Table 3).
Discriminant validity, showing the extent to which a given scale
differs from other scales designed to measure a different conceptual
variable, is assessed by determining whether the condence interval
around the correlation estimate between the two factors includes
1.0 (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). The results show that the upper
boundaries of condence intervals are less than 1.00, indicating that
all the constructs in the model have acceptable discriminant validity
(see Table 4). Thus, the constructs in this study are not highly corre-
lated with other constructs designed to measure theoretically differ-
ent concepts.
5.2. Structural model and hypotheses testing
The structural model was constructed to examine the hypothe-
sized relationships among constructs; model t was fair:
2
(183)=
578.32, pb0.001,
2
/df ratio=3.16; IFI =0.92; TLI =0.91; CFI =0.92;
RMSEA=0.07 (Table 5). Fig. 2 shows the hypothesized relationships.
Because Chinese students did not perceive any difference between
self-expression attitude and self-presentation attitude toward luxury
brands, these two variables are necessarily combined as one variable
social-function attitudes toward luxury brands in the measurement
model.
Therefore, Hypotheses H1a through H3b are modied to be con-
sistent with this new construct as follows. Revised H1a: Consumers'
NFU positively inuences their social-function attitudes toward luxu-
ry brands. Revised H1b: Consumers' self-monitoring positively inu-
ences their social-function attitudes toward luxury brands. Revised
H2: Consumers' social-function attitudes toward luxury brands posi-
tively inuence their purchase intentions for luxury brands. Revised
H3: Consumers' social-function attitudes toward luxury brands posi-
tively inuence their affective attitude.
The coefcient estimates for the paths from NFU to social-function
attitudes toward luxury brands are not signicant (=0.03, p=0.54)
(Fig. 2), failing to support H1a. Contrary to a previous nding that
consumers prefer a luxury brand because the brand's image conveys
the consumer's own self image (Parker, Hermans, & Schaefer, 2004),
the current study fails to demonstrate that NFU inuences social-
function attitude toward luxury brands for U.S. and Chinese students.
Neither U.S. nor Chinese students seem to use individual characteris-
tics such as making creative choice and avoiding similar choices to ex-
press their self identity and social image.
Self-monitoring has a positive impact on social-function attitudes
(=0.57, pb0.001), supporting H1b and suggesting that U.S. and
Chinese consumers high in self-monitoring form favorable attitudes
toward luxury brands as a means for presenting their individual and
social image in public (Lippa, 1976; Snyder, 1974; Snyder & DeBono,
1985).
H2 (H2a and H2b) is supported as the direct relationship between
social-function attitudes and purchase intention is marginally signi-
cant (=0.16, p=0.054). This result shows that conveying the indi-
vidual and social image of luxury brands directly motivates students
to purchase these luxury brands; in addition, social-function attitudes
may also inuence purchase intentions for luxury brands indirectly
through their impact on affective attitude.
H3 (H3a and H3b) that social-function attitudes toward luxury
brands positively inuence affective attitude is supported (=0.85,
pb0.001). This nding corroborates extant research that attitudes to-
ward products positively inuence affect toward the product (Kumar
et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2008), suggesting that consumers may also
evaluate luxury brands on the basis of affective benets and derive
positive affect when they believe luxury brands help them to dene
themselves and gain social approval.
The positive relationship between affective attitude and purchase
intention (=0.77, pb0.001) supports H4 and corroborates both
Chaudhuri and Holbrook's (2001) nding that brand affect (affective
attitude) inuences repurchase intention and other ndings that con-
sumers are affect-oriented when they consider purchasing expensive
fashion brands (e.g., Knight & Kim, 2007; Kumar et al., 2009; Lee et al.,
2008).
Clearly, affective attitude plays a mediating role in the relationship
between social-function attitudes and purchase intentions, providing
insight as to why consumers will spend extra money on luxury
brands, even though the function of luxury brand products can be
achieved through non-luxury brands. These ndings further support
the important role of affect in consumer purchase decisions for luxury
brands.
Further analysis examines the impact of cultural identity on the
direct and indirect relationships between consumers' social-function
attitudes, affective attitude, and purchase intentions. MANOVA is
used to examine whether U.S. and Chinese students differ in their
Table 3
Constructs' composite reliability and average variance extracted (AVE).
Composite reliability AVE
Need for uniqueness 0.70 0.55
Self-monitoring 0.86 0.51
Social-function attitudes 0.88 0.56
Affective attitude 0.88 0.71
Purchase intention 0.90 0.70
Table 4
Constructs' discriminant validity.
r SE Upper bound of
condence interval
NFUSM 0.42 0.06 0.52
NFUattitude 0.26 0.06 0.36
NFUaffect 0.29 0.06 0.39
NFUintention 0.20 0.06 0.31
SMattitude 0.54 0.04 0.6
SMaffect 0.61 0.04 0.66
SMintention 0.57 0.04 0.62
Attitudeaffect 0.83 0.02 0.85
Attitudeintention 0.79 0.03 0.81
Affectintention 0.90 0.02 0.91
Table 5
Regression coefcients and t statistics from the structural model.
Hypotheses Standardized
loadings
Standardized
error
Critical
ratio
H1a Need for uniqueness
social-function attitudes
0.03 0.07 0.62
H1b Self-monitoringsocial-function
attitudes
0.57 0.08 9.34

H2 Social-function
attitudes purchase intention
0.16 0.08 10.94
H3 Social-function
attitudes affective attitude
0.85 0.05 15.98

H4 Affective attitudepurchase
intention
0.77 0.09 8.83

2
(183)=578.32, pb0.001,
2
/df ratio=3.16; IFI =0.92; TLI =0.91; CFI =0.92;
RMSEA=0.07.
Signicant at pb0.001.
1448 Q. Bian, S. Forsythe / Journal of Business Research 65 (2012) 14431451
NFU. Signicant differences in NFU (F (2, 391)=4.49, pb0.05.

2
=0.022) are found between the two groups; however, one-way
ANOVA results show that U.S. (M
U.S.
=4.0.) and China (M
China
=4.1)
did not differ in the creative choice dimension of NFU (F (1, 392)=
0.88, p=0.35,
2
=0.002). Unexpectedly, Chinese students (M
China
=
3.9) exhibit greater similarity avoidance than U.S. students (M
U.S
. =
3.5), F (1, 392)=15.18, pb0.05,
2
=0.022.
Thus, the ndings do not support the hypothesis that U.S. con-
sumers have a higher NFU than Chinese consumers (H5). Contrary
to the hypothesis, Chinese students demonstrate greater NFU than
U.S. students with respect to similarity avoidance. This unexpected
result goes against the stereotypical idea that U.S. consumers repre-
sent only individualism and that Chinese consumers are collectivists
who feel more obligation to the group. Culture is changing as a conse-
quence of the increasingly global economy, converging in the direc-
tion of greater individualism (e.g., Brewer & Chen, 2007). As a
result, collectivist societies might adopt some individualistic ele-
ments, but this would not change their societal identity or their social
label as a collective society.
Additional exploration of the extant research and the measures
used in this study provides additional insight to the nding that U.S.
and Chinese consumers do not differ with regard to the creative
choice dimension of NFU. First, the Chinese society is currently in
transition; distinctions between social strata are noticeable and tran-
sient and this societal change impacts purchase behaviors (Lee, Yau,
Chow, Sin, & Tse, 2004). For example, people in a higher social status
may desire to distinguish their position in society through their brand
choices. This need to exhibit a distinct status may be understood as
conforming to the societal rule rather than exhibiting counter-
conformity because, in China's transitioning society, words used in
the scale to measure NFU such as distinctive may have been inter-
preted by respondents as displaying a distinct status rather than as
an orientation toward counter-conformity.
Second, the Chinese sample is composed primarily of young
women (72% of the Chinese sample is female) and young women
(born after 1978) represent the demographic most inuenced by
the social and economic transition taking place in China (Lee et al.,
2004). These women are more self-oriented and believe in Western
ideas as they have been increasingly exposed to Western values and
ideologies (Lee et al., 2004). Thus, they are similar to U.S. students
with respect to the creative choice dimension of NFU than other
Chinese demographics.
6. Conclusion and implications
Drawing on the functional theory of attitude and the cognitiveaf-
fective model as the framework, this study examines the impact of in-
dividual characteristics (i.e. NFU and self-monitoring) on consumers'
social-function attitudes toward luxury brands, which in turn inu-
ence affective attitude and purchase intention for luxury brands.
The ndings support the functional theory of attitude showing that
attitudes serve important social-functions as they impact both affect
and behavior. Further, the ndings show that emotions are linked to
central attitudes, and play an important role in purchase intention
formation.
This study expands previous research by examining the formation
of purchase intentions for luxury brands and comparing purchase in-
tention formation across cultures. The nding that Chinese students
have higher similarity avoidance NFU than do U.S. students corrobo-
rates previous conclusions that individuals in a collective society
could adopt and display individualistic elements without changing
its collectivist culture (Brewer & Chen, 2007).
The Chinese students' need for similarity avoidance (i.e. to distin-
guish their social group membership in a transitioning society) may
also have important theoretical implications. Triandis' (1982) specu-
lation on whether or not Hofstede's dimensions will hold up over
time across people and situations involving multiple cultures may
be gaining strength, given that globalization has made the world
more at than ever before (Friedman, 2005). Cultural studies focusing
on China in the past decade (e.g., Fang, 2003; Schwartz, 1999) have
cast additional doubt on the veracity of Hofstede's cultural difference
theory, further reinforcing Triandis's (1982) concerns and suggesting
the need for further examination of the appropriateness of cultural
difference theory in a transitioning global economy.
This study examines the impact of social-function attitudes
toward luxury brands on consumers' affective attitude and purchase
intentions and shows that emotions are linked to central attitudes,
suggesting that consumers tend to respond favorably to brands that
are perceived to be consistent with their values and goals (e.g.,
Snyder & DeBono, 1985). The marginally positive relationship be-
tween social-function attitudes and purchase intention suggest that
both U.S. and Chinese consumers have a greater intent to purchase
their favorite luxury brands when the luxury brands are consistent
with their intrinsic beliefs and social image.
Extending the ndings of other researchers (e.g., Bearden & Etzel,
1982; Grubb & Grathwohl, 1967) that people consume luxury brands
for social-function reasons, these ndings show that social-function
attitudes toward luxury brands play an important role impacting pur-
chase intention for luxury brands both directly and indirectly through
their impact on affect. Furthermore, affect has a dominant and power-
ful inuence on consumers' purchase intention as it plays a mediating
role between social-function attitudes and purchase intentions,
thereby supporting the cognitiveaffective model given that both
social-function attitudes (cognition) and affective attitude (affect)
impact purchase intention for luxury brands.
These ndings provide valuable strategic implications for luxury
brand retailers who do business in both U.S. and Chinese markets.
Luxury brand manufacturers may need to emphasize the characteris-
tics of exceptional quality and dependability because consumers of
luxury brands care about the consistency between the brand image
Need for
Uniqueness
Self-
Monitoring
Affective
Attitude
Purchase
Intention
Social-function
attitudes
H1a:.03
H1b:.57***
H2:.16
H3:.85***
H4:.77***
Positive significant relationship
No significant relationship
Note:
***
significant at p<.001
Fig. 2. Hypotheses testing results for consumers' purchase intention for luxury brands.
1449 Q. Bian, S. Forsythe / Journal of Business Research 65 (2012) 14431451
and their internal beliefs. Because consumers worldwide use luxury
brands to display status, their purchase intention toward luxury
brands is aroused when they feel compelled to own a luxury brand
to convey their esteem or wealth. Luxury retailers' marketing strate-
gies may either attempt to convince consumers of the brand's upscale
social image or use their distinctive image and product scarcity to
appeal to those who have high social-function attitudes.
Affect is the most important consideration in global marketing
strategies and must penetrate every marketing channel because affect
attached to luxury brands creates resonance between consumers and
brands (Keller, 2001). Consumers with strong affect toward a luxury
brand say they love the brand and the tendency for them to purchase
the brand is high. Affective-appealing messages can be delivered in a
variety of ways. Luxury retailers can convey feelings of pleasure and
deliver a fun experience by offering a well-organized assortment of
high-quality products and upscale ambience or through exceptional
store service that generates an enjoyable, fun experience with the
brand, thereby generating positive affect.
Self-monitoring is an important individual characteristic that im-
pacts social-function attitudes across cultures, consistent with the
functional theory of attitudes concept that individual personality
arouses attitude. This nding has important strategic implications
for marketers of luxury brands; for example, luxury brand retailers
can emphasize the role of the brand in facilitating self-presentation
by conveying a unique image and/or social group membership.
These ndings also provide practical implications for marketing
luxury brands in China. Emphasizing exclusivity of the brand may
be an effective marketing strategy for luxury brands in the Chinese
market, as it focuses on using luxury brands to avoid similarity to
others in general. Advertising campaigns can imply the luxury brand's
elite usage group to help Chinese consumers convey membership in a
specic social group and the exclusion of other groups.
7. Recommendations for future study and limitations
This study originally hypothesized two dimensions of social-
function attitudes toward luxury brands self expression attitude
and self-presentation attitude, based on the functional theory of atti-
tude and on previous ndings from studies of brand choice (DeBono,
1987; Shavitt, 1989; Wilcox et al., 2009). However, the nding that
unlike U.S. students, Chinese students did not discriminate between
self-expression attitude and self-presentation attitude toward luxury
brands suggest that Chinese students may actually blur self image and
social image together.
Given that Chinese consumers regard themselves in the context of
their relations with others (Li & Su, 2007), they are less likely than
U.S. students to distinguish self image and social image. Because the
merged social-function attitudes cannot detect whether consumers
purchase luxury brands due to social image or self-identity, further
exploration may more fully illuminate the nature of their motivations
to buy luxury brands.
The measurement issue that this study identies calls into ques-
tion the appropriateness of using scales developed and validated in
Western cultures to measure the same construct in other cultures,
and reinforces the importance of testing construct measures across
cultures. Additional investigations using measures that have been
cross-culturally examined for reliability and validity will be useful
to further examine these issues. Furthermore, examination of the pur-
chase intention process among other demographics in each culture
may provide a better understanding of the roll of NFU and self moni-
toring on social-function attitudes and affect and ultimately on pur-
chase intentions for luxury brands.
The use of a student sample limits the generalizability of the nd-
ings, because students represent only a subset of luxury brand con-
sumers and are not representative of all consumers in a culture.
Furthermore, the focus here is on attitudes and purchase intentions
rather than actual purchase behavior. Future research may utilize a
sample that is more representative of the entire consumer population
to provide a better understanding of the roll of NFU and self monitor-
ing on social-function attitudes and affect and ultimately on actual
purchase intentions for luxury brands.
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