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1. The document is a study guide for a unit on cellular energetics. It contains definitions, explanations, and lists of key terms related to thermodynamics, enzymes, photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and metabolic pathways. Some of the major topics covered include the laws of thermodynamics, Gibbs free energy, activation energy, competitive inhibition, the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis, and the processes of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
1. The document is a study guide for a unit on cellular energetics. It contains definitions, explanations, and lists of key terms related to thermodynamics, enzymes, photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and metabolic pathways. Some of the major topics covered include the laws of thermodynamics, Gibbs free energy, activation energy, competitive inhibition, the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis, and the processes of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
1. The document is a study guide for a unit on cellular energetics. It contains definitions, explanations, and lists of key terms related to thermodynamics, enzymes, photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and metabolic pathways. Some of the major topics covered include the laws of thermodynamics, Gibbs free energy, activation energy, competitive inhibition, the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis, and the processes of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
10/21/13 Unit Two: Cellular Energetics Study Guide 1. The most random form of energy is heat because it is the most difficult to use for work to convert to another form of energy 2. They become: + H, - S, and + G. 3. Enzyme catalyse reactions occur in an active site. Chemical reactions generally require energy called "activation energy" to get started. Enzymes lower the activation energy required for a reaction to proceed. 4. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system never decreases, because isolated systems spontaneously evolve toward thermodynamic equilibrium - the state of maximum entropy. 5. It can also be described as an endergonic reaction - that is a chemical reaction in which the standard change in free energy is positive, and energy is absorbed. 6. List of properties of enzymes: -Enzymes are proteins that are biological catalysts -They reduce the activation energy required for a reaction to occur & thus speed up a reaction. -Temperature above a certain point causes them to break down & they are gradually destroyed -Work best at a particular pH; they are destroyed by greater or lower pH. -Have a specific shape, w/active site *specific to substance by speed of the reaction* 7. It provides energy coupling between exergonic & endergonic reactions 8. As a reaction continues to reach equilibrium, the free energy of the reactants and products decreases. Emily Jones AP Biology - 1st Block 10/21/13 9. A competitive inhibitor binds the enzyme in the location the substrate is supposed to bind to (the active site), thus making the substrate unable to bind to that location. If more substrates are added, the chance of the substrate getting to that location before the competitive inhibitor is higher, and so increasing the substrate concentration weakens the chances of a competitive inhibitor doing its job of inhibition. 10. The first law of thermodynamics states that in any thermodynamic process, when heat Q is added to a system, this energy appears as an increase in the internal energy stored in the system plus the work done by the system on its surroundings. *energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can change from one form to another* 11. Generally, entropy increases during the transformation of energy, which reduces the amount of energy available. Note that this does not reduce the amount of total energy (due to the conservation of energy law); it just decreases the amount of energy available for use. 12. Free energy is the portion of a systems energy that is able to perform work when temperature and pressure is uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell. 13. If the reactants contain more free energy than products, the reaction is exergonic 14. Catabolism is the set of metabolic pathways which break down molecules into smaller units and release energy. In catabolism, large molecules such as polysaccharides, fatty acids, nucleic acids and proteins are broken down into smaller units such as monosaccharaides, fatty acids, nucleotides and amino acids, respectively. eg.respiration, digestion. Emily Jones AP Biology - 1st Block 10/21/13 15. The free energy released by ATP is stored in the high energy phosphoanhydride bonds, but this energy does not directly energize the cell. 16. The reaction rate will decrease 17. Metabolic 18. If an enzyme has two or more subunits, a substrate molecule causing induced fit in one subunit can trigger the same favorable conformational change in all the other subunits of the enzyme. Essentially, enzyme cooperativity is a mechanism of amplification regarding the response of enzymes to substrates: One substrate molecule primes an enzyme to accept additional substrate molecules more readily. "Allo" means other, and "steric" refers to the spatial arrangement of atoms in a molecule. An allosteric site is another important site on an enzyme, other than the active site. When a molecule binds to the allosteric site, the activity of the enzyme is altered (some enzymes can be activated and others inhibited). 19. The Induced-fit model describes the formation of the E-S as a result of the interaction between the substrate and a flexible active site. The substrate produces changes in the conformation on the enzyme, aligning properly the groups in the enzyme. It allows better binding and catalytic effects. 20. Gibbs free energy is a thermodynamic property that was defined in 1876 by Josiah Willard Gibbs to predict whether a process will occur spontaneously at constant temperature and pressure. Gibbs free energy G is defined as G = H - TS where H, T and S are the enthalpy, temperature, and entropy. 21. The process by which photosynthetic organisms such as plants turn inorganic carbon (usually carbon dioxide) into organic compounds (us. Emily Jones AP Biology - 1st Block 10/21/13 Carbohydrates) In CAM plants the photosynthesis and initial carbon fixation occurs at night and a 4-carbon acid is stored in the cell's vacuole. During the day, the Calvin cycle operates in the same chloroplasts. 22. Basically photorespiration prevents the formation of PGA, decreasing the rate of G3P production (the output of the Kelvin Cycle) and ultimately slowing the synthesis of glucose (or other organic compounds). 23. A protein gradient 24. they use PEP carboxylase to initially fix CO 2
25. The green pigments of Chlorophyll in plant cells absorb sunlight for photosynthesis. 26. ATP 27. The products of the light reaction are NADPH and ATP, energy molecules to run the Calvin Cycle. In the light reaction because sunlight hits the water and busts it apart, water is broken down into H+, 2 electrons and oxygen as a waste product. Imagine that, a vital gas being a waste product of photosynthesis which helps organisms goes through cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide goes into the Calvin Cycle, and takes the H+ from NADPH, uses ATP, and makes glucose. To make that Calvin Cycle "churn" run, you need energy from the light reaction, NADPH and ATP. Glucose is a carbohydrate used for energy for organisms. 28. NADPH & ATP 29. No. Calvin cycle is the cycle in plants that makes glucose, not requires them. 30. This compound is an intermediate of photosynthesis and of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. It also is a byproduct in the biosynthesis Emily Jones AP Biology - 1st Block 10/21/13 pathway of tryptophan, an essential amino acid. It also occurs as a reactant in the biosynthesis pathway of thiamine (vitamin b1) 31. Red 32. The dark stage 33. Proton Gradient 34. RuBp - RuBisCo 35. Mesophyll Cells 36. Chlorophyll A 37. Required - Carbon Dioxide; Not Required - O2 38. The Sun 39. Kinases/Phosphorylases 40. The stroma 41. CAM plants 42. It occurs during the day because in order to run the Calvin cycle NADPH and ATP are needed from the light reaction. 43. Green 44. Cyclic electron flow is a process that ultimately helps the production of ATP. The cyclical flow is that electrons cycle back to a photosystem rather than traveling between the two photosystems. This way, NADP and NADPH levels remain in balance and photosynthesis can take place. 45. Inner Mitochondrial Membrane 46. Photosynthesis is driven by solar energy. It turns water and carbon dioxide into simple carbohydrates and oxygen gas. This reaction takes place in structures called chloroplasts. Emily Jones AP Biology - 1st Block 10/21/13 Respiration is driven by chemical energy. It turns carbohydrates back into carbon dioxide and water. This reaction takes place in structures called mitochondria. The chemical energy comes from a substance known as ATP. 47. They are found in mitochondria and in chloroplasts. In mitochondria, the ATP synthase complexes are embedded in the inner membrane. In chloroplasts, the ATP synthase complexes are embedded in the thylakoid membranes 48. Light Reaction 49. Yes. 50. Photosystem II 51. Aerobic respiration 52. Combustion 53. Lactic acid, carbon dioxide, and ATP. ATP only for certain organs, such as the brain and the heart. Also, another by product of dissociation of lactic acid is hydrogen ions, lowering the pH, resulting in a more acidic environment. 54. An agent that closely mimics structure of glucose but is not metabolized is poison would most directly interfere with glycolysis. 55. No, its NADH and Pyruvate 56. NADH 57. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the inner membrane of the cell mitochondria. It is basically the terminal stage of cell respiration which generally takes place in the mitochondria. This process generally occurs in eukaryotes. Emily Jones AP Biology - 1st Block 10/21/13 58. Glucose, since bonds are broken and a net production of 2 ATP occurs in glycolysis when glucose is converted to 2 pyruvates 59. ATP 60. The actual production of ATP in cellular respiration takes place through the process of chemiosmosis. Chemiosmosis involves the pumping of protons through special channels in the membranes of mitochondria from the inner to the outer compartment. The pumping establishes a proton gradient. After the gradient is established, protons pass down the gradient through particles designated F1. In these particles, the energy of the protons generates ATP, using ADP and phosphate ions as the starting points. 61. Human Cells 62. In the electron transport chain, the main molecules for removing electrons from substrates are NADH Dehydrogenase, Cytochrome C Coenzyme Q reductase and Cytochrome Oxidase 63. ATP 64. Glycolysis occurs outside of the mitochondria in the cytoplasm of cells. Without oxygen lactic acid will be formed. With oxygen it will form pyruvate which then enters the mitochondria and eventually forms CO2 65. ATP 66. In the cytosol of the cytoplasm 67. 4 68. In substrate level phosphorylation, the ADP is phosphorylated directly by the transfer of phosphate group from substrate. If we consider glucose, then we get four substrate level Emily Jones AP Biology - 1st Block 10/21/13 phosphorylated ATPs, net gain of two in glycolysis and other two are formed when the two pyruvate molecules formed after glycolysis enter the TCA cycle. 69. Released into the atmosphoere ~ 70. The terminal electron acceptor in the mitochondrial respiratory chain is Oxygen, O2. After going through the electron transport chain, the electrons are used to reduce oxygen to water in Complex IV, cytochrome c oxidase 71. ATP 72. Cellular respiration 73. CO2, pyruvic acid 74. NAD and FAD 75. H+ concentration across the membrane holding ATP synthase. 76. 2 77. acetyl CoA 78. The electrons from from NADH and FADH2 flow through the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane generating a H+ buildup in the inner membrane space. This proton gradient (gradient of H+) flowing through the membrane enzyme complex ATP synthetase is the direct energy source for producing ATP. 79. 6 80. Skeletal Muscle