Testing of Optical Fiber Link Using OTDR

Testing of Optical Fiber Link
Using OTDR

Submitted by:

Hussein Mohammed 2008-Elect-219
Yisehak Ali 2008-Elect-231
Abdulaziz Shemehammednur 2008-Elect-232
Abdulkerim Sherefa 2008-Elect-242

Supervised by: Prof. Dr. Noor M. Sheikh

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology Lahore

i

Testing of Optical Fiber Link
Using OTDR

Submitted to the faculty of the Electrical Engineering Department
of the University of Engineering and Technology Lahore
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of

Bachelor of Science

in

Electrical Engineering.

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Director
Undergraduate Studies

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology Lahore

ii

Declaration
We, the group members, declare that the work contained in this thesis is our
own, except where explicitly stated otherwise. In addition this work has not
been submitted to obtain another degree or professional qualification.
Signed:

Date:

iii

Acknowledgements
First of all, we would like to thank Allah Almighty, who gave us courage and strength
to complete this thesis and project within the timeline. We also want to extend our
thankfulness to Prophet Muhammad (SAW) through whom we received the light of
knowledge.
We would like to thank our supervisor Prof. Dr. Noor M. Sheikh for his valuable
advice and guidance throughout this work. His guidance and vision played an
essential role in helping us set our goals. We also want to show our gratitude and
thankfulness to Dr. Muhammad Tahir and Mr. Anwar Naseem, who were really a
great source of help and guidance. Last but not least, we are highly thankful to our
families who have shown great patience and boundless support throughout our
study.

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Dedicated to our families and teachers

v

Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................................. III
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................................... VIII
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................................... IX
ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................................................................. X
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................................... XI
CHAPTER 1 ...................................................................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION TO TESTING OF OPTICAL FIBER LINK .............................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Project Overview ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Transmission Tests .................................................................................................................. 4
1.3.1 Measurement Parameters .............................................................................................. 4
1.3.2 Field Testing..................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Optical Fiber Link Test Methodology ...................................................................................... 6
1.4.1 Setting 0 dB Loss Reference, Method B ....................................................................... 7
1.4.2 Setting 0 dB Loss Reference, Method A ....................................................................... 8
1.4.3 Setting 0 dB Loss Reference, Method C ....................................................................... 9
1.4.4 OTDR Testing, Single Ended .......................................................................................... 10
1.4.5 OTDR Testing, Double-Ended ........................................................................................ 11
1.4.6 Sources of Measurement Uncertainty .......................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................................................... 15
2. FIBER OPTICS FUNDAMENTALS ............................................................................................................. 15
2.1 Introduction to Fiber Optics .................................................................................................. 15
2.2 The Physics behind Fiber Optics ............................................................................................ 16
2.2.1 Performance Considerations ......................................................................................... 19
2.2.2 Optical-Power Measurement ........................................................................................ 19
2.3 Types of Optical Fibers .......................................................................................................... 20
2.3.1 Multimode Fiber ............................................................................................................ 20
2.3.2 Single-mode Fiber .......................................................................................................... 22
2.4 Optical-Cable Construction ................................................................................................... 24
2.4.1 Glass Fiber-Optic Cable ................................................................................................. 26
2.4.2 Plastic Fiber-Optic Cable ................................................................................................ 27
2.4.3 Plastic-Clad Silica (PCS) Fiber-Optic Cable ..................................................................... 27

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2.5 Fiber-Optic Characteristics .................................................................................................... 28
2.5.1 Interference ................................................................................................................... 28
2.5.2 Linear Characteristics .................................................................................................... 28
2.5.3 Nonlinear Characteristics .............................................................................................. 35
2.6 Fiber-Optic Cable Termination .............................................................................................. 38
2.6.1 FC Connectors................................................................................................................ 39
2.6.2 SC Connectors................................................................................................................ 39
2.6.3 ST Connectors ................................................................................................................ 39
2.6.4 LC Connectors ................................................................................................................ 39
2.6.5 MT-RJ Connectors ......................................................................................................... 40
2.6.6 MTP/MPO Connectors .................................................................................................. 40
2.7 Fiber-Optics Applications ...................................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER 3 .................................................................................................................................................... 42
3. OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY............................................................................................. 42
3.1 Introduction to OTDR ............................................................................................................ 42
3.1.1 Rayleigh backscattering ................................................................................................. 42
3.1.2 Fresnel reflections ......................................................................................................... 43
3.2 OTDR objectives .................................................................................................................... 44
3.3 Types of OTDR ....................................................................................................................... 44
3.3.1 Full-feature OTDR .......................................................................................................... 45
3.3.2 Hand-held OTDR ............................................................................................................ 45
3.3.3 Fiber Break Locator ....................................................................................................... 45
3.3.4 Remote Test Unit (RTU) ................................................................................................. 46
3.4 Components of an OTDR ....................................................................................................... 47
3.4.1 Emitting Diodes ............................................................................................................. 47
3.4.2 Pulse Generator ............................................................................................................. 48
3.4.3 Photodiodes .................................................................................................................. 48
3.4.4 Time Base and Control Unit ........................................................................................... 49
3.5 How an OTDR works .............................................................................................................. 49
3.5.1 Theory ............................................................................................................................ 49
3.5.2 Information in the OTDR Trace ..................................................................................... 51
3.6 OTDR Specifications .............................................................................................................. 56
3.6.1 Dynamic Range .............................................................................................................. 56
3.6.2 Dead Zone ..................................................................................................................... 58

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3.6.3 Resolution ...................................................................................................................... 60
3.6.4 Sampling resolution ....................................................................................................... 60
3.6.5 Accuracy ........................................................................................................................ 61
3.6.6 Wavelength ................................................................................................................... 61
CHAPTER 4 .................................................................................................................................................... 63
4. ACQUISITION AND MEASUREMENT ...................................................................................................... 63
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 63
4.2 Acquisition ............................................................................................................................. 64
4.2.1 Injection Level ............................................................................................................... 64
4.2.2 OTDR wavelength .......................................................................................................... 65
4.2.3 Pulse width .................................................................................................................... 69
4.2.4 Range ............................................................................................................................. 69
4.2.5 Averaging ....................................................................................................................... 69
4.3 Measurements ...................................................................................................................... 70
4.3.1 Measurement Methods ................................................................................................ 71
4.3.2 Slope .............................................................................................................................. 72
4.3.3 Event Loss ...................................................................................................................... 72
4.3.4 Reflectance .................................................................................................................... 73
4.3.5 Optical Return Loss ........................................................................................................ 74
4.4 Measurement artifacts and anomalies ................................................................................. 75
4.4.1 Ghosts ............................................................................................................................ 75
4.4.2 Splice Gain ..................................................................................................................... 75
CHAPTER 5 .................................................................................................................................................... 77
5. TEST RESULTS AND SOFTWARE SIMULATION ........................................................................................ 77
5.1 Test Results ........................................................................................................................... 77
5.2 Software simulation of long optical fiber links ...................................................................... 79
CHAPTER 6 .................................................................................................................................................... 81
6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................ 81
6.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 81
6.2 Future Recommendation ...................................................................................................... 81
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................. 82

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List of Figures
Figure 1-1 block diagram of an OTDR ................................................................................. 2
Figure 1-2 Test Setup ........................................................................................................ 3
Figure 1-3 OFSTP-14 Insertion Loss Test of Installed Fiber Optic Cable ............................... 7
Figure 1-4 Cable Reference (Method B) ............................................................................. 8
Figure 1-5 Cable Reference (Method B) ............................................................................ 9
Figure 1-6 Cable Reference (Method C) .......................................................................... 10
Figure 1-7 OTDR Test ...................................................................................................... 11
Figure 1-8 OTDR Test (With receive cable) ....................................................................... 11
Figure 2-1 Cross Section of a Fiber-Optic Cable ................................................................ 16
Figure 2-2 Total Internal Reflection ................................................................................. 17
Figure 2-3 Acceptance Cone ............................................................................................ 19
Figure 2-4 Total internal Reflection in Multimode Step-index Fiber .................................. 21
Figure 2-5 Multimode Graded-index Fiber ....................................................................... 22
Figure 2-6 Cladding ......................................................................................................... 23
Figure 2-7 Dispersion for Alternating 20km Lengths of (+D) NZ-DSF and (-D) NZ-DSF Fiber
....................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 2-8 Fiber Optic construction ................................................................................. 25
Figure 2-9 Attenuation versus Wavelength ...................................................................... 30
Figure 2-10 Polarization Mode Dispersion ....................................................................... 34
Figure 2-11 Fiber-Optic Connectors ................................................................................. 38
Figure 3-1 Rayleigh backscatter ....................................................................................... 43
Figure 3-2 Typical OTDR .................................................................................................. 47
Figure 3-3 Increasing the pulse width increases the backscatter level .............................. 50
Figure 3-4 OTDR Operation ............................................................................................. 50
Figure 3-5 OTDR Trace..................................................................................................... 52
Figure 3-6 Scattering and Reflective Dynamic Range ........................................................ 57
Figure 3-7 OTDR event and attenuation dead zone .......................................................... 59
Figure 4-1 The effects of bending on a fiber ..................................................................... 67
Figure 4-2 The OTDR graph shows a bend located at 3040 m at 1550 nm and 1625 nm .... 68
Figure 5-1 traces acquired in the lab ................................................................................ 78
Figure 5-2 software simulations of long optical fiber link ................................................. 80

ix

List of Tables
Table 1: Test results of different length optical fiber ............................................ 77

x

Abbreviations

AP attenuation profile
CD chromatic dispersion
GVD group velocity dispersion
IOR index of refraction
MMF multi mode fibers
MPD mode power distribution
NDSF non dispersion shifted fiber
NZ-DSF non zero-dispersion-shifted fibers
ORL optical return loss
OTDR optical time domain reflectometer
PMD polarization mode dispersion
RI refractive index
RBS Rayleigh backscatter
SMF single mode fibers
SNR signal to noise ratio

xi

Abstract
Fiber optic systems are being increasingly employed in industrial settings in a host of
critical communications applications. While the amount of equipment being
introduced to the industrial market place is growing at an exponential pace, the
understanding of the underlying technology on the part of those who must install and
maintain this equipment in the plant environment lags far behind. One important area
that plant personnel must understand for such systems to continue functioning is in
the area of testing of cable and terminations. Such personnel are usually trained in
the area of electrical continuity checking, ground fault detection and electrical loss
the same personnel must come to understand the principles of optical loss, optical
power budget and optical continuity.
Of the testing and measurement tools available today, optical time domain
reflectometer (OTDR) is the most sophisticated and accurate one. The OTDR is an
oscilloscope type instrument which provides a graphic trace of exactly what is
happening along the length of the fiber optic cable in terms of loss, discontinuity and
distance. This thesis has described the OTDR means of performing the cable test
function in practical and realistic sense. Analysis and the results of the tests
performed are also included. FTB-7200D 1310nm SM OTDR MODULE was
employed on FTB-400 universal test system. Software simulations of the tests are
also performed and are discussed in the thesis.
Testing of Optical Fiber Link Using OTDR

1

CHAPTER 1
1. Introduction to Testing of Optical Fiber Link

1.1 Introduction
Everywhere on this planet hair-thin optical fibers carry vast quantities of information
from place to place. There are many desirable properties of optical fibers for carrying
this information. They have enormous information-carrying capacity, are low cost,
and possess immunity from the many disturbances that can afflict electrical wires
and wireless communication links. The superiority of optical fibers for carrying
information from place to place is leading to their rapidly replacing older
technologies. Optical fibers have played a key role in making possible the
extraordinary growth in world-wide communications that has occurred in the last 25
years, and are vital in enabling the proliferating use of the Internet.
Of key importance in the course of these developments in information technology
has been a few basic, but vitally significant, events. Principal among these are the
invention and development of the laser, the growing appreciation that this might
make optical communications practically useful, the production of very pure glass,
which was sufficiently transparent that long distance transmission of light through
glass fibers became practical, and the digital revolution. These have made possible
the flow of information at the speed of light.
As there is a dramatic increase in the usage of fiber links, the question of an efficient
testing method has become a hot issue. Testing is used to evaluate the performance
of fiber optic components, cable plants and systems. As the components like fiber,
connectors, splices, LED or laser sources, detectors and receivers are being
developed, testing confirms their performance specifications and helps understand
how they will work together. Designers of fiber optic cable plants and networks
depend on these specifications to determine if networks will work for the planned
applications.

2

An Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) is the only tool that can give detailed
visibility of loss and reflective instances, which are often called events. An OTDRs
ability to detect events such as connectors, splices, and faults in an optical fiber run
depends mainly on its dead zone, dynamic range, maximum range, distance
accuracy, loss threshold, linearity, and sampling resolution specifications.
This thesis has particularly focused on how to perform different types of tests on
optical fiber links using an OTDR. We have performed several tests on optical fibers
and have done the analyses of the results.

1.2 Project Overview
Before diving into the details we would give a quick look to the principles of the
testing of fiber optics using an OTDR, so that, we can start reading the thesis, with
an already abstract idea.

Figure 1-1 block diagram of an OTDR

3

The figure above shows the internal circuitry of an OTDR and fiber under test. Unlike
sources and power meters which measure the loss of the fiber optic cable plant
directly, the OTDR works indirectly. In the fiber, light is scattered in all directions,
including back toward the source. The OTDR uses this "backscattered light" to make
its measurements. It sends out a very high power pulse and measures the light
coming back. At any point in time, the light the OTDR sees is the light scattered from
the pulse passing through a region of the fiber.
Generally OTDRs are used for testing with a launch cable and may use a receive
cable. The launch cable allows the OTDR to settle down after the test pulse is sent
into the fiber and provides a reference connector for the first connector on the cable
under test to determine its loss. A receive cable may be used on the far end to allow
measurements of the connector on the end of the cable under test also. [7]

Figure 1-2 Test Setup

When analyzing a fiber optic cable over its product lifetime, a series of
measurements must be performed in order to ensure its integrity. These include [6]
Mechanical tests
Geometrical tests
Optical tests
Transmission tests

4

The first three sets of measurements are only performed once since there is minor
variation in these parameters during the fibers lifetime. Several measurements are
performed on optical fiber or cables in order to characterize them before their use in
signal transmission. Emphasis is given to the last set of measurement, that is,
transmission tests. [6]

1.3 Transmission Tests
1.3.1 Measurement Parameters
In order to qualify the use of an optical fiber or an optical fiber system for proper
transmission, several key measurements have to be performed. [6]
End-to-end optical link loss
Rate of attenuation per unit length
Attenuation contribution to splices, connectors, and couplers (events)
Length of the fiber or distance to an event
Linearity of fiber loss per unit length (attenuation discontinuities)
Reflectance or optical return loss (ORL)
Chromatic dispersion (CD)
Polarization mode dispersion (PMD)
Attenuation profile (AP)
Other measurements, such as bandwidth, may also be performed. Except for a few
specific applications, these other measurements are often less important.
Some measurements require access to both ends of the fiber. Others require access
to only one end. Measurement techniques that require access to only one end are
particularly interesting for field applications since these measurements reduce the
time spent traveling from one end of the fiber cable system to the other. Field testing
of optical cables requires testing at three levels: installation, maintenance, and
restoration. [6]

5

1.3.2 Field Testing
The following sections provide a non-exhaustive list of the various tests that can be
performed during each level of field testing. The exact nature of a testing program
depends on the system design, the system criticality, and the contractual relationship
between the cable and components suppliers, system owner, system installer, and
system user.
(i) Installation Tests
Pre-Installation Tests
These tests are performed prior to installation to insure that the fiber cables received
from the manufacturer confirm to the required specification. We also test if they are
damaged during transit.
Installation and Commissioning Tests
During installation and commissioning, tests are performed to determine the quality
of cable splices and terminations (attenuation, location, and reflectance). Tests are
also performed to determine that the completed cable subsystem is suitable for the
intended transmission system (end-to-end loss and system optical return loss). All of
these tests provide a complete set of documentation of the cable link for
maintenance purposes. [6]
(ii) Maintenance Tests
Maintenance testing involves periodic evaluation of the cable system to ensure that
no degradation of the cable, splices, or connections has occurred. Tests include
cable attenuation as well as attenuation and reflection of splices and terminations. In
some systems, maintenance tests may be performed every few months and are
compared to historical test results to provide early warning signs of degradation. In
very high capacity or critical systems, automated testing devices may be employed
to test the integrity of the system every few minutes to give immediate warning of
degradation or outages. [6]

6

(iii)Troubleshooting
During cable restoration, testing is first performed to identify the cause of the outage
(transmitter, receiver, cable, or connector) and to locate the fault in the cable if the
outage was caused by the cable. Testing is then performed to assess the quality of
the repaired system (permanent splices). This subsequent testing is similar to the
testing performed at the conclusion of cable installation. [6]

1.4 Optical Fiber Link Test Methodology
There are four ways listed in various international standards to test installed cable
plants. Three of them use test sources and power meters to make the measurement,
while the fourth uses an OTDR. In this sub-chapter we will explain each of these
methods with the help of diagrams.
The source/power meter method, generally called "insertion loss," approximates
the way the actual network uses the cable plant, so one would expect the loss to be
similar to the actual loss seen by the network, which is preferable. The OTDR is an
indirect method, using backscattered light to imply the loss in the cable plant, which
can have large deviations from insertion loss tests. [3]
The differences in the three insertion loss tests are in how we define "0 dB" or no
loss. All three tests end up with the same test setup (Figure 1.3), but the reference
power can be set with one, two or three cables as shown in the three setups
below.[3]
Test Methodology, OFSTP-14
All insertion loss tests using a test source and fiber optic power meter use this same
test setup. It requires both launch and receive cables. The cable loss measurement
includes losses of mated connectors from reference cables to both connectors on
the cable under test plus the loss of the fiber in the cable under test. Variations in
how the 0 dB loss reference is set causes the differences. [3]

7

Figure 1-3 OFSTP-14 Insertion Loss Test of Installed Fiber Optic Cable [12]

The uncertainty of the measurement is directly related to the quality of the reference
jumpers. Bad connectors on reference cables will give consistently high loss
readings.
1.4.1 Setting 0 dB Loss Reference, Method B
In this method No connectors are included in the reference setting. It measures
cable plant loss including connectors at both ends. This method connects directly to
the fiber optic Power Meter. The connection to the meter effectively has no loss, so
the reference is the actual output of the reference cable.

8

Figure 1-4 Cable Reference (Method B) [12]

1.4.2 Setting 0 dB Loss Reference, Method A
This method Sets reference with both launch and receive cables while connected to
each other. It has one unknown connector loss included in reference. The measured
loss of the cable plant is diminished by the unknown connector loss value included in
the reference. Unknown connector loss in reference causes greater measurement
uncertainty. If reference connectors are dirty, then cleaning can result in "gain" not a
loss.
Note that this method is often used with connectors that are different from the
interface connections on the source and power meter.

9

Figure 1-5 Cable Reference (Method A) [12]

1.4.3 Setting 0 dB Loss Reference, Method C
This method sets reference with both launch and receive cables plus a "golden
cable" reference. It removes golden cable and replace with cable under test to
make measurement. It includes two unknown connector losses in reference value.
The measured loss of the cable plant is lower by the losses of the two unknown
connections in the reference measurement. Unknown connector losses in reference
cause higher measurement uncertainty. If reference connectors are dirty, then the
cleaned one can result in "gain" not loss.
Note that this method is often used with duplex male/female connectors that are
different from the interface connections on the source and power meter, e.g. testing
MT-RJ connectors with a test set that have ST connectors.


10

Figure 1-6 Cable Reference (Method C) [12]

1.4.4 OTDR Testing, Single Ended
This method is totally different from the methods described above and it is the main
subject of our project. In this case the reference cable is the launch cable
(sometimes called pulse suppressor) which allows OTDR initial pulse to settle down
and measurement of first connector on cable to test. As shown in the figure shown
below, the first cursor precedes reflection peak from cable plant under test and the
second cursor precedes reflection peak from last connector.
It calculates loss implied from the backscatter measurement and it does not include
connector on far end unless you use a receive cable, now required in ISO/IEC
standards. That will add another connector loss. It uses laser which typically has
lower loss than LEDs in multimode fiber. Measurements are directional loss may
be different in each direction.

11

Figure 1-7 OTDR Test [12]

1.4.5 OTDR Testing, Double-Ended
The reference cable in this case is launch cable (sometimes called pulse
suppressor) which allows OTDR initial pulse to settle down and measurement of first
connector on cable to test. The receive cable added to far end makes testing more
relevant but much less convenient.
The first cursor precedes reflection peak from cable plant under test and second
cursor follows reflection peak from last connector. It calculates loss implied from
backscatter measurement.

Figure 1-8 OTDR Test (With receive cable) [12]


12

1.4.6 Sources of Measurement Uncertainty
The difference in the measurements between an OTDR and the insertion loss comes
from its completely different methodology. OTDRs use backscattered light to imply
the measurement while insertion loss is measured directly by transmission. All
OTDRs use laser sources which inject light generally only in the center of the core of
the fiber where loss is lower. And a single-ended measurement, which most tech
use, does not test the connector on the far end. Recent standards mention and
sometimes require a receive cable for OTDR tests, which would have added 0.2-0.3
dB to the loss measured in the test detailed above. But having to use a receive cable
with an OTDR negates its advantage of being able to be tested from one end by a
single technician. [3]
There are many sources of measurement uncertainty when making fiber optic loss
measurements, but some have higher likelihood than others. Some of them are
explained below.
Technician Training and Understanding
The biggest single factor in measurement uncertainty is the technicians
understanding of testing methodology and uncertainty (or lack thereof.). Every tech
should be required to take part in trainings and practice making measurements in
their office or lab, using the equipment they generally use, to determine 1)how it
works, 2)how to make measurements and 3)how to be consistent. [3]
Test Equipment
Several factors related to test equipment cause many problems. Most equipment will
make good measurements if used properly. Some test equipments are hard to
understand and techs routinely misuse it. Often manufacturers do not provide
applications explanations, only directions on using the instruments, so the tech who
knows how to use the instrument itself is left to his own devices on how to use it.
Some equipment is sensitive to battery charge level, especially the output of the
source. When the battery charge drops, the source output drops, causing
measurements of higher loss unless the reference is frequently reset. And most test

13

equipment manufacturers do not address the issue of mode power distribution
(below) in any understandable manner. [12]
Reference Cables
It should be obvious that if one uses reference cables to connect to cables under test
to measure connector loss, it is vitally important that the reference cables are top
quality and kept in excellent condition. Reference cables should be tested daily using
FOTP-171 method on the equipment they will be used on or after every 20-100
measurements. Reference cables should be discarded if single-ended loss exceeds
0.5 dB. They should be cleaned each time they are used. [12]
Cleanliness
With fiber optics, our tolerance to dirt is near zero. Airborne particles are about the
size of the core of SM fiber and are usually silica based- they may scratch
connectors if not removed. Dirt can cause connector loss variations of tenths of a dB.
Test equipment that has fiber-bulkhead connections need periodic cleaning, since
they may have hundreds of insertions of test cables in short time frames.[3]
Mismatched Fibers
Today, it is not uncommon to find a building or campus with two sizes of multimode
fiber (50/125 and 62.5/125) and single-mode, often terminated in the same rack.
Needles to say, color coding these different fibers is important. When testing any
fiber, its necessary to use reference cables of the same fiber size. Testing 50/125
with 62.5/125 reference cables will give virtually no loss when going from the small
fiber to the larger one, but 2-4 dB excess loss in the other direction. Connecting any
MM fiber to SM will cause 15-20 dB excess loss. [3]
Source Wavelength
Since fiber loss is wavelength dependent, the wavelength becomes critical for long
single mode fibers. A variation of 10 nm in source wavelength can cause variations
of 0.05 dB/km in loss, not a problem on a few km long fibers, but could be 5 dB on
100 km.

14

Mode Power Distribution
Multimode fiber is called multimode because it transmits light in many modes or
rays of light, which travel in curving (sine wave) paths. The light in some modes
stays close to the center of the fiber core (called lower-order modes), while others
(called higher-order modes) go close to the edge of the core. The term mode
power distribution or MPD is used to describe this phenomenon. [3]
The lower-order modes traveling close to the center of the core actually travel
shorter paths through the fiber than those traveling all the way to the outside of the
core. The higher order modes suffer more attenuation simply because they travel
through more glass in their longer paths down the fiber. Thus, as you go down a
length of fiber, the higher-order modes are attenuated more, so that the light in the
fiber becomes more concentrated in the center of the core, as shown in the lower
fiber. [3]
This has two effects that affect the loss of a cable plant. First, the attenuation
coefficient (expressed in dB/km) of the fiber itself decreases along the fiber as the
higher order modes are more attenuated, leaving only the lower loss central modes.
This effect may take 1-2 km to reach equilibrium, and the attenuation coefficient of
the fiber can be considerably less, as much as 1 dB/km at 850 nm, at the end of the
second kilometer. Secondly, as the light concentrates in the center of the core, the
loss at connectors or splices is reduced, as the geometric offset of a connector is
less a factor when the light is concentrated in the center of the core. [3]


15

CHAPTER 2
2. Fiber Optics Fundamentals

2.1 Introduction to Fiber Optics
An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made of glass (silica) or plastic, slightly
thicker than a human hair. It functions as a waveguide or light pipe to transmit light
between the two ends of the fiber.

The field of Applied Science and Engineering
concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber
optics.[1]
Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits
transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other
forms of communication. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals
travel along them with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic
interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so
that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces.
Specially-designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including
sensors and fiber lasers. [1]
Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and computer
networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially
advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through
the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long
distances to be spanned with few repeaters. Additionally, the per-channel light
signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high as 111
gigabits per second,

although 10 or 40G bit/s is typical in deployed systems. Each
fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of
light

16

Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent
cladding material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by total
internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support
many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF),
while those that only support a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF).
Multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter, and are used for short-
distance communication links and for applications where high power must be
transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than
1,050 meters.
2.2 The Physics behind Fiber Optics
A fiber-optic cable is composed of two concentric layers, called the core and the
cladding, as illustrated in Figure 2-1. The core and cladding have different refractive
indices, with the core having a refractive index of n1, and the cladding having a
refractive index of n2. The index of refraction is a way of measuring the speed of
light in a material. Light travels fastest in a vacuum. The actual speed of light in a
vacuum is 300,000 kilometers per second, or 186,000 miles per second.

Figure 2-1 Cross Section of a Fiber-Optic Cable [4]

17

The index of refraction is calculated by dividing the speed of light in a vacuum by the
speed of light in another medium, as shown in the following formula:
Refractive index of the medium = [Speed of light in a vacuum/Speed of light in
the medium]
The refractive index of the core, n1, is always greater than the index of the cladding,
n2. Light is guided through the core, and the fiber acts as an optical waveguide.
Figure 2.2 shows the propagation of light down the fiber-optic cable using the
principle of total internal reflection. As illustrated, a light ray is injected into the fiber-
optic cable on the left. If the light ray is injected and strikes the core-to-cladding
interface at an angle greater than the critical angle with respect to the normal axis, it
is reflected back into the core. Because the angle of incidence is always equal to the
angle of reflection, the reflected light continues to be reflected. The light ray then
continues bouncing down the length of the fiber-optic cable. If the angle of incidence
at the core-to-cladding interface is less than the critical angle, both reflection and
refraction take place. Because of refraction at each incidence on the interface, the
light beam attenuates and dies off over a certain distance. [4]

Figure 2-2 Total Internal Reflection [4]


18

The critical angle is fixed by the indices of refraction of the core and cladding and is
computed using the following formula:
c = cos
1
(n2/n1) (2.1)
The critical angle can be measured from the normal or cylindrical axis of the core. If
n1 = 1.557 and n2 = 1.343, for example, the critical angle is 30.39 degrees.
Figure 3-2 shows a light ray entering the core from the outside air to the left of the
cable. Light must enter the core from the air at an angle less than an entity known as
the acceptance angle ( a):
a = sin
1
[(n1/n0) sin( c)] (2.2)
In the formula, n0 is the refractive index of air and is equal to one. This angle is
measured from the cylindrical axis of the core. In the preceding example, the
acceptance angle is 51.96 degrees.
The optical fiber also has a numerical aperture (NA). The NA is given by the
following formula:
NA = Sin a = (n1
2
n2
2
) (2.3)
From a three-dimensional perspective, to ensure that the signals reflect and travel
correctly through the core, the light must enter the core through an acceptance cone
derived by rotating the acceptance angle about the cylindrical fiber axis. As
illustrated in Figure 2-3, the size of the acceptance cone is a function of the refractive
index difference between the core and the cladding. There is a maximum angle from
the fiber axis at which light can enter the fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in
the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle is the NA of the fiber. The NA
in the preceding example is 0.787. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to
splice and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a smaller
NA than MMF.


19

Figure 2-3 Acceptance Cone [4]

2.2.1 Performance Considerations
The amount of light that can be coupled into the core through the external
acceptance angle is directly proportional to the efficiency of the fiber-optic cable. The
greater the amount of light that can be coupled into the core, the lower the bit error
rate (BER), because more light reaches the receiver. The attenuation a light ray
experiences in propagating down the core is inversely proportional to the efficiency
of the optical cable because the lower the attenuation in propagating down the core,
the lower the BER. This is because more light reaches the receiver. Also, the
less chromatic dispersion realized in propagating down the core, the faster the
signaling rate and the higher the end-to-end data rate from source to destination.
The major factors that affect performance considerations described in this paragraph
are the size of the fiber, the composition of the fiber, and the mode of propagation.[4]
2.2.2 Optical-Power Measurement
The power level in optical communications is of too wide a range to express on a
linear scale. A logarithmic scale known as decibel (dB) is used to express power in
optical communications.
The wide range of power values makes decibel a convenient unit to express the
power levels that are associated with an optical system. The gain of an amplifier or
attenuation in fiber is expressed in decibels. The decibel does not give a magnitude
of power, but it is a ratio of the output power to the input power.

20

2.3 Types of Optical Fibers

Understanding the characteristics of different fiber types aides in understanding the
applications for which they are used. Operating a fiber optic system properly relies
on knowing what type of fiber is being used and why. There are two basic types of
fiber: [5]
Multi-mode fiber
Single-mode fiber
2.3.1 Multimode Fiber
Multimode fiber, the first to be manufactured and commercialized, simply refers to
the fact that numerous modes or light rays are carried simultaneously through the
waveguide. It is best designed for short transmission distances, and is suited for use
in LAN systems and video surveillance. Modes result from the fact that light will only
propagate in the fiber core at discrete angles within the cone of acceptance. This
fiber type has a much larger core diameter, compared to single-mode fiber, allowing
for the larger number of modes, and multimode fiber is easier to couple than single-
mode optical fiber. Multimode fiber may be categorized as step-index or graded-
index fiber. [5]
(i) Multimode Step-index Fiber
Figure 2.4 shows how the principle of total internal reflection applies to multimode
step-index fiber. Because the core's index of refraction is higher than the cladding's
index of refraction, the light that enters at less than the critical angle is guided along
the fiber.


21

Figure 2-4 Total internal Reflection in Multimode Step-index Fiber [5]

Three different light waves travel down the fiber. One mode travels straight down the
center of the core. A second mode travels at a steep angle and bounces back and
forth by total internal reflection. The third mode exceeds the critical angle and
refracts into the cladding. Intuitively, it can be seen that the second mode travels a
longer distance than the first mode, causing the two modes to arrive at separate
times. This disparity between arrival times of the different light rays is known as
dispersion, and the result is a muddied signal at the receiving end. For a more
detailed discussion of dispersion, see "Dispersion in Fiber Optic Systems" however,
it is important to note that high dispersion is an unavoidable characteristic of
multimode step-index fiber.
(ii) Multimode Graded-index Fiber
Graded-index refers to the fact that the refractive index of the core gradually
decreases farther from the center of the core. The increased refraction in the center
of the core slows the speed of some light rays, allowing all the light rays to reach the
receiving end at approximately the same time, reducing dispersion.

22

Figure 2-5 Multimode Graded-index Fiber [5]

Figure 2.5 shows the principle of multimode graded-index fiber. The core's central
refractive index, nA, is greater than that of the outer core's refractive index, nB. As
discussed earlier, the core's refractive index is parabolic, being higher at the center.
As Figure 1.2 shows, the light rays no longer follow straight lines; they follow a
serpentine path being gradually bent back toward the center by the continuously
declining refractive index. This reduces the arrival time disparity because all modes
arrive at about the same time. The modes traveling in a straight line are in a higher
refractive index, so they travel slower than the serpentine modes. These travel
farther but move faster in the lower refractive index of the outer core region.
2.3.2 Single-mode Fiber
Single-mode fiber allows for a higher capacity to transmit information because it can
retain the fidelity of each light pulse over longer distances, and it exhibits no
dispersion caused by multiple modes. Single-mode fiber also enjoys lower fiber
attenuation than multimode fiber. Thus, more information can be transmitted per unit
of time. Like multimode fiber, early single-mode fiber was generally characterized as
step-index fiber meaning the refractive index of the fiber core is a step above that of
the cladding rather than graduated as it is in graded-index fiber.. Modern single-
mode fibers have evolved into more complex designs such as matched clad,
depressed clad and other exotic structures. Single-mode fiber is best designed for
longer transmission distances, making it suitable for long-distance telephony and
multichannel television broadcast systems. [5]

23

Figure 2-6 Cladding [5]

Single-mode fiber has disadvantages. The smaller core diameter makes coupling
light into the core more difficult. The tolerances for single-mode connectors and
splices are also much more demanding. Single-mode fiber has gone through a
continuing evolution for several decades now. As a result, there are three basic
classes of single-mode fiber used in modern telecommunications systems. The
oldest and most widely deployed type is non dispersion-shifted fiber (NDSF). These
fibers were initially intended for use near 1310 nm. Later, 1550 nm systems made
NDSF fiber undesirable due to its very high dispersion at the 1550 nm wavelength.
To address this shortcoming, fiber manufacturers developed, dispersion-shifted fiber
(DSF), that moved the zero-dispersion point to the 1550 nm region. Years later,
scientists would discover that while DSF worked extremely well with a single 1550
nm wavelength, it exhibits serious nonlinearities when multiple, closely-spaced
wavelengths in the 1550 nm were transmitted in DWDM systems. Recently, to
address the problem of nonlinearities, a new class of fibers was introduced. These
are classified as non zero-dispersion-shifted fibers (NZ-DSF). The fiber is available
in both positive and negative dispersion varieties and is rapidly becoming the fiber of
choice in new fiber deployment. For more information on this loss mechanism, see
the article "Fiber Dispersion." [5]


24

Figure 2-7 Dispersion for Alternating 20km Lengths of (+D) NZ-DSF and (-D) NZ-DSF Fiber [5]

One additional important variety of single-mode fiber is polarization-maintaining (PM)
fiber. All other single-mode fibers discussed so far have been capable of carrying
randomly polarized light. PM fiber is designed to propagate only one polarization of
the input light. This is important for components such as external modulators that
require a polarized light input. Figure 7 shows the cross-section of a type of PM fiber.
This fiber contains a feature not seen in other fiber types. Besides the core, there are
two additional circles called stress rods. As their name implies, these stress rods
create stress in the core of the fiber such that the transmission of only one
polarization plane of light is favored. Single-mode fibers experience nonlinearities
that can greatly affect system performance. For complete information, see "Fiber
Nonlinearities."
2.4 Optical-Cable Construction
The core is the highly refractive central region of an optical fiber through which light
is transmitted. The standard telecommunications core diameter in use with SMF is
between 8 m and 10 m, whereas the standard core diameter in use with MMF is
between 50 m and 62.5 m. Figure 2.8 shows the core diameter for SMF and
MMF cable. The diameter of the cladding surrounding each of these cores is 125
m. Core sizes of 85 m and 100 m were used in early applications, but are not
typically used today. The core and cladding are manufactured together as a single
solid component of glass with slightly different compositions and refractive indices.
The third section of an optical fiber is the outer protective coating known as the

25

coating. The coating is typically an ultraviolet (UV) light-cured acrylate applied during
the manufacturing process to provide physical and environmental protection for the
fiber. The buffer coating could also be constructed out of one or more layers of
polymer, nonporous hard elastomers or high-performance PVC materials. The
coating does not have any optical properties that might affect the propagation of light
within the fiber-optic cable. During the installation process, this coating is stripped
away from the cladding to allow proper termination to an optical transmission
system. The coating size can vary, but the standard sizes are 250 m and 900
m. The 250- m coating takes less space in larger outdoor cables. The 900- m
coating is larger and more suitable for smaller indoor cables.[4]

Figure 2-8 Fiber Optic construction [4]

Fiber-optic cable sizes are usually expressed by first giving the core size followed by
the cladding size. Consequently, 50/125 indicates a core diameter of 50 microns and
a cladding diameter of 125 microns, and 8/125 indicates a core diameter of 8
microns and a cladding diameter of 125 microns. The larger the core, the more light
can be coupled into it from the external acceptance angle cone. However, larger-
diameter cores can actually allow in too much light, which can cause receiver
saturation problems. The 8/125 cable is often used when a fiber-optic data link

26

operates with single-mode propagation, whereas the 62.5/125 cable is often used in
a fiber-optic data link that operates with multimode propagation. [4]
Three types of material make up fiber-optic cables: [4]
Glass
Plastic
Plastic-clad silica (PCS)
These three cable types differ with respect to attenuation. Attenuation is principally
caused by two physical effects: absorption and scattering. Absorption removes
signal energy in the interaction between the propagating light (photons) and
molecules in the core. Scattering redirects light out of the core to the cladding. When
attenuation for a fiber-optic cable is dealt with quantitatively, it is referenced for
operation at a particular optical wavelength, a window, where it is minimized. The
most common peak wavelengths are 780 nm, 850 nm, 1310 nm, 1550 nm, and 1625
nm. The 850-nm region is referred to as the first window (as it was used initially
because it supported the original LED and detector technology). The 1310-nm region
is referred to as the second window, and the 1550-nm region is referred to as the
third window.
2.4.1 Glass Fiber-Optic Cable
Glass fiber-optic cable has the lowest attenuation. A pure-glass, fiber-optic cable has
a glass core and a glass cladding. This cable type has, by far, the most widespread
use. It has been the most popular with link installers, and it is the type of cable with
which installers have the most experience. The glass used in a fiber-optic cable is
ultra-pure, ultra-transparent, silicon dioxide, or fused quartz. During the glass fiber-
optic cable fabrication process, impurities are purposely added to the pure glass to
obtain the desired indices of refraction needed to guide light. Germanium, titanium,
or phosphorous is added to increase the index of refraction. Boron or fluorine is
added to decrease the index of refraction. Other impurities might somehow remain
in the glass cable after fabrication. These residual impurities can increase the
attenuation by either scattering or absorbing light.

27

2.4.2 Plastic Fiber-Optic Cable
Plastic fiber-optic cable has the highest attenuation among the three types of cable.
Plastic fiber-optic cable has a plastic core and cladding. This fiber-optic cable is quite
thick. Typical dimensions are 480/500, 735/750, and 980/1000. The core generally
consists of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) coated with a fluropolymer. Plastic fiber-
optic cable was pioneered principally for use in the automotive industry. The higher
attenuation relative to glass might not be a serious obstacle with the short cable runs
often required in premise data networks. The cost advantage of plastic fiber-optic
cable is of interest to network architects when they are faced with budget decisions.
Plastic fiber-optic cable does have a problem with flammability. Because of this, it
might not be appropriate for certain environments and care has to be taken when it is
run through a plenum. Otherwise, plastic fiber is considered extremely rugged with a
tight bend radius and the capability to withstand abuse.
2.4.3 Plastic-Clad Silica (PCS) Fiber-Optic Cable
The attenuation of PCS fiber-optic cable falls between that of glass and plastic. PCS
fiber-optic cable has a glass core, which is often vitreous silica, and the cladding is
plastic, usually a silicone elastomer with a lower refractive index. PCS fabricated with
a silicone elastomer cladding suffers from three major defects. First, it has
considerable plasticity, which makes connector application difficult. Second,
adhesive bonding is not possible. And third, it is practically insoluble in organic
solvents. These three factors keep this type of fiber-optic cable from being
particularly popular with link installers. However, some improvements have been
made in recent years.
Note that for data center premise cables, the jacket color depends on the fiber type
in the cable. For cables containing SMFs, the jacket color is typically yellow, whereas
for cables containing MMFs, the jacket color is typically orange. For outside plant
cables, the standard jacket color is typically black. More explanation is given in [4]


28

2.5 Fiber-Optic Characteristics
Optical-fiber systems have many advantages over metallic-based communication
systems. These advantages include interference, attenuation, and bandwidth
characteristics. Furthermore, the relatively smaller cross section of fiber-optic cables
allows room for substantial growth of the capacity in existing conduits. Fiber-optic
characteristics can be classified as linear and nonlinear. Nonlinear characteristics
are influenced by parameters, such as bit rates, channel spacing, and power levels.
[1]
2.5.1 Interference
Light signals traveling via a fiber-optic cable are immune from electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and radio-frequency interference (RFI). Lightning and high-voltage
interference is also eliminated. A fiber network is best for conditions in which EMI or
RFI interference is heavy or safe operation free from sparks and static is a must.
This desirable property of fiber-optic cable makes it the medium of choice in
industrial and biomedical networks. It is also possible to place fiber cable into
natural-gas pipelines and use the pipelines as the conduit.
2.5.2 Linear Characteristics
Linear characteristics include attenuation, chromatic dispersion (CD), polarization
mode dispersion (PMD), and optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR).[4]
a) Attenuation
Several factors can cause attenuation, but it is generally categorized as either
intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic attenuation is caused by substances inherently present
in the fiber, whereas extrinsic attenuation is caused by external forces such as
bending. The attenuation coefficient is expressed in decibels per kilometer and
represents the loss in decibels per kilometer of fiber.


29

Intrinsic Attenuation
Intrinsic attenuation results from materials inherent to the fiber. It is caused by
impurities in the glass during the manufacturing process. As precise as
manufacturing is, there is no way to eliminate all impurities. When a light signal hits
an impurity in the fiber, one of two things occurs: It scatters or it is absorbed. Intrinsic
loss can be further characterized by two components:
Material absorption
Rayleigh scattering
Material Absorption
Material absorption occurs as a result of the imperfection and impurities in the fiber.
The most common impurity is the hydroxyl (OH-) molecule, which remains as a
residue despite stringent manufacturing techniques. Figure 2.9 shows the variation
of attenuation with wavelength measured over a group of fiber-optic cable material
types. The three principal windows of operation include the 850-nm, 1310-nm, and
1550-nm wavelength bands. These correspond to wavelength regions in which
attenuation is low and matched to the capability of a transmitter to generate light
efficiently and a receiver to carry out detection.


30

Figure 2-9 Attenuation versus Wavelength [19]

The OH- symbols indicate that at the 950-nm, 1380-nm, and 2730-nm wavelengths,
the presence of hydroxyl radicals in the cable material causes an increase in
attenuation. These radicals result from the presence of water remnants that enter the
fiber-optic cable material through either a chemical reaction in the manufacturing
process or as humidity in the environment. The variation of attenuation with
wavelength due to the water peak for standard, single-mode fiber-optic cable occurs
mainly around 1380 nm. Recent advances in manufacturing have overcome the
1380-nm water peak and have resulted in zero-water-peak fiber (ZWPF). Examples
of these fibers include SMF-28e from Corning and the Furukawa-Lucent OFS All
Wave. Absorption accounts for three percent to five percent of fiber attenuation. This
phenomenon causes a light signal to be absorbed by natural impurities in the glass
and converted to vibration energy or some other form of energy such as heat. Unlike
scattering, absorption can be limited by controlling the amount of impurities during
the manufacturing process. Because most fiber is extremely pure, the fiber does not
heat up because of absorption.


31

Rayleigh scattering
As light travels in the core, it interacts with the silica molecules in the core. Rayleigh
scattering is the result of these elastic collisions between the light wave and the silica
molecules in the fiber. Rayleigh scattering accounts for about 96 percent of
attenuation in optical fiber. If the scattered light maintains an angle that supports
forward travel within the core, no attenuation occurs. If the light is scattered at an
angle that does not support continued forward travel, however, the light is diverted
out of the core and attenuation occurs. Depending on the incident angle, some
portion of the light propagates forward and the other part deviates out of the
propagation path and escapes from the fiber core. Some scattered light is reflected
back toward the light source. This is a property that is used in an optical time domain
reflectometer (OTDR) to test fibers. The same principle applies to analyzing loss
associated with localized events in the fiber, such as splices.
Short wavelengths are scattered more than longer wavelengths. Any wavelength that
is below 800 nm is unusable for optical communication because attenuation due to
Rayleigh scattering is high. At the same time, propagation above 1700 nm is not
possible due to high losses resulting from infrared absorption. More information
about this topic is given in chapter 3 of this thesis.
Extrinsic Attenuation
Extrinsic attenuation can be caused by two external mechanisms: macro bending or
micro bending. Both cause a reduction of optical power. If a bend is imposed on an
optical fiber, strain is placed on the fiber along the region that is bent. The bending
strain affects the refractive index and the critical angle of the light ray in that specific
area. As a result, light traveling in the core can refract out, and loss occurs.
A Macrobend: is a large-scale bend that is visible, and the loss is generally
reversible after bends are corrected. To prevent macrobends, all optical fiber has a
minimum bend radius specification that should not be exceeded. This is a restriction
on how much bend a fiber can withstand before experiencing problems in optical
performance or mechanical reliability.

32

A Microbend: is caused by imperfections in the cylindrical geometry of fiber during
the manufacturing process. Microbending might be related to temperature, tensile
stress, or crushing force. Like macrobending, microbending causes a reduction of
optical power in the glass. Microbending is very localized, and the bend might not be
clearly visible on inspection. With bare fiber, microbending can be reversible.
b) Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic dispersion is the spreading of a light pulse as it travels down a fiber. Light
has a dual nature and can be considered from an electromagnetic wave as well as
quantum perspective. This enables us to quantify it as waves as well as quantum
particles. During the propagation of light, all of its spectral components propagate
accordingly. These spectral components travel at different group velocities that lead
to dispersion called group velocity dispersion (GVD). Dispersion resulting from GVD
is termed chromatic dispersion due to its wavelength dependence. The effect of
chromatic dispersion is pulse spread.
As the pulses spread, or broaden, they tend to overlap and are no longer
distinguishable by the receiver as 0s and 1s. Light pulses launched close together
(high data rates) that spread too much (high dispersion) result in errors and loss of
information. Chromatic dispersion occurs as a result of the range of wavelengths
present in the light source. Light from lasers and LEDs consists of a range of
wavelengths, each of which travels at a slightly different speed. Over distance, the
varying wavelength speeds cause the light pulse to spread in time. This is of
most importance in single-mode applications. Modal dispersion is significant in
multimode applications, in which the various modes of light traveling down the fiber
arrive at the receiver at different times, causing a spreading effect. Chromatic
dispersion is common at all bit rates. Chromatic dispersion can be compensated for
or mitigated through the use of dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF). DSF is fiber doped
with impurities that have negative dispersion characteristics. Chromatic dispersion is
measured in ps/nm-km. A 1-dB power margin is typically reserved to account for the
effects of chromatic dispersion.

33

c) Polarization Mode Dispersion
Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is caused by asymmetric distortions to the fiber
from a perfect cylindrical geometry. The fiber is not truly a cylindrical waveguide, but
it can be best described as an imperfect cylinder with physical dimensions that are
not perfectly constant. The mechanical stress exerted upon the fiber due to
extrinsically induced bends and stresses caused during cabling, deployment, and
splicing as well as the imperfections resulting from the manufacturing process are
the reasons for the variations in the cylindrical geometry.
Single-mode optical fiber and components support one fundamental mode, which
consists of two orthogonal polarization modes. This asymmetry introduces small
refractive index differences for the two polarization states. This characteristic is
known as birefringence. Birefringence causes one polarization mode to travel faster
than the other, resulting in a difference in the propagation time, which is called the
differential group delay (DGD). DGD is the unit that is used to describe PMD. DGD is
typically measured in picoseconds. A fiber that acquires birefringence causes a
propagating pulse to lose the balance between the polarization components. This
leads to a stage in which different polarization components travel at different
velocities, creating a pulse spread as shown in Figure 2.10. PMD can be classified
as first-order PMD, also known as DGD, and second-order PMD (SOPMD). The
SOPMD results from dispersion that occurs because of the signal's wavelength
dependence and spectral width.
PMD is not an issue at low bit rates but becomes an issue at bit rates in excess of 5
Gbps. PMD is noticeable at high bit rates and is a significant source of impairment
for ultra-long-haul systems. PMD compensation can be achieved by using PMD
compensators that contain dispersion-maintaining fibers with degrees of
birefringence in them. The introduced birefringence negates the effects of PMD over
a length of transmission. For error-free transmission, PMD compensation is a useful
technique for long-haul and metropolitan-area networks running at bit rates greater
than 10 Gbps. Note in Figure 2.10 that the DGD is the difference between Z
1
and Z
2
.
The PMD value of the fiber is the mean value over time or frequency of the DGD and

34

is represented as ps/ km. A 0.5-dB power margin is typically reserved to account for
the effects of PMD at high bit rates.

Figure 2-10 Polarization Mode Dispersion [5]

d) Polarization Dependent Loss
Polarization dependent loss (PDL) refers to the difference in the maximum and
minimum variation in transmission or insertion loss of an optical device over all
states of polarization (SOP) and is expressed in decibels. A typical PDL for a simple
optical connector is less than .05 dB and varies from component to component.
Typically, the PDL for an optical add/drop multiplexer (OADM) is around 0.3 dB. The
complete polarization characterization of optical signals and components can be
determined using an optical polarization analyzer.
e) Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio
The optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) specifies the ratio of the net signal power to
the net noise power and thus identifies the quality of the signal. Attenuation can be
compensated for by amplifying the optical signal. However, optical amplifiers amplify
the signal as well as the noise. Over time and distance, the receivers cannot
distinguish the signal from the noise, and the signal is completely lost. Regeneration
helps mitigate these undesirable effects before they can render the system unusable
and ensures that the signal can be detected at the receiver. Optical amplifiers add a

35

certain amount of noise to the channel. Active devices, such as lasers, also add
noise. Passive devices, such as taps and the fiber, can also add noise components.
In the calculation of system design, however, optical amplifier noise is considered
the predominant source for OSNR penalty and degradation.
OSNR is an important and fundamental system design consideration. Another
parameter considered by designers is the Q-factor. The Q-factor, a function of the
OSNR, provides a qualitative description of the receiver performance. The Q-factor
suggests the minimum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) required to obtain a specific BER
for a given signal. OSNR is measured in decibels. The higher the bit rate, the higher
the OSNR ratio required. For OC-192 transmissions, the OSNR should be at least 27
to 31 dB compared to 18 to 21 dB for OC-48.
2.5.3 Nonlinear Characteristics
Nonlinear characteristics include self-phase modulation (SPM), cross-phase
modulation (XPM), four-wave mixing (FWM), stimulated Raman scattering (SRS),
and stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS).[4]
Self-Phase Modulation
Phase modulation of an optical signal by itself is known as self-phase modulation
(SPM). SPM is primarily due to the self-modulation of the pulses. Generally, SPM
occurs in single-wavelength systems. At high bit rates, however, SPM tends to
cancel dispersion. SPM increases with high signal power levels. In fiber plant design,
a strong input signal helps overcome linear attenuation and dispersion losses.
However, consideration must be given to receiver saturation and to nonlinear effects
such as SPM, which occurs with high signal levels. SPM results in phase shift and a
nonlinear pulse spread. As the pulses spread, they tend to overlap and are no longer
distinguishable by the receiver. The acceptable norm in system design to counter the
SPM effect is to take into account a power penalty that can be assumed equal to the
negative effect posed by XPM. A 0.5-dB power margin is typically reserved to
account for the effects of SPM at high bit rates and power levels.

36

Cross-Phase Modulation
Cross-phase modulation (XPM) is a nonlinear effect that limits system performance
in wavelength-division multiplexed (WDM) systems. XPM is the phase modulation of
a signal caused by an adjacent signal within the same fiber. XPM is related to the
combination (dispersion/effective area). CPM results from the different carrier
frequencies of independent channels, including the associated phase shifts on one
another. The induced phase shift is due to the walkover effect, whereby two pulses
at different bit rates or with different group velocities walk across each other. As a
result, the slower pulse sees the walkover and induces a phase shift. The total phase
shift depends on the net power of all the channels and on the bit output of the
channels. Maximum phase shift is produced when bits belonging to high-powered
adjacent channels walk across each other.
XPM can be mitigated by carefully selecting unequal bit rates for adjacent WDM
channels. XPM, in particular, is severe in long-haul WDM networks, and the
acceptable norm in system design to counter this effect is to take into account a
power penalty that can be assumed equal to the negative effect posed by XPM. A
0.5-dB power margin is typically reserved to account for the effects of XPM in WDM
fiber systems.
Four-Wave Mixing
FWM can be compared to the intermodulation distortion in standard electrical
systems. When three wavelengths (1, 2, and 3) interact in a nonlinear medium,
they give rise to a fourth wavelength ( 4), which is formed by the scattering of the
three incident photons, producing the fourth photon. This effect is known as four-
wave mixing (FWM) and is a fiber-optic characteristic that affects WDM systems.
The effects of FWM are pronounced with decreased channel spacing of wavelengths
and at high signal power levels. High chromatic dispersion also increases FWM
effects. FWM also causes interchannel cross-talk effects for equally spaced WDM
channels. FWM can be mitigated by using uneven channel spacing in WDM systems
or nonzero dispersion-shifted fiber (NZDSF). A 0.5-dB power margin is typically
reserved to account for the effects of FWM in WDM systems.

37

Stimulated Raman Scattering
When light propagates through a medium, the photons interact with silica molecules
during propagation. The photons also interact with themselves and cause scattering
effects, such as stimulated Raman scattering (SRS), in the forward and reverse
directions of propagation along the fiber. This results in a sporadic distribution of
energy in a random direction. [4]
SRS refers to lower wavelengths pumping up the amplitude of higher wavelengths,
which results in the higher wavelengths suppressing signals from the lower
wavelengths. One way to mitigate the effects of SRS is to lower the input power. In
SRS, a low-wavelength wave called Stoke's wave is generated due to the scattering
of energy. This wave amplifies the higher wavelengths. The gain obtained by using
such a wave forms the basis of Raman amplification. The Raman gain can extend
most of the operating band (C- and L-band) for WDM networks. SRS is pronounced
at high bit rates and high power levels. The margin design requirement to account for
SRS/SBS is 0.5 dB. [4]
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) is due to the acoustic properties of photon
interaction with the medium. When light propagates through a medium, the photons
interact with silica molecules during propagation. The photons also interact with
themselves and cause scattering effects such as SBS in the reverse direction of
propagation along the fiber. In SBS, a low-wavelength wave called Stoke's wave is
generated due to the scattering of energy. This wave amplifies the higher
wavelengths. The gain obtained by using such a wave forms the basis of Brillouin
amplification. The Brillouin gain peaks in a narrow peak near the C-band. SBS is
pronounced at high bit rates and high power levels. The margin design requirement
to account for SRS/SBS is 0.5 dB. [4]


38

2.6 Fiber-Optic Cable Termination
There are many types of optical connectors. The one you use depends on the
equipment you are using it with and the application you are using it on. The
connector is a mechanical device mounted on the end of a fiber-optic cable, light
source, receiver, or housing. The connector allows the fiber-optic cable, light source,
receiver, or housing to be mated to a similar device. The connector must direct light
and collect light and must be easily attached and detached from equipment. A
connector marks a place in the premises fiber-optic data link where signal power can
be lost and the BER can be affected by a mechanical connection. Of the many
different connector types, those for glass fiber-optic cable and plastic fiber-optic
cable are discussed in this chapter. Other considerations for terminations are
repeatability of connection and vibration resistance. Physical termination density is
another consideration. Commonly used fiber-optic connectors are discussed in the
following subsections.[4]

Figure 2-11 Fiber-Optic Connectors [19]


39

2.6.1 FC Connectors
These connectors are used for single-mode and multimode fiber-optic cables. FC
connectors offer extremely precise positioning of the fiber-optic cable with respect to
the transmitter's optical source emitter and the receiver's optical detector. FC
connectors feature a position locatable notch and a threaded receptacle. FC
connectors are constructed with a metal housing and are nickel-plated. They have
ceramic ferrules and are rated for 500 mating cycles. The insertion loss for matched
FC connectors is 0.25 dB. From a design perspective, it is recommended to use a
loss margin of 0.5 dB or the vendor recommendation for FC connectors.[4]
2.6.2 SC Connectors
SC connectors are used with single-mode and multimode fiber-optic cables. They
offer low cost, simplicity, and durability. SC connectors provide for accurate
alignment via their ceramic ferrules. An SC connector is a push-on, pull-off connector
with a locking tab. Typical matched SC connectors are rated for 1000 mating cycles
and have an insertion loss of 0.25 dB. From a design perspective, it is recommended
to use a loss margin of 0.5 dB or the vendor recommendation for SC connectors. [4]
2.6.3 ST Connectors
The ST connector is a keyed bayonet connector and is used for both multimode and
single-mode fiber-optic cables. It can be inserted into and removed from a fiber-optic
cable both quickly and easily. Method of location is also easy. ST connectors come
in two versions: ST and ST-II. These are keyed and spring-loaded. They are push-in
and twist types. ST connectors are constructed with a metal housing and are nickel-
plated. They have ceramic ferrules and are rated for 500 mating cycles. The typical
insertion loss for matched ST connectors is 0.25 dB. From a design perspective, it is
recommended to use a loss margin of 0.5 dB or the vendor recommendation for ST
connectors. [4]
2.6.4 LC Connectors
LC connectors are used with single-mode and multimode fiber-optic cables. The LC
connectors are constructed with a plastic housing and provide for accurate alignment

40

via their ceramic ferrules. LC connectors have a locking tab. LC connectors are rated
for 500 mating cycles. The typical insertion loss for matched LC connectors is 0.25
dB. From a design perspective, it is recommended to use a loss margin of 0.5 dB or
the vendor recommendation for LC connectors. [4]
2.6.5 MT-RJ Connectors
MT-RJ connectors are used with single-mode and multimode fiber-optic cables. The
MT-RJ connectors are constructed with a plastic housing and provide for accurate
alignment via their metal guide pins and plastic ferrules. MT-RJ connectors are rated
for 1000 mating cycles. The typical insertion loss for matched MT-RJ connectors is
0.25 dB for SMF and 0.35 dB for MMF. From a design perspective, it is
recommended to use a loss margin of 0.5 dB or the vendor recommendation for MT-
RJ connectors. [4]
2.6.6 MTP/MPO Connectors
MTP/MPO connectors are used with single-mode and multimode fiber-optic cables.
The MTP/MPO is a connector manufactured specifically for a multifiber ribbon cable.
The MTP/MPO single-mode connectors have an angled ferrule allowing for minimal
back reflection, whereas the multimode connector ferrule is commonly flat. The
ribbon cable is flat and appropriately named due to its flat ribbon-like structure, which
houses fibers side by side in a jacket. The typical insertion loss for matched
MTP/MPO connectors is 0.25 dB. From a design perspective, it is recommended to
use a loss margin of 0.5 dB or the vendor recommendation for MTP/MPO
connectors. [4]

2.7 Fiber-Optics Applications
The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and optical-fiber
applications are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging
from global networks to desktop computers. These involve the transmission of voice,
data, or video over distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using
one of a few standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs.

41

Carriers use optical fiber to carry plain old telephone service (POTS) across their
nationwide networks. Local exchange carriers (LECs) use fiber to carry this same
service between central office switches at local levels, and sometimes as far as the
neighborhood or individual home (fiber to the home [FTTH]). [4]
Optical fiber is also used extensively for transmission of data. Multinational firms
need secure reliable systems to transfer data and financial information between
buildings to the desktop terminals or computers and to transfer data around the
world. Cable television companies also use fiber for delivery of digital video and data
services. The high bandwidth provided by fiber makes it the perfect choice for
transmitting broadband signals, such as high-definition television (HDTV) telecasts.
Intelligent transportation systems, such as smart highways with intelligent traffic
lights, automated tollbooths, and changeable message signs, also use fiber-optic-
based telemetry systems.
Another important application for optical fiber is the biomedical industry. Fiber-optic
systems are used in most modern telemedicine devices for transmission of digital
diagnostic images. Other applications for optical fiber include space, military,
automotive, and the industrial sector.


42

CHAPTER 3
3. Optical Time Domain Reflectometry

3.1 Introduction to OTDR
An optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) is an optoelectronic instrument used to
characterize an optical fiber [2]. It uses a light pulse to characterize the fiber
characteristics along the length of the fiber. A narrow and high power optical pulse is
launched into the fiber to be tested and the backscattered light is detected. The
detected signal provides details about the loss distribution or reflections along the
fiber caused by any of the attenuation mechanisms or some other non-homogeneity
on the fiber.
One of the main benefits of an OTDR is that it operates as a one-dimensional radar
system, allowing for complete fiber characterization from only one end of the fiber.
The resolution of an OTDR is between 4 centimeters and 40 meters [6].
OTDRs are available with a variety of fiber types and wavelengths, to match
common applications. In general, OTDR testing at longer wavelengths, such as
1550 nm or 1625 nm can be used to identify fiber attenuation caused by fiber
problems, as opposed to the more common splice or connector losses.
OTDR depends on two types of optical phenomena: Rayleigh scattering and Fresnel
reflections. These two phenomena are discussed below.
3.1.1 Rayleigh backscattering
Rayleigh scattering is intrinsic to the fiber material itself and is present all along the
length of the fiber. If Rayleigh scattering is uniform along the length of the fiber, then
discontinuities in the back-scatter can be used to identify anomalies in transmission
along the length of fiber. It is the reflection of light inside the fiber from the

43

inconsistencies in the material of the fiber. These reflections are caused by
microscopic variations in the index of refraction of the fiber core. Some of the light is
scattered back in the opposite direction of the pulse. This is referred to as the
backscattered signal.
The fiber backscattering factor (S) describes the ratio between the backscattered
power and the scattered power. S is typically proportional to the square of the
numerical aperture (NA).
Depending on the fiber scattering coefficient (s) and the fiber backscattering factor
(S), the fiber backscatter coefficient (K) is the ratio of the backscattered power to the
energy launched into the fiber.
While Rayleigh scattering is quite uniform down the length of any given fiber, the
magnitude of Rayleigh scattering varies significantly at different wavelengths and
with different fiber manufacturers.

Figure 3-1 Rayleigh backscatter [10]

3.1.2 Fresnel reflections
Fresnel reflections are only point events. They occur when light reflects off a
boundary of two optical transmissive materials, each having a different refractive

44

index. They occur only where the fiber comes in contact with air or any other media
such as at a mechanical connection/splice or joint. They also occur at a non-
terminated fiber end, or at a break.
The magnitude of the Fresnel reflection is dependent on the relative difference
between the two refractive indexes. The power level of reflected light depends on the
boundary surface smoothness.

3.2 OTDR objectives
The main objective of an OTDR is to measure the following parameters of a fiber [17]
Identify all reflective events
Specify the location, ORL and IL of each reflective event
Identify all non-reflective events
Specify location and IL of each non-reflective event
Specify the attenuation coefficient for each section of fiber between all
adjacent pairs of events
Locate the end of fiber
Specify the end to end IL and ORL of the fiber
For this purpose, an OTDR was used to acquire waveform data from actual optical
fibers and to measure the above mentioned parameters. Analysis of the acquired
waveforms has also been done. The following sections give more detailed
information about everything related with optical time domain reflectometer.
3.3 Types of OTDR
The common types of OTDR-like test equipment are: [2]
Full-feature OTDR
Hand-held OTDR
Fiber Break Locator
RTU in RFTSs

45

The equipments are summarized below.
3.3.1 Full-feature OTDR
Full-feature OTDRs are traditional, optical time domain reflectometers. They are
feature-rich and usually larger, heavier, and less portable than either the hand-held
OTDR or the fiber break locator. Despite being characterized as large, their size and
weight is only a fraction of that of early generation OTDRs. Often a full-feature OTDR
has a main frame that can be fitted with multi-functioned plug-in units to perform
many different fiber measurement tasks. Larger, color displays are common. The
full-feature OTDR often has a greater measurement range than the other types of
OTDR-like equipment. Often it is used in laboratories and in the field for difficult fiber
measurements. Most full-feature OTDRs are powered from an AC source and or
battery source. [2]
3.3.2 Hand-held OTDR
Hand-held (formerly mini) OTDRs and fiber break locators are designed to
troubleshoot fiber networks in a field-type environment often using battery power.
The two types of instruments cover the spectrum of approaches to fiber optic plant
taken by the communications providers. Hand-held, inexpensive (compared to full-
feature) OTDRs are intended to be easy-to-use, light-weight, sophisticated OTDRs
to collect field data and perform rudimentary data analysis upon. They may be less
feature rich than full-feature OTDRs. Often they can be used in conjunction with PC-
based software to perform easy data collection with the hand-held OTDR and
sophisticated data analysis with the PC-based software. The hand-held OTDRs are
commonly used to measure fiber links and locate fiber breaks, points of high loss,
points of high reflectance, link end-to-end loss, and Optical Return Loss (ORL) for
the link. [2]
3.3.3 Fiber Break Locator
Fiber break locators are intended to be low-cost instruments specifically designed to
locate the position of a catastrophic fiber event, e.g., fiber break, point of high

46

reflectance, or high loss. The fiber break locator is an opto-electronic tape measure
that is designed to measure only distance to catastrophic fiber events.[2]
In general, hand-held OTDRs and fiber break locators are lighter and smaller,
simpler to operate, and more likely to operate using battery power than full-feature
OTDRs. The intent is for hand-held OTDRs and fiber break locators to be
inexpensive enough for optical technicians to be equipped with one as part of their
standard tool kit. [2]
3.3.4 Remote Test Unit (RTU)
The RTU is the testing module of the RFTS described in GR-1295, Generic
Requirements for Remote Fiber Testing Systems (RFTSS). An RFTS enables fiber
physical plant to be automatically tested from a central location. A central computer
is used to control the operation of OTDR-like test components located at key points
in the fiber network. These test components will scan the fiber to locate problems. If
a problem is found, its location is noted and the appropriate Operations Systems
(OSs) are notified to begin the repair process. The RFTS can also provide direct
access to a corporate database that contains a historical repository for the OTDR
fiber traces and any other fiber records for the physical fiber plant. [2]
Since OTDRs and OTDR-like equipment have many uses in the communications
industry, their possible operating environment is varied, ranging from indoors to
outdoors. Most often, however, these test sets are operated in controlled
environments, accessing the fibers at their termination points on fiber distributing
frames. Indoor environments include controlled environments such as in central
offices (COs), equipment huts, or Controlled Environment Vaults (CEVs). Use in
outside environments is rarer, but may include use in a manhole, aerial platform,
open trench, or a splicing van.
Given below is the picture of a typical OTDR.


47

Figure 3-2 Typical OTDR [2]

3.4 Components of an OTDR
The OTDR injects light energy into the fiber through a laser diode and pulse
generator. The returning light energy is separated from the injected signal using a
coupler (3-dB splitter) and is fed to the photodiode. The optical signal is converted to
an electrical value, amplified, sampled, and displayed on a screen. These
components are described briefly as follows. A more detailed explanation is give in
reference [6].
3.4.1 Emitting Diodes
Emitting diodes are semiconductors in which the light is generated by an electrical
current. Emitting diodes are selected according to the central (or peak) wavelength,
the wavelength spectral width, and the output power. There are two main types of
emitting diodes used in OTDR technology: light emitting diodes and laser diodes.


48

a) Light Emitting Diodes
A light emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits a narrow spectrum
of light. This effect is a form of electroluminescence. In general, LEDs are less
powerful than lasers, but they are much less expensive. LEDs are mainly used in
multimode OTDR applications (850 and 1300 nm). [6]
b) Laser Diodes
A laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) is an optical source
that emits photons in a coherent beam [6]. Laser light consists of a single
wavelength emitted in a narrow beam.
The Fabry Perot (FP) laser is the most common type of laser diode used in OTDR
design. It is cost effective and has the ability to deliver a high output power level. A
distributed feedback (DFB) laser is far more precise than a simple Fabry Perot laser,
but its output power delivery capability is much lower. [6]
3.4.2 Pulse Generator
A pulse generator controls a laser diode, which sends powerful light pulses (from 10
mW to 1 W) into the fiber. These pulses can have a width in the order of 2 ns to 20
s and a pulse recurrence frequency of several kHz. The repetition rate of the pulses
is limited to the rate at which the pulse return is completed, before another pulse is
launched. [6]
3.4.3 Photodiodes
OTDR photodiodes are specifically designed to measure the extremely low levels of
backscattered light at 0.0001% of that sent by the laser diode. Photodiodes must be
able to detect the relatively high power of reflected pulses of light. This can cause
problems when analyzing the results of an OTDR. [6]

49

3.4.4 Time Base and Control Unit
The control unit is the brain of the OTDR. It reads all of the acquisition points,
performs the averaging calculations, plots them as a logarithmic function of time, and
then displays the resulting trace on the OTDR screen.
The time base controls the pulse-width, the spacing between subsequent pulses,
and the signal sampling. Multiple passes are used to improve the signal-to-noise
ratio of the resulting trace. Since noise is random, many data points at a given
distance are acquired and averaged. This allows the noise level to average out and
approach zero. The resulting data more accurately represents the backscatter or
reflection level at a given point. An OTDR may acquire up to 128,000 data points and
may fire thousands of pulses. Therefore, it is imperative that the OTDR processor is
very powerful, providing the technician with fast performance measurement and
analysis. [13]

3.5 How an OTDR works
3.5.1 Theory
A basic understanding of how an OTDR works will help in analyzing a trace,
especially when something unexpected happens. An OTDR takes advantage of the
backscattered light that occurs in all fibers as light travels down the core. The OTDR
measures the time the backscattered light takes to go back and forth through the
fiber, and using the speed of light in the fiber, the OTDR calculates the distance
values used in constructing the trace (using the formula: distance = speed x time).
The amount of light scattered back to the OTDR is proportional to the backscatter of
the fiber, peak power of the OTDR test pulse and the length of the pulse sent out. If
you need more backscattered light to get good measurements, you can increase the
pulse peak power or pulse width as shown in the Figure below.

50

Figure 3-3 Increasing the pulse width increases the backscatter level [19]

A more animated block diagram showing the operation of an OTDR is given below.

Figure 3-4 OTDR Operation [10]

As we can see Light from the source is coupled to the fiber using a coupling device.
If there are any non-linearitys there will be a reflected ray from the fiber, which is
coupled to the photodiode using a coupler. A pulse generator controls the LASER
DIODE which sends powerful light pulses to the fiber .These pulses can have a width
in the order of 2ns up to 20msec and a reoccurrence of some KHz [10].

51

The duration of the pulses can be selected by the operator for different measuring
conditions (The repetition rate is limited to the rate at which the pulse return is
completed, before any other pulse is launched. The OTDR measures the time
difference between the outgoing pulse and the incoming backscattered pulses and
hence the word Time Domain.[10]
The power level of the backscattered and reflected signal is sampled over time.
These points can be plotted on an amplitude scale with respect to relative timing of
launch pulse. It then converts this time domain information into distance based on
the user entered index of fiber.[10]
The RI is inversely proportional to the velocity of propagation of light in the fiber.
OTDR uses this data to convert time to distance on the OTDR display and divide this
value by two to take round trip (or two way) into account.[10]
OTDR Time to Distance Conversion
V (Group Delay) =c/n
C: Velocity of light in Vacuum
n: Refractive Index
L (round trip Distance) = V (Group Delay) * t/2
= (c/n) * t/2

3.5.2 Information in the OTDR Trace
The backscattered light coming from the fiber is received and displayed as a graph
called the OTDR trace. They say a picture is worth a thousand words, and the OTDR
picture (or "trace" as they are called) takes a lot of words to describe all the
information in it! [22] Consider the trace in Figure below.

52

Figure 3-5 OTDR Trace [22]

All OTDR traces have a very strong reflection at the start which is from the connector
that connects the fiber under test with the OTDR. The slope of the fiber trace shows
the attenuation coefficient of the fiber and is calibrated in dB/km by the OTDR. In
order to measure fiber attenuation, you need a fairly long length of fiber with no
distortions on either end from the OTDR resolution or overloading due to large
reflections. If the fiber looks nonlinear at either end, especially near a reflective event
like a connector, avoid that section when measuring loss.
Connectors and splices are called "events" in OTDR jargon. Both should show a
loss, but connectors and mechanical splices will also show a reflective peak. The
height of that peak will indicate the amount of reflection at the event, unless it is so
large that it saturates the OTDR receiver. The various events that can be seen on an
OTDR trace include reflective events and non-reflective events.
(i) Reflective events
Discontinuities in fiber optic systems typically occur at connectors, mechanical
splices and cut or cleaved fiber ends [17]. Because of this abrupt change in the index
of refraction along the light path, a much higher amount of light is reflected back.

53

Such reflections are seen as high amplitude spikes or pulses in the OTDR trace
riding on top of the exponentially decaying Rayleigh backscattering profile. For
reflective events, connector loss is typically around 0.5 dB. For mechanical splices,
though, the loss typically ranges from 0.1 dB up to 0.2 dB [19].
If two reflective events are very close together, the OTDR may have problems
measuring the loss of each event. In this case, the loss of the combined events is
displayed. This typically occurs when measuring a short fiber length, such as a fiber
jumper.
If two reflective events are very close together, the OTDR may have problems
measuring the loss of each event. In this case, the loss of the combined events is
displayed. This typically occurs when measuring a short fiber length, such as a fiber
jumper. Fiber ends can also cause a non-reflective event. In this case, no reflectance
is detected.
The different places along the fiber where reflective events occur are described
below.
Highly Reflective End
When light traveling down glass fiber encounters the end of the fiber, light is
reflected from the glass-air interface. This reflection is called a Fresnel (pronounced
fra-nel) reflection. When the fiber end is flat, as with a precision cleave or a PC
connector, there is a large reflection returned down the fiber. [16]
When you see a large Fresnel reflection, typically greater than 30 dB reflectance,
along with an end to the backscatter this indicates a flat precision (polished or
cleaved) end. [16]
Low Reflection End
Some systems use angled end connectors (APC connectors). The end of the fiber is
cleaved or polished at an angle to reduce return reflections. You need to know if your
system used flat (standard or PC) or angled (APC) connectors to know what type of

54

end reflection to expect. The angled connectors will have a reduced Fresnel
reflection at the open end. [16]
An APC end reflection is typically less that 45 dB reflectance. In some cases you
may not see a Fresnel reflection at all. As with the flat polish connector seeing to the
far end tells you the fiber reaches the connector but doesnt tell you if that connector
is good. [16]
Mid-Cable Reflective Events
Mechanical connectors in the system (patch panel connectors or mechanical splices)
create a Fresnel reflection similar to a precision end. The reflection is caused by the
gap between fibers inside connector. This differs from an end reflection in that you
can see the backscatter line from the fiber on both sides of the reflection. [16]
APC connectors and gel-filled mechanical splices will have a smaller reflection than
PC or flat polish connectors. The APC connector angle reduces the amount of
Fresnel reflection. The matching gel in mechanical splices serves a similar, Fresnel
reflection reduction function. The OTDR provides loss and reflectance
measurements for the connector. The measurements can be compared to system
specifications. [16]
Zero or very low loss reflections may be an echo of an event rather than a real event.
Waveform echoes occur when light re-reflects off mechanical connectors (one of the
connectors could be the OTDR connector). Echoes create a reflection that repeats
the distance between the connectors. For example, if you have two connectors 1 km
apart you may see an echo 2km from the first event. Some OTDRs will warn you if a
reflection is a possible echo but most will not.
(ii) Non-reflective events
This is caused by fusion of two optical fibers with a high quality splice. As laser
pulses travel along the fiber and meet a splice, they see essentially no change in the
index of refraction, so there is no discernible reflection. But there is a drop in the
Rayleigh backscatter signal. Typical loss values range from 0.02 dB up to 0.1 dB,

55

depending on the splicing equipment and operator. For non-reflective events, the
event loss can appear as an event gain, displaying a step-up on the OTDR trace.
As with the reflective events we have described non-reflective events at different
points along the fiber.
Non-Reflective End
A Fresnel end reflection is caused by a precision end, either cleaved or polished. A
broken fiber usually does not have a Fresnel reflection because the end is shattered
(it is glass). There is no precision surface to reflect large amounts of light. After the
broken end the backscatter slope from the cable drops to the noise level at the
bottom of the screen. [16]
When you have no end reflection usually this indicates that the light is lost at that
point due to a break or bend in the cable. Some very low-reflection APC connectors
may look similar to this case.
Mid-Cable Non-Reflective Events
Connectors and mechanical splices have Fresnel reflections because of the gap
between the two sections of glass. This large reflection makes the event easy to find.
Fusion splices and bends do not have a Fresnel reflection. In these events the glass
is not interrupted but there is loss of light. A bend or fusion splice appears the same
on the OTDR trace. The slope of the fiber backscatter drops at the location. The
amount of vertical drop is the splice or bend loss. Check the loss against your
system specifications to see if it is good or bad. The automatic measurement given
by the OTDR is often the most accurate way of measuring the loss.
Determining if this is a splice or a bend may be critical in fixing a bad (high-loss)
point. The loss may actually be a bend near the splice (e.g., going into the splice
case) rather than the splice. You need to know what you are looking for or you could
waste time trying to fix a good splice! [16]
On single-mode fiber there is a simple test to differentiate a bend from a splice. One
characteristic of a bend is that its loss is higher at 1550nm than at 1310nm. A fusion

56

splice will have similar loss at both wavelengths. It is common to have a bend near a
splice so the measurement is a mix of the splice loss and bend loss.

3.6 OTDR Specifications
The OTDR specifications include the following parameters:
Dynamic Range
Dead Zone
Resolution
Accuracy
Wavelength

3.6.1 Dynamic Range
Dynamic range determines maximum observable length of a fiber and therefore
OTDR suitability for analyzing any particular network. The higher the signal to noise
ratio, and the better the trace will be, the better the event detection. Two types of
dynamic range can be specified. [20]
(i) Reflective Dynamic Range
It refers to the ratio (in decibels, 5log10) of the power reflected from a given
reflection near the OTDRs front-panel connector to the power in the OTDRs system
noise. It is useful for determining the range over which the OTDR can make
reflectivity measurements. [20]
(ii) Scattering Dynamic Range
It is the ratio (in decibels, 5log10) between the backscatter signal at the OTDRs
front-panel connector and the instruments noise level. It is a useful specification for
determining the range over which the OTDR can make splice-loss
measurements.[20]

57

Figure 3-6 Scattering and Reflective Dynamic Range [9]

Of the two, scattering dynamic range is the more useful figure of merit and will be
referred to simply as the dynamic range unless mentioned otherwise.
OTDRs for long haul fibers need a high dynamic range in order to correctly identify
the ends of long fibers and to specify the connectors and splices along its length.
The basic dynamic range of a particular OTDR depends upon the components used
in the design i.e. the OTDR hardware sets the dynamic range limit for a single shot
measurement. This dynamic range can however be increased by obtaining and
processing multiple coded or un-coded traces.
The optical dynamic range of an OTDR is limited by a combination of optical pulse
output power, optical pulse width, input sensitivity, and signal integration time. Higher
optical pulse output power, and better input sensitivity, combine directly to improve
measuring range, and are usually fixed features of a particular instrument. However
optical pulse width and signal integration time are user adjustable, and require trade-
offs which make them application specific.

58

A longer laser pulse improves dynamic range and attenuation measurement
resolution at the expense of distance resolution. For example, using a long pulse
length, it may possible to measure attenuation over a distance of more than 100 km,
however in this case an optical event may appear to be over 1 km long. This
scenario is useful for overall characterization of a link, but would be of much less use
when trying to locate faults. A short pulse length will improve distance resolution of
optical events, but will also reduce measuring range and attenuation measurement
resolution. The "apparent measurement length" of an optical event is referred to as
the "dead zone".
3.6.2 Dead Zone
OTDR is designed to detect the backscattering level all along the fiber link, it
measures back scattered signals which are much smaller than the signal sent to the
fiber. The device that receives these back scattered signal is OTDR, which is
designed to receive a given level range.
When there is strong reflection, then the power received by photodiode can be more
than 4000 times the back scattered power and can saturate the photodiode. The
photodiode requires time to recover from the saturated condition, during this time it
will not detect any signal accurately. The length of the fiber which is not
characterized during recovery is termed the dead zone.
The OTDR "dead zone" is a topic of much interest to users. Dead zone is classified
in two ways.
Event Dead Zone- is related to a reflective discrete optical event. In this situation,
the measured dead zone will depend on a combination of the pulse length, and the
size of the reflection. The event dead zone is the minimum distance where two
consecutive reflective events can still be distinguished. The distance to each event
can be measured, but the separate losses of each event cannot be measured. [6]
Attenuation Dead Zone- is related to a non-reflective event. The attenuation dead
zone depends on the pulse-width, the reflectance value of the first reflective event,
the loss of this event, and the distance location. It usually indicates the minimum

59

distance after a reflective event where a non-reflective event, a splice for example,
can be measured. [6]
At short pulse-widths, the recovery time of the photodiode is the primary determinant
of the attenuation dead zone and can be five to six times longer than the pulse-width
itself. At long pulse-widths, the pulse-width itself is the dominant factor. In this case,
the attenuation dead zone is, in effect, equal to the pulse-width. The attenuation
dead zone specified for the OTDR is generally measured at the shortest pulse-
width.[6]
A dead zone is one of the limitations of an OTDR and it can be overcome if we use a
launch cable, but we must carefully interpret the signal trace. The following figure
shows the points described above.

Figure 3-7 OTDR event and attenuation dead zone [11]


60

3.6.3 Resolution
This is the ability of the OTDR to distinguish between the levels of power it receives.
It may also refer to spatial resolution, which is how close the individual pieces of data
are spaced in time [11]. There are four main types of resolution parameters:
sampling (data point), display (cursor), loss (level), and distance.
3.6.4 Sampling resolution
Sampling resolution is the minimum point between two acquisition points. This data
resolution can go down to centimeters depending on pulse width and range. The
more data points the OTDR can acquire and process, the more the resolution.
Therefore, the number of data points an OTDR can acquire is an important
performance parameter. A typical high-resolution OTDR may have a sampling
resolution of 1 cm. [10]
Distance resolution
Distance resolution is similar to sampling resolution, if OTDR samples acquisition
points every 1meter, then only it can locate a fiber within +/- 1 meter. Similar to the
sampling resolution, the distance resolution is a function of the pulse-width and the
range. [10]
Display Resolution
There are two types of display resolution: readout and cursor. Readout display
resolution is the minimum resolution of the displayed value. For example, an
attenuation of 0.031 dB will have a resolution of 0.001 dB. The cursor display
resolution is the minimum distance, or attenuation, between two displayed points. A
typical cursor display resolution value is 1 cm or 0.001 dB. [10]
Loss Resolution
Loss resolution is governed by the resolution of the acquisition circuit. For two similar
power levels, it specifies the minimum loss difference that can be measured. This
value is generally around 0.01 dB. [10]

61

3.6.5 Accuracy
The accuracy of measurement is the capacity of the measurement to be compared
with a reference value.
Linearity accuracy
Determines how close an Optical level corresponds to an electrical level across the
whole range. These are measurements of how closely the electrical current output
corresponds to the input optical power. Most OTDRs have an attenuation accuracy
of 0.05 dB/dB. Some OTDRs can have a higher attenuation accuracy of 0.03
dB/dB. If an OTDR is non-linear, then for long fiber, the section loss values will
change significantly. [10]
Distance accuracy
The distance accuracy depends on the following parameters:
i. Group Index
Whereas refractive index refers to a single ray in a fiber, group index refers to the
propagation velocity of all of the light pulses in the fiber. The accuracy of the OTDR
distance measurements depends on the accuracy of the group index. [10]
ii. Time Base Error
This is due to the inaccuracy of the quartz in the timing mechanism, which can vary
from 10-4 to 10-5 seconds. In order to calculate the distance error, the time base
error must be multiplied by the measured distance. [10]
3.6.6 Wavelength
Another important setting is selecting the wavelengths at which tests will be
performed. Most OTDRs allow tests at multiple wavelengths, and some allow
simultaneous tests at two wavelengths. Since light behaves differently at different
wavelengths, expert technicians like to compare OTDR traces acquired at more than
one wavelength.

62

The major wavelengths are: 850nm, 1310nm and 1550nm. A fourth wavelength is
now appearing for monitoring live systems which is 1625nm.The wavelength is
usually specified with central wavelength and spectral width. The attenuation of
wavelength varies with wavelength, and any measurement should be corrected to
transmission wavelength or to central wavelength. [10]
Some OTDRs display the exact laser wavelengths that are used for measurement.
Generally, though, only the generic wavelength is provided.


63

CHAPTER 4
4. Acquisition and Measurement

4.1 Introduction
The OTDR is very versatile and has many applications. It is important to select an
OTDR that has the appropriate specifications for the application. With recent
breakthroughs in modularity, some OTDRs can be configured flexibly in order to
perform testing on almost any kind of fiber optic network, single mode or multimode,
short or long haul.
Modes of operation of an OTDR include the following:
Free Run Mode (Real Time): It continually sends laser pulses down the fiber under
test and obtains the back-scattered signal. This mode is useful for optimization of
fiber alignment. The waveforms obtained in free run mode contain unacceptable
amounts of noise making it impossible to determine small attenuation changes such
as non-reflective splices.
Averaging Mode: In the averaging mode each pulse are averaged from that of
preceding pulses which makes the trace appear clear for each of the succeeding
pulses. The number of samples that are to be averaged is predefined for an OTDR.
The larger the number, the longer the OTDR takes for displaying the results. Recent
OTDR specifies their averaging in terms of time taken for display.
The use of an OTDR can be broadly defined as a two-step process:
1. Acquisition: The OTDR acquires the data and displays the results either
numerically or graphically.

2. Measurement: The technician analyzes the data and, based on the results,
makes a decision to either store, print, or goes to the next fiber acquisition.

64

4.2 Acquisition
Most modern OTDRs automatically select the optimal acquisition parameters for a
particular fiber by sending out test pulses in a process known as auto-configuration.
Using the auto-configuration feature, the technician selects the wavelength (or
wavelengths) to test, the acquisition (or averaging) time, and the fiber parameters
(refractive index, for example, if not already entered).
There are three major approaches to configure an OTDR:[6]
1. A user may simply let the OTDR to auto configure and accept acquisition
parameters selected by OTDR (Automatic).
2. A more experienced technician may allow the OTDR to auto-configure, but
then the technician will analyze the results briefly and change one or more
acquisition parameters in order to optimize the configuration for the particular
test requirements. (Semi Automatic).
3. Amore experienced user may choose not to use auto configuration feature
altogether and enter the acquisition parameters based on his experience and
knowledge of the link under test. (Manual).
Typically, when testing multi-fiber cables, once the appropriate acquisition
parameters are selected, they are locked in. The same parameters are then used for
every fiber in the cable. This dramatically speeds up the acquisition process and
provides for consistency in the data, which is helpful when analyzing or comparing
fibers. In the following sections, various acquisition parameters and their effects on
the resulting OTDR trace are discussed.
4.2.1 Injection Level
The injection level is defined as the power level in which the OTDR injects light into
the fiber under test. The higher the injection level, the higher the dynamic range. If
the injection level is low, the OTDR trace will contain noise, and measurement
accuracy will be diminished. Poor launch conditions, resulting in low injection levels,
are the primary reason for reductions in accuracy. [6]

65

The presence of dirt on connector faces and damaged or low quality pigtails or patch
cords are the primary causes of low injection levels. It is important that all physical
connection points are free of dust and dirt in optical system.With core diameters of
less than 10 m in single mode systems, the presence of even a 4 m speck of dirt
or dust (approximately the size of the particulate matter in cigarette smoke) can
severely degrade injections levels.
Cleaning kits are available for optical systems from basic tools, such as isopropyl
cleaning solution, Joseph paper, compressed air spays, and ready-to-use
impregnated wipes, to more advanced methods using cassette cleaners and
integrated cleaning systems. Mating dirty connectors to the OTDR connector may
scratch the OTDR connector, permanently degrading launch conditions.
Some OTDRs, like the T-BERD/MTS family, display the measured injection level
during real-time acquisition or just prior to averaging. The result is displayed on a bar
graph using a relative scale, rating the injection level from good to bad. To determine
the relative quality of the injection level, the OTDR looks out a short distance,
observes the backscatter returned from the launch pulse, and compares this value to
an expected value. It is sometimes possible for the injection level to display as
unacceptable when it is in fact acceptable. This can occur if there is an attenuator or
splitter on the system near the OTDR. In this case, the backscatter level will be lower
than expected as measured by the injection level meter. Although the injection level
increases as pulse width increases, the scale displayed is calibrated separately for
each pulse width. Therefore, the scale is meaningful at any pulse width, and
increasing the pulse width will not change a bad injection level to a good one.[18]
4.2.2 OTDR wavelength
The behavior of an optical system is directly related to its wavelength of
transmission. Optical fiber exhibits different loss characteristics at different
wavelengths. In addition, splice loss values also differ at different wavelengths.
In general, the fiber should be tested using the same wavelength that is used for
transmission. Therefore, 850 nm and/or 1300 nm wavelengths are used for

66

multimode systems, and 1310 nm and/or 1550 nm wavelengths are used for single
mode systems. [6]
If testing is only performed at one wavelength, the following parameters must be
considered:[6]
1. For a given dynamic range, using a wavelength of 1550 nm will see longer
distances down the same fiber than a wavelength of 1310 nm due to the lower
attenuation in the fiber.

2. Single mode fiber has a larger mode field diameter at 1550 nm than at 1310
nm and at 1625 nm than at 1550 nm. Larger mode fields are less sensitive to
lateral offset during splicing, but they are more sensitive to losses incurred by
bending during installation or in the cabling process

.
1550 nm is more sensitive to bends in the fiber than 1310 nm. This
is termed macro bending.

1310 nm will generally measure splice and connector losses higher
than 1550 nm.These results are from a Corning study of over 250
splices where the 1310 nm values were shown to be typically higher
by 0.02 dB over the 1550 nm values for dispersion shifted fiber.


67

Figure 4-1 The effects of bending on a fiber [10]

Transition from 1310/1550 nm to 1625 nm Testing
OTDRs are the ideal tools for detecting and locating bends in a fiber link, as shown
in the graph below. The green trace represents measurement at 1310 nm, the violet
trace at 1550 nm, and the red trace at 1625 nm.
The bending effect is not a new phenomenon. In the past, when the 1550 nm
wavelength was first introduced and added to the 1310 nm transmission wavelength,
the bending effect was analyzed. For example, many optical fiber reports were
generated comparing 1550 nm splice losses to 1310 nm splice losses in order to
detect possible bending effects.

68

Now that OTDR technology has moved into the 1625 nm wavelength area of the
spectrum, the same analysis of bending effects must occur.

Figure 4-2 The OTDR graph shows a bend located at 3040 m at 1550 nm and 1625 nm [19]

When Should Links be tested at 1625 nm?
Networks do not always need to be tested at the 1625 nm wavelength. There are
three key circumstances in which 1625 nm testing is required.[6]
1. Upgrading of current networks: This is especially important for DWDM
network upgrades that will use or plan to use the L and U bands.
2. Installation of new fiber networks: Using todays testing tools, the additional
time required to perform testing at 1625 nm compared to current 1310/1550
nm has become negligible. This has pushed installers to perform testing at all
three wavelengths, essentially future-proofing their networks.
3. In-service testing: This is a well-known application used for remote fiber test
systems (RFTS) and for all types of networks.

69

4.2.3 Pulse width
The duration of the OTDR pulse width controls the amount of light that is injected
into a fiber. The longer the pulse width, the greater the amount of light energy
injected. The more light energy injected, the greater the amount of light, which is
backscattered or reflected back from the fiber to the OTDR. [6]
Long pulse widths are used to see long distances down a fiber cable. Long pulse
widths also produce longer areas in the OTDR trace waveform where measurements
are not possible. This is termed the dead zone of the OTDR. Short pulse widths, on
the other hand, inject lower levels of light, but they also reduce the dead zone of the
OTDR.
By reducing the pulse width, there is a reduction in the dead zone of the fiber,
compared to that of a larger pulse width. But with the reduction in the pulse width,
there is a reduction in the dynamic range, a reduction in the sensitivity of the receiver
and also the reduction in distance. By proper selection of pulse width we can
optimize the use of OTDR for making fiber measurements. [10]
4.2.4 Range
The range of an OTDR is the maximum distance that the OTDR can acquire data
samples. The longer the range, the further the OTDR will shoot pulses down the
fiber. The range is generally set at twice the distance to the end of the fiber. If the
range is set incorrectly, the trace waveform may contain measurement artifacts, such
as ghosts.
4.2.5 Averaging
The OTDR detector functions at extremely low optical power levels (as low as 100
photons per meter of fiber). Averaging is the process by which each acquisition point
is sampled repeatedly, and the results are averaged in order to improve the signal-
to-noise ratio [6].
By selecting the time of acquisition or the number of averages, technicians can
control the process of averaging within the OTDR. The longer the time or the higher

70

the number of averages, the more signal the trace waveform will display in random
noise conditions.
The relationship between the acquisition time (number of averages) and the amount
of improvement to the signal-to-noise ratio is expressed by the following equation:[6]

SNR=5Log10 N (4.1)
Where N is the ratio of the two averages.
Note: The noise distribution is considered random for this formula.
For example, an acquisition using three minute averaging will improve the dynamic
range by 1.2 dB when compared to an acquisition using one minute averaging.
Averaging improves the signal-to-noise ratio by increasing the number of
acquisitions, but the time it takes to average the trace is also increased. However,
according to the equation, beyond a certain acquisition time, there is no advantage
to be gained since only the signal remains. In theory, multiplying the averaging
acquisition time by four will provide a +1.5 dB increase in the dynamic range.

4.3 Measurements
Most modern OTDRs perform fully automatic measurements with very little input
from the user. The following measurements can be performed by an OTDR:
For each event: Distance location, loss, and reflectance
For each section of fiber: Section length, section loss (in dB), section loss
rate (in dB/km), and optical return loss (ORL) of the section
For the complete terminated system: Link length, total link loss (in dB), and
ORL of the link


71

4.3.1 Measurement Methods
The OTDR allows users to perform measurements on the fiber span in three different
ways: full-automatic, semi-automatic, and manual measurement functions. Users
can also use a combination of these methods.[14]
Full-Automatic Function
Using the full-automatic function, the OTDR detects and measures all of the events,
sections, and fiber ends automatically, using an internal detection algorithm.[14]
Semi-Automatic Function
When the semi-automatic function is selected, the OTDR measures and reports an
event at each location (distance) where a marker has been placed. These markers
can be placed either automatically or manually.[14]
The semi-automatic function is of high interest during span acceptance (after
splicing), when the technician completely characterizes all events along the span in
order to establish baseline data. Since automatic detection will not detect and
report a non-reflective event with a zero loss, a marker is placed at that location
so that the semi-automatic analysis will report the zero loss.
Manual Measurement Function
For even more detailed analysis or for special conditions, technicians completely
control the measurement function manually. In this case, the technician places two
or more cursors on the fiber in order to control the way the OTDR measures the
event. [14]
Depending on the parameter being measured, the technician may need to position
up to five cursors in order to perform a manual measurement. While this is the
slowest and most cumbersome method of measurement, it is important to have this
capability available for those fiber spans whose design or construction are very
unusual and are difficult to analyze accurately using automated algorithms.[14]

72

4.3.2 Slope
The slope, or fiber linear attenuation, can be measured (in dB/km) either using the 2-
point method or by using the least squares approximation (LSA) method. The LSA
method attempts to determine the measurement line that has the closest fit to the set
of acquisition points. The LSA method is the most precise way to measure fiber
linear attenuation, but it requires a continuous section of fiber, a minimum number of
OTDR acquisition points, and a relatively clean backscatter signal, which is free of
noise.
The standard deviation of the slope (dB/km) depends on:
The local noise level (and distribution)
The number of acquisition points used by the LSA method

Section loss can be reported in dB or dB/km. Typical section losses range from 0.17
to 0.22 dB/km for 1550 nm systems, 0.30 to 0.35 dB/km for 1310 nm single mode
systems, 0.5 to 1.5 dB/km for 1300 nm multimode systems, and 2 to 3.5 dB/km for
850 nm systems.
4.3.3 Event Loss
Using manual measurement, there are two ways to measure event loss: the 2-point
method and the 5-point method. [6]
2-Point Method
For the 2-point method, the technician positions the first cursor on the linear
backscatter level before the event and the second cursor on the linear backscatter
level after the event. The event loss is then the difference between these two cursor
measurements.
This method can be used for both reflective and non-reflective events. However, the
precision of the 2-point method depends on the technicians ability to place the
cursors at the correct positions and can be compromised if the trace has a large

73

amount of residual noise. If the trace is very noisy or spiky, then the technician
should try to place the cursor on a data point on the trace that is not located at the
top of a spike or the bottom of a trough. This is, in effect, a form of visual averaging
of the trace.
5-Point Method
The purpose of the 5-point measurement method of point events is to reduce the
effects of noise on the fiber span before and after the event. This is accomplished by
performing a least squares approximation analysis on the fiber span. This process
minimizes the additional fiber loss that is reported as event loss due to the non-zero
distance between the cursors.
For the 5-point method, the software uses the position of the five cursors to
extrapolate the fiber data before and after the event and performs a zero distance
measurement of the loss at the event location. This method can be used to measure
the loss of both non-reflective and reflective events.
The technician first obtains a slope measurement before and after the event on the
linear backscattered level of the trace. The fifth point of measurement is placed just
before the event where the backscatter trace suddenly deviates. The loss
measurement is then taken at this event location. The 5-point method is more
precise than the 2-point method since the OTDR compares the difference between
two linear backscatter levels.
4.3.4 Reflectance
The reflectance of an event represents the ratio of the reflected power to the incident
power at a discrete location on the fiber span. Reflectance is expressed in decibels
(dB). A small negative value indicates a higher reflection than a large negative value.
That is, a reflectance of -33 dB is larger than a reflectance of -60 dB. A larger
reflectance will appear as a higher peak on the trace waveform. [6]
The amount of reflection at a connector, break, or mechanical splice depends on the
difference in the refractive index between the fiber and the material at the fiber
interface (another fiber, air, or index matching gel) and the geometry of the break or

74

connector (flat, angled, or crushed). Both of these factors allow for the capture of a
different amount of reflection by in the fiber core. [6]
Most mechanical splices use an index-matching gel or fluid to reduce the difference
in the refractive indexes. Smaller differences in the refractive index will produce
smaller reflections. Some OTDRs can automatically measure the amount of
reflecting light by placing one cursor just in front of the reflection, placing another
cursor at the top of the reflection, and pressing the appropriate button on the control
panel of the OTDR.
4.3.5 Optical Return Loss
High-performance OTDRs can automatically measure and report a value for the total
link optical return loss (ORL). A manual ORL measurement capability is also
provided in order to isolate the portion of the link, which contributes the majority of
the ORL. [6]
The light received by an OTDR corresponds to the behavior of the reflected power
along the fiber link according to the injected pulse width. The integral of this power
allows for the calculation of the total back reflection and for the determination of the
ORL value. [6]
ORL=10 Log [(P0xt)/(Pr(z)dz)] (4.2)
Where Po is the output power of the OTDR, t is the OTDR pulse width, and
Pr(z)dz is the total back-reflected and backscattered power over the distance
(partial or total).
In addition to providing a total link ORL result, the OTDR allows technicians to locate
and measure back-reflection points. It also allows technicians to perform partial ORL
measurements (according to a given fiber section).
When performing an OTDR acquisition, total ORL is provided automatically. It
includes the reflected light caused by connectors and termination fibers. In this case
we call it Total ORL Measurement .It is also possible to measure ORL for a given

75

section of the OTDR trace. This kind of measurement is called Section ORL
Measurement
4.4 Measurement artifacts and anomalies
Occasionally, unexpected results and events are displayed on the backscattered
trace. These unexpected results include the following.
4.4.1 Ghosts
False Fresnel reflections, termed ghosts, on the trace waveform may be observed
from time to time. Ghosts can be the result of a strong reflective event on the fiber,
causing a large amount of reflected light to be sent back to the OTDR, or an
incorrect range setting during acquisition. In the first case, the distance that the ghost
occurs along the trace is a multiple of the distance of the strong reflective event from
the OTDR. [10]
In order to reduce the reflection, index-matching gel can be used at the reflection
point. In addition, the injected power can be reduced by selecting a shorter pulse-
width, selecting a reduced power setting on the OTDR (some OTDRs provide this
option), or adding attenuation in the fiber before the reflection. [6]
If the event causing the ghost is situated at the end of the fiber, a few short turns
around a suitable tool (pen, pencil, mandrel, etc.) will sufficiently attenuate the
amount of light being reflected back to the source and eliminate the ghost. This is
known as a mandrel wrap. [6]
4.4.2 Splice Gain
It is important to note that an OTDR measures splice loss indirectly, depending on
information obtained from the backscattered signal. It is assumed that the
backscattering coefficients of the fiber spans are identical all along the link under
test. If this is not the case, then measurements can be inaccurate. One common
example is the observance of apparent splice gains or gainers. The inaccuracy is
quite small, but with todays fusion splicing equipment and experienced technicians

76

making very low loss splices, it is possible for the effect to make the splice appear to
be a gain instead of a loss.[6]


77

CHAPTER 5
5. Test Results and Software Simulation

5.1 Test Results
Given below in Table 1 are the test results of the experiments we performed on
different length optical fibers, i.e., 20m and 40m. Values of different test parameters
are given against the two fibers. The module used is FTB-7200D 1310nm OTDR.

Test parameters 20m long fiber

40m long fiber

Reflectance at start of
fiber(dB)
-23.3 -23.3
End to end loss(dB) 9.376 11.376
ORL(dB) 38.08 36.24
Attenuation(dB/km) 26.703 26.70
IOR 1.4677 1.4677
RBS -79.44 -79.44

Table 1: Test results of different length optical fiber

Figure 5.1 shows snapshots of the OTDR traces captured while performing the tests
in the lab. The next sub-chapter gives software simulated traces for long fibers. We
have used windows compatible UOR 100/200 Series OTDR software. Snapshots of
the screen are given. WE also have done some simulations using Vanguard data
OTDR emulator.


78

Figure 5-1 traces acquired in the lab


5.2 Software simulation of long


simulation of long optical fiber links
a) 150 km long fiber link
b) 100 km long fiber link
79
fiber links

Figure 5-2 software simulations of long optical fiber link

c) 3 km long fiber
software simulations of long optical fiber link

80

software simulations of long optical fiber link

81

CHAPTER 6
6. Conclusion and Future Recommendations

6.1 Conclusion
The general goal was to be able to use optical time domain reflectometer and
perform several tests on a fiber link successfully without running into any walls. We
have tested loss distribution of an optical link and observed different parameters of
optical fiber on OTDR. The most difficult task of the project is the analysis of the test
results and we have managed to do it. And in the process it gave us a deep insight
into the world of optical fiber testing and measurements. The computer simulations
performed have shown absolute resemblance to the actual tests done in the lab.
All the learning experience was very wonderful and sometimes the difficulties just got
the better of us. But all is well if the end is well. So it was a very satisfying effort in
the end with some great learning experience.
6.2 Future Recommendation
Nothing in this world is perfect. There is always some loop holes which can be filled
to improve the system. The OTDR Rayleigh backscatter is very weak, typically 40 dB
or more down from the launch power. In order to detect this weak backscatter
various techniques can be used to increase sensitivity. These noise reduction
techniques include high speed signal averaging, correlation techniques using various
codes, and coherent optical detection, There is also a new technique based upon so-
called S-codes (simplex codes) derived from the normalized Hadamard matrices.
The above described techniques are just a glimpse of what we or others can do as
far as OTDR noise reduction is concerned. There is still room of improvement in this
field of science.

82

REFERENCES

[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_time-domain_reflectometer
[3] Jim Hayes, VDV Works, LLC Four Ways To Test Installed Fiber Optic Cables And
How The Results Will Differ With Each Method
[4] http://www.iphelp.ru/doc/3/Cisco.Press,.Optical.Network.Design.and.Implementation.
%282004%29.DDU/1587051052/ch03.html
[5] http://voscom.wordpress.com/2010/07/07/types-of-fiber-optic-cables-singlemode-
multimode/
[6] JDSU Reference Guide to Fiber Optic Testing
[7] http://www.thefoa.org/tech/ref/testing/5ways/fiveways.html
[8] http://www.fiber-optics.info/articles/types_of_optical_fiber
[9] http://www.techoptics.com/pages/OTDR/How%20it%20works.html
[10] http://www.scribd.com/doc/4110267/OTDR
[11] http://ecmweb.com/content/how-and-when-use-otdr
[12] Lennie Lightwave Lennie Lightwave's Guide To Fiber Optics
[13] Michelle Collier, RCCD Best Practices for Field Testing Fiber Optic Cables
[14] VDV Works, LLC. Making OTDR Measurements
[15] http://www.eaeeie.org/theiere_bratislava/3.html
[16] Tektronix, OTDR Waveform Interpretation Whats on Screen
[17] Anwar naseem, In-Service Fault Monitoring and SNR Enhancement of Point-to
Multipoint Passive Optical Access Network
[18] Peter Schweiger , Choosing the right OTDR for today's fiber networks
[19] https://www.google.com.pk/
[20] D. R. Anderson, L. Johnson, F. G. Bell, Troubleshooting Optical-Fiber Networks,
Understanding and Using Your Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer.
[21] http://myaccount.flukenetworks.com/
[22] http://www.thefoa.org/tech/ref/testing/OTDR/OTDR.html
[23] http://www.vdvworks.com/vdvacademy/OTDRsim.html


83

Testing of Optical Fiber Link Using OTDR

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