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Adjoint :
adj A is the transpose of the cofactor matrix [A ij] of A i.e., adj A =
[Aij]T
Result :
A (adj A) = (adj A) A = |A| I n where A is a square matrix of order n and I n is
the identity matrix of order n.
a b d −b
eg : A =
c adj A =
d
− c
a
Inverse :
A–1 = 1 (adj A) where A is a non-singular matrix.
|A|
Properties :
1. Reversal law for inverses :
If A, B are any two non-singular matrices of the same order, then
AB is also non – singular and (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1.
2. Reversal law for transposes :
(AB)T = BT AT.
3. (AT)–1 = (A–1)T where A is any non-singular matrix.
Matrix inversion method :
If a system of linear equations is given in matrix form as AX=B, where |
A|≠ 0, then X=A-1B.
Rank of a matrix :
It is the order of any highest non-zero minor of A.
i.e. ρ(A) =r if (a) A has atleast one minor of order r which does not
vanish and (b) every minor of higher order is zero.
Equivalent matrices have the same rank.
The rank of a matrix in echelon form is equal to the number of non-zero rows
of the matrix.
1
Std : XII Applications of Matrices and Determinants
Important Results and Formulae
Consistency of a system of linear equations :
A system of non-homogeneous equations is called consistent if it has
atleast one solution.
The system is called inconsistent if it has no solution.
A system of homogeneous linear equations is consistent, as it always
has the trivial solution.
A consistent system may have one or more solutions. If it has only
one solution it is called a unique solution.
Elementary transformations on a matrix :
4. Ri ↔ Rj (Ci ↔ Cj)
5. Ri → kRi (Ci → kCi)
6. Ri → Ri + kRj (Ci → Ci + k Cj)
Echelon form of a matrix :
A matrix A of order m x n is said to be in echelon form or triangular form
if
a) Every row of A which has all its entries 0 occurs below every row which
has a non – zero entry.
b) The first non – zero entry in each non – zero row is 1.
c) The number of zeros before the first non – zero element in a row is less
than the number of such zeros in the next row.
Note: The result holds even if the non-zero entry in each non-zero row
is other than 1.
Cramer’s rule method or Determinant method :
If a system of non – homogeneous linear equations is given in matrix form
as AX = B and if det A ≠ 0, then the system has a unique solution, given by
det(A1) det(A2) det(An)
x1 = det(A) , x2 = det(A) , . . . . ., xn = det(A) where Aj is the matrix
obtained by replacing the entries in the jth column of A by the entries in the
matrix B.
Cramer’s rule is applicable only when ∆ ≠ 0.
2
Std : XII Applications of Matrices and Determinants
Important Results and Formulae
3
Std : XII Vector Algebra Important Results and Formulae
CHAPTER – II VECTOR ALGEBRA
4. Projection of a on b =.
→ → → → ∧
= a. = a .b
||
||
→ → → ∧ →
Projection of b on a = . = . b = a . b
|| ||
→ → → →
5. If θ = 0º, a . b = ab ; If θ = , a . b = − ab
→ → → → →
6. If a . b = 0, then a is a zero vector or b is a zero vector or a and
→
b
are perpendicular.
→ → → →
7. a . b = 0, if and only if a ⊥ b
→ → → →2 →
8. a . a = │ a │2 = a = a2 where | a | = a
→ → → → → → → → → → → →
9. i . i = j . j =k . k = 1 and i . j = j. k = k . i =0
→ → → → → →
10. If m is any scalar, then ( m a ) . b = m( a . b ) = a . (m b )
11. Scalar product is distributive over addition.
→ → → → → → →
i.e., a . (b +c ) = a . b +a . c
→ → → → → → →
a . (b − c ) = a . b − a . c
→ → → → → →
12. For any two vectors a and b , ( a + b )2 = a2 + 2 a . b + b2
→ → → →
( a + b )2 = a2 + 2 a . b + b2
→ → → →
( a – b ).( a + b ) = a2 – b2
4
k
Std : XII Vector Algebra Important Results and Formulae
→ → → → → → → → → →
13. If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ; b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k then a . b = a1b1 +
a2b2 + a3b3
→ →
. Gives exact
14. If θ is the angle between a and b then θ = cos -1 position of
the angle θ
||||
→ → → → → →
15. For any two vectors a and b , | a + b | ≤ |a | + |b |
→ → → → → →
16. | a + b |2 + | a − b |2 = 2 ( | a |2 + | b |2)
→
17. a || b
→
⇒ → →
a = λb where λ is any non – zero scalar
→ → → →
a b c
18. If r = a i + b j + c k then D.C’s are →, →, →
r r r
→ → → → → → → → →
19. | a + b + c |2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2 ( a . b + b . c + c . a )
b2 + c2 − a2 c2 + a2 − b2
20. Cosine formula : In ∆ABC, cosA = ; cos B =
2bc 2ca
a2 + b2 − c2
cos C =
2ab
the
→ →
force = F . d
→ → → → → → → → → → →
23. For any vector r , r = ( r . i ) i + (r . j ) j + (r .k )k
θ ∧ ∧ θ ∧ ∧ θ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
24. sin = ½ | a − b |; cos = ½ | a + b |; tan =| a − b |/| a + b |
2 2 2
→ → → → ∧ ∧
25. a x b = | a || b | sin θ n where n is a unit vector perpendicular to both
→ → → → ∧
a and b such that a , b , n form a right handed system.
→ → → →
26. a x b = vector area of a parallelogram with a and b as adjacent sides.
5
Std : XII Vector Algebra Important Results and Formulae
→ → → → →
27. a . b = | a | (Projection of b on a )
→ → → → → → → →
28. a x b ≠ b x a ; a x b = − (a x b )
→ → → → →
29. If a and b are collinear or parallel then a x b = 0
→ → → →
30. a x a = 0 for any non – zero vector a
→ → → → → → →
31. i xi = j x j = k x k = 0
→ → → → → →
i x j = k ; j x i =− k
→ → → → → →
j x k = i ; k x j =− i
→ → → → → →
k x i = j ; i x k=− j
→ → → → → →
32. m a x b = m (a x b ) = a x mb
35. Angle between two vectors : sin θ = x (Gives acute angle only)
|||| ∧ x
36. Unit vectors perpendicular to two given vectors : n = ±
| x|
→ →
37. Vectors of magnitude μ (normal to the plane containing a and b )
is ± μ x
→ →
perpendicular to both a and b
| x|
→ →
38. Area of quad. ABCD is ½ | AC x BD |
→ → → →
39. Area of a parallelogram is ½ | d x d | where d and d are the diagonals.
1 2 1 2
→ → →
40. If a , b , c are the position vectors of the vertices A, B, C of a ∆ABC, then
the
→ → → → → →
area of ∆ABC is ½ | a x b + b x c + c x a |
6
Std : XII Vector Algebra Important Results and Formulae
→ → →
41. Condition for the points A, B, C whose p.v. are a , b , c to be collinear is
→ → → → → → →
a x b +b x c + c x a = 0
→ →
42. Magnitude of the moment = | r x F |
→ → → →
Moment (or) Torque of force F about O is M = r x F
→ → → →
43. Area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides a and b is | a x b |
→ → → →
44. Vector area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides a and b is a x b
→ → → →
45. Area of a triangle with sides a and b is ½ | a x b |
→ → → →
46. Vector area of a triangle with sides a and b is ½ ( a x b )
→ → → → → →
47. Area of a ∆ABC is ½ | AB x AC | or ½ | BC x BA | or ½ | CA x CB |
→ → → → →
48. If a x b = 0 then (i) a is a zero vector and b is any vector
→ →
(ii) b is a zero vector and a is any vector
→ →
(iii) a and b are parallel (collinear)
→ → → → → →
49. | a x b |2 + ( a . b ) 2
= | a |2 | b |2
→ → → → → → → → → →
50. a x ( b + c ) + b x ( c + a ) + c x ( b + a ) = 0
→ → → → → → → → → → → →
51. If a x b = c x d and a x c= b x d then a − d and b – c
are parallel.
→ → → → → →
52. ( a x b ) . c or a . ( b x c ) is a scalar triple product.
→ → → → → →
53. ( a x b ) . c = [ a b c]
54. Geometrical interpretation of scalar triple product
→ → →
(a x b ) . c represents the volume of the parallelepiped whose co-terminus
→ → →
edges a , b , c form a right handed system of vectors.
55. Properties :
→ → → → → → → → →
( a x b). c = ( b x c ). a = ( c x a ) . b (Cyclic order)
7
Std : XII Vector Algebra Important Results and Formulae
→ → → → → → → → → → → →
[a b c ] = − [b a c ]= −[ c b a ] = −[ a c b ]
→ → → → → → → → →
[a a c ] = [a b b ] = [a b a]=0
→ → → → → →
[λ a b c ] = λ [a b c ]
vectors
→ → →
57. If [ a , b , c ] = 0 then
→ → →
i) atleast one of the vectors a , b , c is a zero vector.
→ → →
ii) any two of the vectors a , b , c are parallel.
→ → →
iii) a , b , c are coplanar
→ → →
a1 a2 a3 → → → →
58. [ a , b , c ] =b if a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ;
1
b2 b3
c1 c2 c3 → → → →
b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k ;
→ → → →
c = c 1 i + c2 j + c3 k
→ → →
59. Volume of a parallelepiped = [ a , b , c ]
→ → →
60. For any three vectors a , b , c
→ → → → → → → → →
[a + b b +c c + a ] = 2 [a , b , c ]
→ → → → → → → →
61. ( a x b ) x c and a x ( b x c ) are called vector triple products of a , b
→
, c
→
b
→ → → → → → → → →
64. a x ( b x c ) = ( a . c ) b − ( a . b ) c
→ → → →
65. ( a x b ) . ( c x d ) =
. .
. .
8
Std : XII Vector Algebra Important Results and Formulae
→ → → → → → → → → → → →
66. ( a x b ) x ( c x d ) = [ a b d ] c − [ a b c ] d
→ → → → → → → → → → → →
(a x b ) x (c x d ) = [ a c d ] b − [ b c d ] a
→ → → → → → → → →
67. If four vectors a , b , c , d are coplanar then ( a x b ) x ( c x d ) = 0
→ → → →
68. If a , b be lie on one plane and c , d lie on another plane, these planes
are
→ → → →
perpendicular then ( a x b ) . ( c x d ) = 0
→ → → → → → → → →
69. [ a x b , b x c , c x a ] = [ a b c ]
2
70. Equation of a straight line passing through a given point and parallel to a
given
→ → →
vector is r = a +t v
→ → → →
a) Non – parametric vector equation : r x v = ax v
( x − x1 ) ( y − y1 ) ( z − z1 )
b) Cartesian form : = =
l m n
71. Equation of a straight line passing through the origin and parallel to a vector
→ →
is r =t v
→ → →
a) Non – parametric vector form : r x v = 0
x y z
b) Cartesian form : = =
l m n
72. Equation of a straight line passing through two given points is
→ → → → → → →
r = a + t ( b − a ) or r = ( 1 – t) a + t b
→ → → → →
a) Non – parametric vector form : ( r − a ) x ( r − b ) = 0
( x − x1 ) ( y − y1 ) ( z − z1 )
b) Cartesian form : = =
( x 2 − x1 ) ( y 2 − y1 ) ( z 2 − z1 )
73. x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1 are the d.r.s of the line joining the points (x1, y1, z1)
and (x2, y2, z2).
.
74. Angle between two lines: θ = cos-1
||||
9
Std : XII Vector Algebra Important Results and Formulae
75. The shortest distance between two intersecting lines is zero.
→ → → → → →
76. The distance between two parallel lines r = a1 + t u , r = a 2 + s u
│ x (–)│
is d = ││
→ → → → → →
77. The distance between the skew lines r = a1 + t u , r = a 2 + s v is
│(–) │
d=
│x│
→ → → →
78. Condition for two lines to intersect is [ ( a 2 – a 1 ) u v ] = 0 or
x2 – x1 y2 – y1 z2 – z1
l1 m1 n1 =0
l2 m2 n2
79. If three points are collinear then their p.v.s are coplanar, but the converse
need
not be true.
80. Equation of a plane passing through a given point and perpendicular to a
vector
→ → → → → → →
is r . n = a . n (or) ( r − a ). n = 0
88. Equation of a plane passing through the line of intersection of two given
planes
→ → → →
( r . n 1 − q1) + λ ( r . n − q2) = 0
2
Cartesian form : (a1x + b1y + c1z + d1) + λ (a2x + b2y + c2z + d2) = 0
89. The distance between a point (x1, y1, z1) and a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d
√ a2 + b2 + c2
d
90. The distance between the origin and a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
√a2 + b2 + c2
√a2 + b2 + c2
92. Equation of a plane which contain two given lines (passing through two given
→ → → → → →
lines) r = a1 + t u and r = a2+ s v is
→ → → → → → → →
[ r − a1 u v ] = 0 and [ r − a 2 u v]=0
11
Std : XII Vector Algebra Important Results and Formulae
Cartesian form : x – x2 y – y2 z – z2
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
l1 m1 n1 l1 m1 n1
= 0 (OR) l m2 n2 =0
l2 m2 n2 2
.
93. Angle between two given planes : θ = cos−1
94. If two planes are ||||
→ →
a) perpendicular then n . n = 0
1 2
→ →
b) parallel then n = λ n where λ is a scalar.
1 2
→ → → → →
95. Angle between a line r = a + t b and a plane r . n = q
.
is θ = sin-1
||||
→
96. Vector equation of the sphere whose p.v. of centre is c and radius is a is
→ → →
|r − c|=| a|
97. Vector equation of the sphere whose centre is origin and radius is
→ →
| r | = |a |
100. Vector equation of the sphere when the extremities of the diameter being
given :
→ → → →
(r − a).(r - b)=0
x---x---x---x---x
12
Std : XII Complex Numbers Important Results and Formulae
CHAPTER – III COMPLEX NUMBERS
C = { a + ib / i2 = − 1, a , b ∈ R }.
If z = a + i b, then Re(z) = a; Im(z) = b
a + i b and c + id are equal if and only if a = c and b = d
The negative of z = a + i b is denoted by –z and is defined by –z = (−a)+ i (−b)
z1 + z2 = (a+ i b) + (c + i d) = (a + c) + i (b + d)
z1 – z2 = (a + i b) – ( c + i d) = (a – c) + i ( b – d)
z1z2 = ( a + i b) (c + i d) = (ac – bd) + i (ad + bc)
z1 ac +=bd bc+−iad
= a + ib
z2 c + id c2 + d2 c 2 + d2
The conjugate of z = a + i b is denoted by z and is defined by z = a – i b
z z = (a + ib) (a – ib) = a2 + b2, which is a non-negative real number.
z =zz
If z is real (ie., b = 0) then z = z
If z = z then z is real.
z−
If z = a + i b, z = a – i b then Re(z) = z+ ; Im(z) =
2
z 2i
z
z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2 ; z1 − z 2 = z1 − z 2 ; z1 z 2 = z1 ⋅ z 2 ; 1 = 1 , z 2 ≠ 0
z2 z2
zn = z() n
If z = a + ib is a complex number then the representation
z = a + ib = (a, b) is called the ordered pair representation.
i = (0, 1)
The set of complex numbers is not ordered.We cannot say z1 < z2 or z1 > z2.
We can say only z1 = z2 or z1 ≠ z2.
If z = a + i b then |z| = √a2 + b2
|z| = √ zz ; Re(z) ≤ |z| ; Im(z) ≤ |z|
|z1z2| = |z1||z2|; |z1z2. . .. .zn| = |z1||z2| . . .. . .|zn|
z1 |z |
= 1 where z2 ≠0
z2 | z2 |
Triangle Inequality : | z1 + z2| ≤ |z1| + |z2|
|z1 – z2 | ≤ |z1| + |z2|
|z1 + z2 + . . . . . zn| ≤ |z1|+ |z2| + . . . . |zn|
13
Std : XII Complex Numbers Important Results and Formulae
|z1 – z2| ≥ |z1| - |z2|
z = x +i y = r(cosθ + isinθ) is called the modulus and amplitude form
(polar form) of the complex number z.
|z| = r = √x2+y2 ; θ = tan-1(y/x)
Principal value : For an arbitrary complex no. z ≠0, the principal value of
arg z is defined to be the unique value of z that satisfies – < arg z ≤
For z = 0, arg(z) is indeterminate.
For any z1, z2 (a) |z1. z2 |= | z1||z2| (b) arg(z1 z2) = arg(z1) + arg(z2)
|z1 z2 . . . . . zn| = |z1||z2| . . .. |zn|
Arg (z1 z2 . . .. zn) = arg(z1) + arg(z2) + . . .. . + arg(zn)
z1 | z1 | z
= and arg 1 = arg(z1) – arg(z2) where z2 ≠0.
z2 | z2 | z2
Euler’s formula : eiθ = cosθ + isinθ
If z ≠0 then z = r (cosθ+ i sinθ) = reiθ, is called the exponential form of the
complex number z.
1
If z = eiθ then z-1 = = e−iθ ; z = e−iθ ; zn = einθ ;
│z│= 1 iff z = z
z
z1 r1 i(θ – θ )
If z1 = r1eiθ1, z2= r2eiθ2 then z1 z2 = (r1r2)ei(θ1 + θ2) , = e 1 2
z 2 r2
14
Std : XII Complex Numbers Important Results and Formulae
arg z = − arg z
The distance between the complex numbers z1 and z2 is d = | z1 – z2 |
The effect of multiplication of a complex number z by ei is the rotation of z
counter clockwise about the origin O through an angle .
The effect of multiplication of a complex number z by i = ei/2 is the rotation
π
of z counter clockwise about the origin O through an angle .
2
|z1 + z2 + z3 |≤ |z1| + |z2| + |z3|
For any polynomial equation P(x) = 0 with real coefficients,
imaginary (complex) roots occur in conjugate pairs.
De Moivre’s theorem : For any rational number n, cosnθ + isin nθ is the
value or one of the values of (cosθ + i sinθ)n.
a) (cosθ + i sinθ)n = cosnθ + i sin nθ
b) (cosθ + i sinθ)−n = cosnθ – i sin nθ
c) (cosθ – i sinθ)n = cosnθ – i sin nθ
π π
d) (sinθ + i cosθ)n = cosn( – θ) + i sin n( – θ)
2 2
(OR)
= i n (cosθ – i sinθ)n
A number ω is called an nth root of a complex no. z if ωn = z and we write
ω = z1/n
Working Rule to find the nth roots of a complex no. :
a) Write the given complex no. in polar form.
b) Add 2k to the argument.
c) Apply DeMoivre’s theorem.
d) Put k = 0,1, . . . . . upto n – 1
2π 4π 2(n-1)
a) The nth roots of unity are e˚, eni , ein , . . . . ei n
2π
ie., 1, ω, ω2, . . . .. ωn-1 where ω = eni
b) The roots are in G.P.
c) 1 + ω + ω2+ . . . . + ωn–1 = 0
d) 1. ω . ω2 . . . . . . ωn–1 = (−1)n-1
1
2 2
15
Std : XII Complex Numbers Important Results and Formulae
a) Cube roots of unity are 1, − ±i
b) They are the vertices of an equilateral triangle all lying on the unit
circle.
c) They are in G.P.
d) ω3 = 1; 1 + ω + ω2 = 0
2π
Note : ω =cis ( )
3
a) Fourth roots of unity are 1, i, −1, −i
b) They are the vertices of a square all lying on the unit circle.
c) If ω = i then the roots are 1, ω, ω2, ω3
d) ω4 = 1 ; 1 + ω + ω2 + ω3 = 0
π
Note : ω =cis ( )
2
π
a) The sixth roots of unity are 1, cis , cis2π , cis3π , cis4π , cis5π
3 3 3 3 3
b) They are the vertices of a hexagon all lying on the unit circle.
c) They are in G.P.
π cis
d) ω6=1 ;1+ω+ω2+ω3+ω4+ω5 = 0 where ω=
3
x---x---x---x---x
16
CHAPTER – IV ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
A x is
A x is
F o c u s F o c u s
S x S x
v e rte x
v e rte x
L a t u s L a t u s
d ire c trix
d ir e c tr ix
r e c t u m r e c t u m
2 2
Y = 4 a x Y = - 4 a x
( O p e n r i g h t w a r d (sO ) p e n L e f t w a r d s )
y
y
Focus
L a t u s
r e c t u m d i r e c t r i x
S
x A x is v e r t e x x
A x is v e r t e x
d i r e c t r i x L a t u s
Focus
S
r e c t u m
2
x = 4 a y
( O p e n u p w a r d s ) ( O p e n d o w n w a r d s )
17
Std : XII Analytical Geometry Important Results and Formulae
Results :
L '
L = ( a , 2 a )
L ' = ( a , - 2 a )
y =−4a
2
Open y (−a,0) x =a y =0 (0,0) x=−a 4a
L
x leftwards
x
L '
L = ( - a , 2 a )
L ' = ( - a , - 2 a )
x2=4ay Open (0,a) y=−a x=0 (0,0) y=a 4a
upwards
L = ( 2 a , a )
L ' = ( - 2 a , a )
x =−4a
2
Open (0,−a) y=a x=0 (0,0) y=−a 4a
y downwards
L = ( + 2 a , - a )
L ' = ( - 2 a , - a )
18
Std : XII Analytical Geometry Important Results and Formulae
c) (x−h)2=4a(y − k) (Open upwards) d) (x −h)2=−4a(y − k) (Open
downwards)
x2 y2 x2 y2
Ellipse : + = 1, a > b + = 1; a > b
a2 b2 b2 a2
Equation where b2=a2(1 −e2) where b2=a2(1−e2)
y
Diagram x 2
y 2
2
+ 2
= 1 ; a > b Z d i r e c t r ix
a b A
2 2 2
w h e r e b = a ( yI - e )
L 2 B L 1
F 1 L 1
L 1 '
M ' P
M x 2
+
y 2
=1 ; a > b B
b 2
a 2 B '
2 2 2
C x
w h e r e b = a ( I - e )
Centre Z ' A ' F
(0,0)C F 1
2 A Z X
(0,0) L 2 '
F 2 L 2
Major axis AA’ AA’
d ir e c tr ix
d i r e c t r ix
F1F2 = 2ae ; A A’ = 2a ; CF = ae
Centre = M.P of F1F2 or M.P of A A’
The equation of the ellipse with centre (h, k) and
(x−h)2 (y−k)2
2 + =1
a b2
19
Std : XII Analytical Geometry Important Results and Formulae
(i) Major axis along x axis and minor axis along y axis is
(ii)Major axis along y axis and minor axis along x axis is(x−h)2 (y−k)2
2 + =1
b a2
Relation between eccentricity, semi major axis and semi minor axis :
b2 = a2(1 − e2)
The locus of a point which moves such that the sum of its distances from two
fixed points in a plane is a constant, is an ellipse.
Hyperbola :
Equation x2 y2 y2 x2
− =1 − =1
a2 b2 a2 b2
Where b2=a2(e2−1) Where b2=a2(e2−1)
Centre C(0,0) C = (0,0)
Vertices A(a,0), A’(−a,0) A(0,a), A’(0, −a)
Foci F1=(ae,0) , F2(−ae,0) F1(0,ae) , F2(0,−ae)
Transverse axis AA’ AA’
Length of transverse axis 2a 2a
Eqn. of transverse axis y=0 x=0
Conjugate axis BB’ BB’
Length of conjugate axis 2b 2b
Eqn. of conjugate axis x=0 y=0
Length of LR 2b2/a 2b2/a
Eqn. of LR x = ±ae y = ±ae
Eqn. of directrices x = ±a/e y = ±a/e
Eccentricity
e = √ 1 + (b2/a2) e = √ 1 + (b2/a2)
Endpoints of LR L1 = (ae, b2/a) L1 = (b2/a, ae)
L1’ = (ae, −b2/a) L1’ = (−b2/a, ae)
L2 = (−ae, b2/a) L2 = (b2/a, −ae)
L2’ = (−ae, −b2/a) L2’ = (−b2/a, −ae)
2 2 2
b = a ( e - 1 )
R e la t io n b e et w, ae , e bn
y
D ia g r a m
L 1 ' F 1 L 1
2 2 2
b = a ( e - 1 ) A
y Z
L 2 L 1
C x
B B '
Z '
B
C A '
F 2 A ' Z ' Z A F 1 x
B ' L 2 ' L 2
L 2 ' L 1 ' F 2
20
Std : XII Analytical Geometry Important Results and Formulae
F1F2 = 2ae, C = M.P of F1F2 or M.P of AA’
Distance between directrices = 2a / e
A point moves such that the difference of its distances from two fixed
points in a plane is a constant. The locus of this point is a hyperbola
and this difference is equal to the length of the transverse axis.
Parametric form of conics :
Conic Parametric Parameter Range Any point on the
Equations conic
1 Parabola x = at2, y = 2at t −∞ < t < (at2, 2at )or ‘t’
∞
2 Ellipse x = acosθ θ 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2 (acosθ , bsinθ)
y = bsinθ or ‘θ’
3 Hyperbola x = a secθ θ 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2 (asecθ, btanθ)
y = b tanθ or ‘θ’
Chords, tangents and normals :
Cartesian form Parabola Ellipse Hyperbola
a) Eqn. of chord
4a b2(x +x ) b2(x1+x2)
(x-x1) (x-x1)
joining (x1, y1) & y−y1= y + y (x - x1) y−y1=−2 1 2
a (y1 + y2)
y−y1=
a2(y1 + y2)
1 2
(x2, y2)
b)Eqn. of tangent
at (x1,y1) /Eqn. of yy1 = 2a(x+x1) xx1 yy1 xx1 yy1
+ =1 − =1
chord of contact a2 b2 a2 b2
of tangents from
(x1, y1)
c) Eqn. of normal xy1+2ay=x1y1+2a a2x b2y a2x b2y
− 2
=a −b 2
x1 + =a2+b2
at (x1, y1) y1 x1 y1 y1
21
Std : XII Analytical Geometry Important Results and Formulae
d) No. of tangents 2 2 2
e)No. of normals 3 4 4
Eqn. of tangent at (x1, y1) is obtained from the equation of the curve by
xy1+yx1 x + x1 y + y1
replacing x2 by xx1, y2 by yy1, xy by , x by and y by
2 2 2
a y = mx ± y = mx ±√a2m2−b2
y = mx +
c) Eqn of tangent m
√a2m2+b2
The point of intersection of the tangents at t1’ and ‘t2’ to the parabola y2=4ax is
(at1t2, a(t1+t2))
The normal at ‘t1’ on the parabola y2=4ax meets the parabola again at ‘t2’ then
2
t2= − t1 +t
1
If ‘t1’ and ‘t2’ are the extremities of any focal chord of the parabola y2 = 4ax
then t1t2 = −1
22
Std : XII Analytical Geometry Important Results and Formulae
point on the
directrix of . . .
passes through its
b) The condition
that l x + my+n = am2 = l n a2 l2 + b2m2 = n2 a2 l2 − b2m2 = n2
0 may be a
tangent to . . .
c) The condition a2 b2 (a2−b2)2 b2 (a2+b2)2
a2
l2 + m2 = n2 − m2 = n2
that l x +my+n = al3 + 2alm2+ l2
0 may be a normal m2n=0
to
d) The locus of x = 0 the circle the circle
foot of x2 + y2 = a2 x2 + y2 = a2
perpendicular (auxiliary circle)
from a focus to a
tangent to
e) The locus of the x = −a x2 + y2 = a2 + b2 x2 + y2 = a2 − b2
point of (the directrix) (director circle) (director circle)
intersection of
perpendicular
tangents to
Asymptotes :
An asymptote to a curve is the tangent to the curve such that the point
of contact is at infinity. The asymptote touches the curve at +∞ and −∞.
x2 y2 x2 y2
Equation of the asymptotes to the hyperbola − =1 is − =0
a2 b2 a2 b2
The equations of two asymptotes to the hyperbola are
b −b x y x y
y= x and y = x. (ie.,) − = 0 and + =0
a a a a a a
The asymptotes pass through the centre (0, 0) of the hyperbola.
b −b
The slopes of asymptotes are and .
a a
23
Std : XII Analytical Geometry Important Results and Formulae
b
Angle between the asymptotes is 2α = 2 tan-1 or 2α = 2sec-1(e)
a
The standard equation of hyperbola and combined equation of
asymptotes differs only by a constant.
If l1 = 0, l2 = 0 are the separate equations of asymptotes, then the
combined equation of the asymptotes is l1l2=0 and the equation of
the corresponding hyperbola is of the form l1l2=k, where k is a constant.
Combined equation of asymptotes is nothing but pair of straight lines.
Therefore the angle between the asymptotes is tanθ = 2√h2−ab
a+b
A hyperbola is said to be a rectangular hyperbola if its asymptotes are
at right angles.
The angle between the asymptotes of the rectangular hyperbola is 90˚.
Equation of rectangular hyperbola is x2 − y2 = a2
The combined equation of the asymptotes of the rectangular hyperbola
x2 − y2 = a2 is x2 − y2 = 0
The separate equations of the asymptotes of a rectangular hyperbola
x2 −y2 = a2 are x + y = 0 and x − y = 0
The standard equation of the rectangular hyperbola whose asymptotes
a2
are the coordinate axis is xy = c2 where c2 =
2
The combined equation of the asymptotes of the rectangular hyperbola
xy = c2 is xy = 0
The separate equations of the asymptotes of a rectangular hyperbola
xy = c2 is x = 0 and y = 0
The eccentricity of the rectangular hyperbola is e = 2
ct c
t 24
Std : XII Analytical Geometry Important Results and Formulae
non - zero real no.
Any point on RH is , and is referred as ‘t’.
Equation of tangent at (x1, y1) to the RH xy = c2 is xy1 + yx1 = 2c2
Equation of the tangent at ‘t’ to the RH xy = c2 is x + yt2 = 2ct
Equation of normal at (x1, y1) to the RH xy = c2 is xx1 − yy1 = x12 −y12
c ct3
Equation of normal at ‘t’ to the RH xy = c2 is y − xt2 = −
t
Two tangents and four normals can be drawn from a point to the RH.
The foot of the perpendicular from a focus of a hyperbola on an asymptote
lies on the corresponding directrix.
The condition that the line lx + my + n = 0 may be a tangent to
the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 is 4c2 l m = n2
If the normal to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 at ‘t1’ meets the curve
again at ‘t2’ then t13t2 = −1.
The area of a triangle formed by the tangent at any point on the R.H
xy = c2 is 2c2.
a2
Length of LR of the RH xy = c2 where c2 = is 2a
2
Length of transverse axis of RH xy = c2 is 2a.
If F1 and F2 are the foci of the ellipse, then F1P + F2P = 2a, for any point
P on the ellipse.
If F1 and F2 are the foci of the hyperbola, then F1P~F2P =2a
x---x---x---x---x
25
CHAPTER – V DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS APPLICATIONS - I
26
Std : XII Differential Calculus Applications - I
Important Results and Formulae
If a and b are two roots of a polynomial equation f(x) = 0, then Rolle’s theorem
says that there is atleast one root c between a and b for f ‘ (x) = 0
Mean value theorem (Law of the mean due to Lagrange)
Let f(x) be a real valued function that satisfies the following conditions.
(i) f(x) is continuous on [a, b]
(ii) f(x) is differentiable on (a, b) then there exists atleast one point c Є (a, b)
such that f ' (c) f(b)
= − f(a)
b−a
The law of the mean can also be put in the form
f(a + h) = f(a) + hf ' (a + θ h), 0 < θ < 1
Lagrange’s law of the mean is a particular case of Cauchy law of the mean.
Rolle’s theorem is a particular case of Lagranges law of mean.
In the law of mean, the value of ‘θ’ satisfies the condition 0 < θ < 1
Indeterminate forms :
0
Lt f(x) = f(a) = is called indeterminate form.
x a g(x) g(a) 0
f(x)
g’(c) exists, and g’(c) ≠ 0 then lim = limf '(c)
x c gx) x c g ' (c)
^ x+1
l’ Hopital’s rule cannot be applied to x + 3as x → 0 because f(x) = x + 1 and
g(x) = x + 3 are not in the indeterminate form as x → 0
Composite Function theorem :
If lim g(x) = b and f is continuous at x = b then lim f(g(x)) = f ( lim g(x))
x a x a x a
sin x
a) lim x =1 c) lim xx = 1
x 0 x 0+
27
Std : XII Differential Calculus Applications - I
Important Results and Formulae
28
Std : XII Differential Calculus Applications - I
Important Results and Formulae
To find the functions which are increasing or decreasing on the interval [a, b]
Steps : (i) Let y = f(x)
(ii) Find f’(x)
(iii) If f’(x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b then f(x) is increasing on [a, b] (if f’(x) > 0
then f(x) is strictly increasing )
If f’(x) ≤ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b then f(x) is decreasing on [a, b]. (if f’(x) < 0
then f(x) is strictly decreasing )
To prove the functions which are not monotonic in the interval [a, b] given
Steps : 1. Find f’(x)
2. f’(x) = 0
3. Find the values of x
4. Find the intervals.
5. Find f’ in each interval.
If f ’ is of different signs at a and b. Then f is not monotonic on [a, b].
To find the intervals on which f is increasing or decreasing.
Steps : 1. Find f’(x)
2. f’(x) = 0
3. Find the values of x.
4. Find the intervals.
5. In each interval, find f’
6. Find the interval of strictly increasing / decreasing and interval of
increasing/ decreasing.
Absolute maximum / minimum :
A function f has an absolute maximum (minimum) at c if f(c) ≥ f(x) (f(c) ≤ f(x))
for all x in D, where D is the domain of f. The number f(c) is called the maximum
(minimum) value of f on D.
Extreme value :
The maximum and minimum values of f are called extreme values of f.
29
Std : XII Differential Calculus Applications - I
Important Results and Formulae
Local maximum :
A function f has a local maximum (or relative maximum) at c if there is an open
interval I containing c such that f(c) ≥ f(x) for all x in I.
Local minimum :
A function f has a local minimum (or relative minimum) at c if there is an open
interval I containing c such that f(c) ≤ f(x) for all x in I.
Fermat’s theorem :
If f has a local extremum (maximum or minimum) at c and if f’(c) exists then
f’(c) = 0
The Extreme value theorem :
If f is continuous on [a, b] then f attains an absolute maximum value f(c) and an
absolute minimum value f(d) at some number c and d in [a, b].
The function f(x) = x2 has minimum value at x = 0.
The function f(x) = x3 has no extrema.
A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such that either
f’(c) = 0 or f’(c) does not exist.
Stationary points are critical numbers c in the domain of f, for which f’(c) = 0
All the critical numbers are stationary numbers.
To find the critical nos. and stationary points.
Steps : 1. Find f’(x)
2. f’(x) = 0 (or f’(x) does not exist)
3. Find the values of x.
Eg., Let f ’(x) = 0 ⇒ x = a, b and f ’(x) does not exist for x = c
The critical nos. are a, b, c and Stationary points are (a, f(a)) (b, f(b))
To find absolute maximum and absolute minimum of f on the given interval [a,b]
Steps 1. f is continuous in [a, b]
2. Find f’(x).
3. f’(x) = 0
4. Find the values of x Є[a, b], say x = c, d (critical points)
5. Find f(a), f(b), f(c), f(d)
Absolute maximum = largest of these values.
Absolute minimum = Smallest of these values.
Note : If there is no critical point, find the values of f(a), f(b)
30
Std : XII Differential Calculus Applications - I
Important Results and Formulae
To find local maximum and minimum values of the function.
Steps : 1. Find f ’(x).
2. f ’(x) = 0
3. Find the values of x ∈ [a, b] say x = c, d
4. Find f” (x)
5. Find f”(c), f”(d)
6. If at x=c, f”(x)<0 then the function attains the local maximum at x=c
If at x=d, f”(x) > 0 then the function attains the local minimum at
x=d
Local maximum = f(c)
Local minimum = f(d)
Note : (1) If f ''(x) = 0 at x = c, then the second derivative test gives no
information about the extreme nature of f at x = c and hence extreme values are
not known.
Note : (2) Consider f(θ) = sin2θ, [0, ]
f’(θ) = sin2θ ; f”(θ) = 2cos2θ
f’(θ) = 0 ⇒ θ = 0, /2,
Critical numbers are 0, π/2, π
At θ = /2 f '' (θ) = −2 < 0
Local maximum attains at θ = /2 and
Local maximum = f(/2) = 1
At θ = 0, , the local maximum/minimum do not exist since they are end
points of the interval.
Practical problems involving maximum and minimum values
Steps : 1. Draw a diagram.
2. Find the required function f(x)
3. Find f’(x)
4. f’(x) = 0
5. Find the values of x say a.
6. Find f '' (x)
7. Find f ''(a)
8. If f '' (a) > 0 then f is minimum at x = a. If f '' (a) < 0 then f is
31
Std : XII Differential Calculus Applications - I
Important Results and Formulae
maximum at x = a.
9. maximum / minimum = f(a)
First Derivative test :
(i) If f’(c) = 0 or is discontinuous and f '(x) > 0 for x < c and f’(x) < 0 for x > c,
then f(x) has a maximum at x = c.
(ii) If f '(c) = 0 or is discontinuous and f '(x) < 0 for x < c and f '(x) > 0 for x > c,
then f(x) has a minimum at x = c.
Second Derivative test :
Let f ''(x) be continuous in an open interval that contains the point x = c.
(i) If f '(c) = 0 and f ''(c) > 0, then f(x) has a local minimum at x = c.
(ii) If f '(c) = 0 and f ''(c) < 0, then f(x) has a local maximum at x = c.
Concavity and Convexity :
If the graph of f(x) lies above all its tangents on an interval I, then the curve
is said to be concave upward (or convex downward) on I.
If the graph of f(x) lies below all its tangents on an interval I, then the curve is
said to be concave downward (or convex upward ) on I.
Test for concavity and convexity :
Let f(x) be twice differentiable on an interval I.
(i) If f ''(x) > 0 for all x Є I, then the graph of f(x) is concave upward (convex
downward) on I.
(ii) If f ''(x) < 0 for all x Є I, then the graph of f(x) is concave downward (convex
upward)
Points of inflection :
A point P on a curve is called a point of inflection if the curve changes from
concave upward (convex downward) to concave downward (convex upward) or
from concave downward (convex upward) to concave upward (convex downward)
at P.
The point that separates the convex part of a continuous curve from the concave
part is called the point of inflection of the curve.
Theorem :
32
Std : XII Differential Calculus Applications - I
Important Results and Formulae
For a curve y = f(x), if f ''(xo) = 0 or f ''(xo) does not exist and if f ''(x) changes
sign when passing through x = xo then x = xo is called a point of inflection.
If x = xo is a root of even order for the equation f '(x) = 0 then x = x o is a point of
inflection.
If xo is the x - coordinate of the point of inflection of a curve y = f(x) then (second
derivate exists) f ''(xo) = 0.
Steps to find the intervals of concavity and the points of inflection.
i) find f '(x), f ''(x)
ii) f ''(x) = 0
iii) Find the values of x say a
iv) Find the intervals i.e., ( −∞, a) , (a, ∞)
v) Find f '' in each interval
vi) If f '' < 0 in (−∞, a) then f is concave downward on (−∞, a)
If f '' > 0 in (a, ∞) then f is concave upward on (a, ∞)
vii) The point of inflection = (a, f(a))
Criteria for the points of inflection
y = f(x) has one of its stationary point x = c as an inflection point
a) If f ''(c) = 0 or not defined b) f '''(c) ≠ 0 when f '''(c) exists.
x---x---x---x---x
33
CHAPTER – VI DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS APPLICATIONS - II
Let y = f(x) be a differentiable function, then the differentials dx and dy are
related as dy = f '(x) dx. (dx ≈ ∆x)
∆x is the absolute error in x.
∆y is the absolute error in y.
∆x , ∆y are relative errors in x and y respectively.
x y
∆x
Percentage error in x = x 100
x
34
Std : XII Differential Calculus Applications - II
Important Results and Formulae
c) Asymptotes : (parallel to co-ordinate axes only)
In the equation of the curve when y(x) is replaced by k(c), if the equation of
the curve reduces to the form x = ±∞ (y = ±∞) then y = c (x = k) is an
asymptote parallel to x axis ( y-axis)
d) Monotonicity :
Determine the intervals of x for which the curve is decreasing or increasing
using the first derivative test.
e) Special points :
Determine the intervals of concavity and inflection points using the first
and second derivate test.
Partial Differentiation :
∂u
∂u
Given u = f(x, y) then the first order partial derivates are and∂y
∂u ∂u ∂x
x
For f = u (x, y, z), ∂u , ∂y , ∂z are called first order partial derivaties.
∂x
x x 2 2
Second order partial derivaties are ∂ u2 , ∂ u2 ,...
2
∂x ∂y
∂u 2
∂u ∂2u
∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂z2
x , x , . . . .
x
∂2u ∂2u
If u (x, y) and its first order partial derivatives are continuous then ∂x∂y = ∂y∂x
x x
Chain rule of two variables :
If u = f(x, y) is differentiable and x and y are differentiable functions of t then
du
u is a differentiable function of t and ∂f= dx. ∂f + dy .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
Chain rule of three variables :
If u = f(x, y, z) is differentiable and x, y, z are differentiable functions of t,
∂f dz
then u is a differentiable function ofdut and ∂f =dx . ∂f +dy . + .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
Chain rule for partial derivaties :
If w = f(u, v) ; u = g(x, y) ; v = h(x, y) then
∂w ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂v
∂x = ∂u . ∂x + ∂v . ∂x
∂w ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂v
∂y = ∂u . ∂y + ∂v . ∂y
35
Std : XII Differential Calculus Applications - II
Important Results and Formulae
Homogeneous Function :
A function u = f(x, y) is called a homogeneous function of degree n,
if f(tx, ty) = tn f(x, y)
Euler’s theorem :
∂f
If f(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n, then ∂f
x +y = nf
∂x ∂y
x---x---x---x---x
36
Std : XII Differential Calculus Applications - II
Important Results and Formulae
37
CHAPTER – VII INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
First fundamental theorem of calculus : x
If f(x) is a continuous function and F(x) = ∫ f(t) dt, then F’(x) = f(x)
a
Second fundamental theorem of calculus :
b
If f(x) is a continuous function with domain a ≤ x ≤ b, then ∫ f(x) dx = F(b) −
a
F(a) where F is any anti - derivative of f.
Properties of definite integrals :
b b
i) ∫ f(x) dx = ∫ f(y) dy
a a
b b
ii) ∫ f(x) dx = − ∫ f(x) dx
a a
b b
iii) ∫ f(x) dx = ∫ f(a + b − x) dx
a a
a a
iv) ∫ f(x) dx = ∫ f(a − x ) dx
0 0
b c b
v) ∫ f(x) dx = ∫ f(x) dx + ∫ f(x) dx for a < c < b
a a c
2a a a
vi) ∫ f(x) dx = ∫ f(x) dx + ∫ f(2a − x) dx
0 0 0
2a a
vii) ∫ f(x) dx = 2 ∫ f(x) dx if f(2a − x) = f(x)
0 0
=0 if f(2a − x) = −f(x)
a a
viii) ∫ f(x) dx = 2 ∫ f(x) dx if f is an even function.
−a 0
a
∫ f(x) dx = 0 if f is an odd function.
−a
Reduction Formulae :
1 n─1
a) In = ∫ sinnx dx = ─ sinn-1x cosx + In – 2
n n
1
b) In = ∫ cosnx dx = cosn-1x sinx +n─1 In – 2
n n
38
Std : XII Integral calculus and its applications Important Results and Formulae
n─3
n─1 n─5 2 .1 when n is odd
. n– 2 . .....
π/2 π/2 n n– 4 3
c) ∫ sinnx dx = ∫ cosnx dx = n─1 n─3
n─5
0 0 . n– 2. n– 4. . . . 1 . π2 when n is even
n 2
Bernoulli’s formula :
∫ u dv = uv – u'v1 + u''v2 – u'''v3 + . . . .
Where u', u'', u''' are successive derivatives of u and v 1, v2, v3, . . . are
repeated integrals of v.
Gamma Integral :
If n is a positive integer, then
∞
∫ xn e─ax dx = n
0 an+1
The area of the region above x – axis bounded by the curve y = f(x), the
b b
ordinates x = a, x = b and x – axis is Area = ∫ f(x)a dx (or) ∫ y dx
a
The area of the region below x – axis bounded by the curve y = f(x), the
b b
ordinates x = a, x = b and x – axisa is Area = ∫ ─ f(x) dx (or) ∫ ─y dx
a
The area of the region to the right of y – axis bounded by the curve x = f(y),
d d
the lines y = c, y = d and y – axis is Areac = ∫ f(y) dy (or) ∫ x dy
c
The area of the region to the left of y – axis bounded by the curve x = f(y), the
d d
lines y = c, y = d and y – axis is Area = ∫ ─ f(y)dy (or) ∫ ─ x dy
c c
General Area Principle :
Let f and g be two continuous curves with f lying above g, then the area R
b
between f and g from x = a to x = b is given by R = ∫ (f – g) dx
a
Volume of the solid generated by revolving the area bounded by the curve
b
y = f(x), the lines x = a, x = b and the x – axis, about the x – axis is a∫ π y2 dx
Volume of the solid generated by revolving the area bounded by the curve
d
x = g(y), the lines y = c, y = d and the y – axis, about the y axis is ∫ π x2 dy
c
2
b
dy
The length of the curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = b is L = ∫ 1 + dx
a dx
2
b
dx
The length of the curve x = g(y) from y = c to y = d is L = ∫ 1 +
dy
dx
a
39
Std : XII Integral calculus and its applications Important Results and Formulae
If x = f(t), y = g(t) are the parametric equations of the curve then
t2 2 2
dx dy
L= ∫ + dt
dt dt
t1
Surface area of the solid obtained by rotating the area bounded by y = f(x),
b 2
Surface area of the solid obtained by rotating the area bounded by x = g(y),
2
d
dx
y = c, y = d and the y – axis about the y – axis is S = ∫ 2πx 1 +
dy
c dy
If x = f(t) ; y = g(t) are the parametric equations of the curve then its surface
area generated when t ranges from t1 t2 is
t2 2 2
dx dy
S = ∫ 2πy + dt
t1 dt dt
x---x---x---x---x
40
Std : XII Integral calculus and its applications Important Results and Formulae
CHAPTER – VIII DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
A differential equation is an equation which involves derivatives.
Differential equations are of two types
(i) Ordinary Differential Equations
(ii) Partial Differential Equations
An ordinary differential equation is a differential equation in which a single
independent variable enters either explicitly or implicitly.
A partial differential equation is a differential equation involving partial
derivatives w.r. to two or more independent variables.
The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest order derivative
appearing on it.
The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest derivative
when the differential coefficients are made free from radicals and fractions as far
as the derivatives are concerned.
Differential equations can be formed by differentiating ordinary equations and
eliminating the arbitrary constants.
In deriving the differential equation of a family of curves, the minimum
number of differentiations are to be made to eliminate the parameters.
A solution of a differential equation is any relation between the variables free
from derivatives which satisfies the differential equation.
A first order differential equation is of 3 types :
(i) Variable Separable (ii) Homogeneous (iii) Linear
In variable separable, the variables x and y are separated and by integrating
both sides, the solution is obtained.
(a) To solve the homogeneous differential equation which is of the form
dy = f y dy = f1(y/x)
(or)
dx x dx f2(y/x)
Put y = vx so that dy = v + x dv
dx dx
(b) To solve the homogeneous differential equation which is of the form
dx = f x dx = f1(x/y)
(or) f2(x/y)
dy y dy
Put x = vy so that dx = v + y dv
dy dy
Then the resulting equation can be solved by variable separable method.
41
Std : XII Integral calculus and its applications Important Results and Formulae
13. A linear equation in y is of the form
dy + Py = Q where P and Q are functions of x
dx
∫pdx
Integrating factor (I.F) = e
Solution is y (I.F) = ∫ Q (I.F) dx + c
A linear equation in x is of the form
dx + Px = Q where P and Q are functions of y, then
dy
∫pdy e log x = x
Integrating factor (I.F) = e e- log x = 1/x
Solution is x (I.F) = ∫ Q (I.F) dy + c
The general form of second order linear equations with constant coefficients is
of the form
2 dy
a d y2 + b + cy = Q(x) where a, b, c are constants and Q(x) is a
dx dx
function of
x only.
The characteristic equation of the differential equation
a d y2 + b dy + cy = Q(x) is ap2 + bp + c = 0
2
dx dx
b) If the roots of the characteristic equation are real and equal say λ then
C.F = (Ax + B)eλx
c) If the roots of the characteristic equation are imaginary say λ = α ± i β then
C.F = eαx [ A cosβx + B sin βx]
Particular Integral (P.I)
a) When Q(x) = eαx where α is constant (substitute D = α)
1 1
P.I = e αx = f(α) if f(α) ≠ 0 (Here f(D) = aD2 + bD + c)
f(D)
1 αx αx 1 αx
x2
If f(α) = 0, then D - a e =xe , e 2= eαx
(D – a)2
42
Std : XII Integral calculus and its applications Important Results and Formulae
b) When Q(x) = cos ax or sin ax where a is a constant (substitute D2 = –
a2)
1 cos ax
P.I = cos ax = if f(–a2) ≠ 0
f(D2) f( – a)2
1 x
P.I = cos ax = sin ax if f(–a2) = 0
D + a2
2
2a
1 –x
P.I = sin ax = 2a cos ax if f(–a2) = 0
D + a2
2
1 sin ax
P.I = f(D2) sin ax = if f(–a2) ≠ 0
f(– a2)
c) When Q(x) = x or x2
Take P.I as Co + C1x if f(x) = x and Co + C1x + C2x2 if f(x) = x2
Take y = Co + C1x or y = Co + C1x + C2x2 according as f(x) = x or x2
By substituting y value and comparing like terms, we can find Co, C1, C2.
General Solution
y = C.F + P.I
Note :
1. ( 1 – x)–1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 +….
2. ( 1 + x)–1 = 1 – x + x2 – x3 + ….
3. ( 1 – x )–2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + ….
4. (1 + x )–2 = 1 – 2x + 3x2 – 4x3 +….
x---x---x---x---x
43
CHAPTER – IX(A) DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
~p p∧ q p ∨ q
p ~
p q p ∧ q p q p ∨ q
T T T T T T
p
T F T F F T F T
F T F T F F T T
F F F F F F
p q p → p q p↔q
q T T T
T T T
T F F
T F F
F T F
F T T
F F T
F F T
A logical statement is said to be a tautology if the last
column of its truth table contains only T. It is said to be a contradiction if the last
column of its truth table contains only F.
x---x---x---x---x
CHAPTER – IX(B) GROUPS
Note : b → binary
Definition of a group :
A non – empty set G, together with an operation *, namely (G, *) is called a
group, if it satisfies the following axioms.
Page 47
Std : XII Groups Important Results and Formulae
(i) Closure axiom : If a, b ∈ G then a * b ∈ G
(ii) Associative axiom : For all a, b, c ∈ G
(a * b ) * c = a * ( b * c)
(iii) Identity axiom : For all a ∈ G, there exists an element e ∈ G such that
a*e=e*a=a
(iv) Inverse axiom : For all a ∈ G, there exists an element a-1 ∈ G such
a– 1 * a = a * a -1
=e
Note : e ∈ G is called the identity element for G.
a-1 ∈ G is called the inverse of a ∈ G.
Commutative Property :
A binary operation * on a set S is called commutative if a * b = b * a, V a, b ∈
S.
Abelian group :
A group satisfying the commutative property is called an abelian group or a
commutative group.
Non – Abelian group :
A group does not satisfying the commutative property is called an non –
abelian group.
Order of a group :
The order of a group (G, *) is the number of distinct elements in G.
Finite group :
If the number of elements is finite then (G, *) is called a finite group.
Infinite group :
If the number of elements is infinite, then (G, *) is called an infinite group.
Semi – group :
A non – empty set G with an operation said to be a semi – group if it satisfies
the following axioms :
(i) closure axiom : If a, b ∈ G then a * b ∈ G.
(ii) Associative axiom : For all a, b, c ∈ G, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
Monoid :
Page 48
Std : XII Groups Important Results and Formulae
A non – empty set G with an operation * is said to be a monoid if it satisfies
the following axioms :
(i) Closure axiom : If a, b ∈ G then a * b ∈ G.
(ii) Associative axiom : For all a, b, c ∈ G, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
(iii) Identity axiom : For all a ∈ G, there exists an element e ∈ G such that
a*e=e*a=a
(N,+) is a semi – group but not a monoid.
(Z, +) is a monoid, (Z, .) is a monoid. (Z, .) is not a group.
Modulo operation :
There are two types of modulo operation.
(i) Addition modulo n
(ii) Multiplication modulo n, where n is a positive integer.
Division algorithm :
Let a, b ∈ Z with b ≠ 0. Dividing a by b, we get a quotient q and
a non – negative remainder r < |b|, then a = qb + r, where 0 ≤ r < | b |.
Addition modulo n (+n)
Let a, b ∈ Z and n be a fixed positive integer. We define addition modulo n
by
a + nb = r where r is the least non – negative remainder when a + b is divided
by n (0 ≤ r < n)
Multiplication modulo n ( . n)
Let a, b ∈ Z and n be a fixed positive integer. We define multiplication
modulo n by a . nb = r, 0 ≤ r < n, where r is the least non – negative
remainder when ab is divided by n.
Congruence modulo n :
Let a, b ∈ Z and n be a fixed positive integer. We say that a is congruent to b
modulo n ⇔ a – b is divisible by n. Symbolically, we write a ≡ b (mod n).
Congruence Classes modulo n :
Let a ∈ Z and n be a fixed positive integer. Let [a] be the collection of all the
numbers which are congruent to a modulo n.This set [a] is called the
congruence class modulo n or residue class modulo n.
Page 49
Std : XII Groups Important Results and Formulae
[a] = { x ∈ Z / x ≡ a(mod n)}
= { x ∈ Z / x = a + kn, k ∈ Z}
Zn = { [0], [1], . . . .[n – 1]}
Operations on Congruence classes :
(i) Addition : Let [ a ], [ b ] ∈ Zn
[ a ] + n[ b ] = [a + b] if a + b < n
= [ r ] if a + b ≥ n
Where r is the least non – negative remainder when a + b is divided by n.
(ii) Multiplication :
Let [ a ], [ b ] ∈ Zn
[ a ] . n [ b ] = [ ab ] if ab < n
= [ r ] if ab ≥ n
Where r is the least non – negative remainder when ab is divided by n.
Order of an element :
Let G be a group and a ∈ G. The order of ‘a’ is defined as the least positive
integer n such that an = e, e is the identity element.
If no such positive integer exists, then a is said to be of infinite order.
The order of a is denoted by O(a).
For any group G, identity element is the only element of order one.
The identity element of a group is unique.
The inverse of each element of a group is unique.
Cancellation laws : Let G be a group. Then for all a, b, c ∈ G
(i) a * b = a * c ⇒ b = c (left cancellation law)
(ii) b * a = c * a ⇒ b = c (right cancellation law)
In a group G, (a-1)-1 = a for every a ∈ G
Reversal law : Let G be a group, a, b ∈ G then (a * b )−1 = b−1 * a−1
For any element a ∈ G, O ( a ) = O ( a−1)
If a ∈ G has order n, then am = e if and only if n divides m where m ∈ Z.
If G is of even order then there is an element a ≠ e in G such that a2 = e
(i.e., a = a )
−1
Random variable :
A random variable is a real valued function whose domain is the sample
space of a random experiment taking values on R.
Types of random variable :
a) Discrete random variable
b) Continuous random variable
Discrete random variable :
A random variable which takes only a finite or countable number of values
is called a discrete random variable.
Continuous random variable :
A random variable X is called continuous if it can take all possible values
between certain given limits.
Probability mass function :
If X is a discrete random variable, p(x) is called probability mass function.
p(x) is non – negative for all real x and ∑ p(xi) = 1
Cumulative Distribution function or Distribution function :
The function F(x) = p(x ≤ x) = ∑ p(xi), – ∞ < x < ∞
xi ≤ x
Constants :
Mean = np
Variance = npq
Standard deviation = npq
Note : Mean is always greater than the variance. 0 ≤ p ≤ 1, q = 1 – p
Poisson distribution :
It can be regarded as the limiting case of the binomial distribution
under the following conditions :
cc) n, the number of trials is very large i.e.,n → ∞
dd) p, the probability of success in each trial is very small i.e., p
→0
ee) np is finite say λ, a positive real no.
Note : It applies to the rare events.
Definition :
A random variable X is said to have a poisson distribution if
the probability mass function of X is given by
e–λ . λx
x!
P(X = x) = , x = 0, 1, 2, . . . . for some λ > 0.
Note : For a poisson distribution, mean = variance = λ ;
λ is called the parameter.
Normal distribution :
Definition :
A continuous random variable X is said to follow a normal
distribution with parameters μ and σ (or μ and σ2) if the probability
function is given by
2
−1 x −µ
1
f(x) = e 2 σ
, − ∞ < x < ∞, − ∞ < μ < ∞, σ > 0
σ 2π
Constants : Mean = μ ; variance = σ2 ; S.D = σ
Properties of a Normal distribution :
The normal curve is bell shaped.
It is symmetrical about the line X = μ
Mean = Median = Mode = μ
∞
The height of the normal curve is maximum at x = μ.
The maximum height = 1
σ √2π
The normal curve is unimodal.
The normal curve is asymptotic to the base line.
The points of inflection are at x = μ ± σ .
) Since the curve is symetrical about x = μ, the skewness is 0.
Area property :
p(μ – σ < x < μ + σ) = 0.6826
p(μ – 2σ < x < μ + 2σ) = 0.9544
p(μ – 3σ < x < μ + 3σ) = 0.9973
(x) It is a close approximation to the binomial distribution, when
the no. of trials n is very large and the probability of success p
is close to ½ i.e. neither p nor q is so small.
(xi) It is also a limiting form of the poisson distribution. i.e., as λ →
∞, poisson distribution tends to the normal distribution.
Standard normal distribution :
A random variable X is called a standard normal variate if its mean
is zero and its standard deviation is unity.
2
−1 x −µ
Note : f(x) = 1
2 σ
, − ∞ < x < ∞.
e
σ 2π
x–μ
Z= is called a standard normal variate.
σ
x---x---x---x---x