Outline for Chapter 9

Define the following terms

Protein Synthesis and Gene Expression (Section 9.1, pp 196-205)
Figures to review: 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 9.11, 9.12; Table 9.1

DNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Polymer of nucleotides
Make chemical conds with each other based on their complementarity (Adenine to
Thymine, Cytosine to Guanine)
Sugar is Deoxyribose
Double stranded

RNA
What a copied gene is made of
Polymer of nucleotides
Sugar is Ribose
Has nitrogenous base Uracil instead of Thymine
Single stranded

Protein Synthesis
Involves using the instructions carried by a gene to build a articular protein
DNA - Adenine to Thymine and Cytosine to Guanine
RNA - Uracil in place of Thymine

Transcription
Involves producing the copy of the required gene
Copying the DNA gene into RNA
First step in going from gene to protein
Produces a transcript of the original gene with RNA nucleotides substituted for DNA
nucleotides
o Like: A transcript is a written version of an oral presentation

Translation
Second step in going from gene to protein
Involves decoding the copied RNA sequence and producing the protein for which it
codes
Involves moving from the language of nucleotides to the language of amino acids and
proteins
o Like: A translator deciphers one language into another



RNA Polymerase
What the copy of a gene (RNA) is synthesized by
An enzyme
Part of Transcription
Binds to a nucleotide sequence at the beginning of every gene - the promoter
Then rides along the DNA helix
Unzips the DNA double helis
Ties together RNA nucleotides that are complementary to the DNA strand it is using as a
template

Promoter
Nucleotide sequence at the beinning of every gene that RNA polymerase binds to


Messenger RNA
Complementary RNA copy of the DNA gene
Carries the message of the gene that is to be expressed

Ribosomal RNA
Ribosomes (subcellular, globular structures) are composed of this
Wrapped around many different proteins

Transfer RNA
Carry amino acides
Interacts with mRNA to place the amino acid in the correct location of the growing
polypetide

Codon
Small sequences of nucleotides that are sequentially exposed as mRNA moves through
the ribosome
Three nucleotides long
Encode a particular amino acid

Stop Codon
Codon that does not code for an amino acid
Protein synthesis ends when a stop codon moves through the ribosome
When present, no new amino acid can be added

Genetic Code
Scientists can determine the sequence of amino acids that agene call for by looking at
this


Determines which mRNA codons code for which amino acids

Mutation
Changes to the DNA sequence
Can affect the order of types of amino acids incorporated into a protein during
translation
Can result in the production of different alleles of a gene

Types of Mutations
Neutral Mutation - Genetic mutation with no advantage or disadvantage
Frameshift Mutation - Mutation that occurs when the number of nucleotides inserted or
deleted from a DNA sequence is not a multiple of three
o Example: Add an H after the fourth letter to The dog ate the cat sequence =
The dHo gat eth eca t

Repressor
Protein that binds to the promoter and prevents the RNA polymerase from binding
When the gene needs to be expressed, it will be released from the promoter
Used so Prokaryotic cells can regulate gene expression

Activator
Proteins that help the RNA polymerase bind to the promoter
Used so Eukaryotic cells can regulate gene expression

Producing Recombinant Proteins (Section 9.2, pp 205-207)
Figure to review: 9.13

Restriction Enzyme
Enzyme that cuts the DNA
Most only cut DNA at specific sequences
Act like highly specific molecular scissors

Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS)
The manufacturer of any new food must obtain FDA approval before marketing is
product if it is not GRAS
Adding substances to foods also requires FDA approval unless the additive is GRAS

Genetically Modified Foods (Section 9.3, pp 208-210)
Figures to review: 9.16, 9.17, 9.18

Ti Plasmid
Tumor-inducing plasmid used to genetically modify crop plants



Transgenic
When a gene from one species is incorporated into the genome of another species

Genetically Modified Organism
Another name for a Transgenic Organism

Genetically Modified Humans (Section 9.4, pp 210-216)
Figures to review: 9.22, 9.23

Stem Cells
Unspecialized or undifferentiated precursor cells that have not yet been programmed to
perform a specific function
Can be embryotic in origin
Can be found in some adult tissues
Scientists believe that they may serve as an all-purpose repair material in the body
o Example: Remodeling a home, have a type of material that you can mold into
anything that you might need - brick, tile, pipe, plaster



Therapeutic Cloning
Using early embryos as donors of stem cells for the replacement of damaged tissues and
organs in another individual

Nuclear Transfer
Transfer of a nucleus from one cell to another cell that has had its nucleus removed
o Example: Dolly the sheep - scientists took the nucleus from a mammary gland
cell of an adult sheep and fused it with an egg cell that had previously had its
nucleus removed, then treated egg cells were placed in the uterus of an adult
ewe

Totipotent
Describes a cell able to specialize into any cell type of its species, including ebryonic
membrane

Germ-Line Gene Therapy
Gene therapy that changes genes in a zygote or early embryo, thus the embryo will pass
on the engineered genes to their offspring

Somatic Cell Gene Therapy
Changes to malfunctioning genes in somatic or body cells
These changes will not be passed to offspring