The Chemistry of Fireworks

The colours in fireworks stem from a wide variety of metal compounds particularly metal
salts. Salt as a word conjures up images of the normal table salt you probably use every day;
whilst this is one type of salt (sodium chloride), in chemistry salt refers to any compound
that contains metal and non-metal atoms ionically bonded together. So, how do these
compounds give the huge range of colours, and what else is needed to produce fireworks?
The most important component of a firework is, of course, the gunpowder, or black powder
as it is also known. It was discovered by chance by Chinese alchemists, who were in actuality
more concerned with discovering the elixir of life than blowing things up; they found that a
combination of honey, sulfur and saltpetre (potassium nitrate) would suddenly erupt into
flame upon heating.
The combination of sulfur and potassium nitrate was later joined by charcoal in the place of
honey the sulfur and charcoal act as fuels in the reaction, whilst the potassium nitrate works
as an oxidising agent. Modern black powder has a saltpetre to charcoal to sulfur weight ratio
of 75:15:10; this ratio has remained unchanged since around 1781.
The combustion of black powder doesnt take place as a single reaction and so the products
can be rather complicated. The closest thing to a representative equation for the process is
shown below, with charcoal referred to by its empirical formula:
6 KNO
3
+ C
7
H
4
O + 2 S K
2
CO
3
+ K
2
SO
4
+ K
2
S + 4 CO
2
+ 2 CO + 2 H
2
O + 3 N
2

Variation in pellet size of the gunpowder and the amount of moisture can be used to
significantly increase the burning time for the purposes of pyrotechnics.
As well as gunpowder, fireworks will contain a binder used to hold the components
together, and also to reduce the sensitivity to both shock and impact. Generally they will take
the form of an organic compound, often dextrin, which can then act as a fuel after ignition.
An oxidising agent is also necessary to produce the oxygen required to burn the mixture;
these are usually nitrate, chlorates, or perchlorates.
The stars contained within the rocket body contain the metal powders or salts that give the
firework its colour. They will often be coated in gunpowder to aid in ignition. The heat given
off by the combustion reaction causes electrons in the metal atoms to be excited to higher
energy levels. These excited states are unstable, so the electron quickly returns to its original
energy (or ground state), emitting excess energy as light. Different metals will have a
different energy gap between their ground and excited states, leading to the emission of
different colours. This is the exact same reason that different metals give different flame tests,
allowing us to distinguish between them. The colours emitted by different metals are shown
in the graphic at the top of the page.
Its the metal atom present in the compound thats important, then but some compounds are
better than others. Hygroscopic compounds (those that attract and hold water) arent much
use in fireworks, as they can render the mixture damp and hard to burn. Some colours are
also notoriously hard to produce. The copper containing compounds tend to be unstable at
higher temperatures, and if it reaches these temperatures, it breaks apart, preventing the blue
colouration from being exhibited. For this reason, its often said that you can judge the
quality of a fireworks display on the quality of the blue fireworks! Purple is also quite hard to
produce, as it involves the use of blue-causing compounds in combination with red-causing
ones.

Explosive material
An explosive material, also called an explosive, is a reactive substance that contains a great
amount of potential energy that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually
accompanied by the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. An explosive charge is a
measured quantity of explosive material.
This potential energy stored in an explosive material may be
chemical energy, such as nitroglycerin or grain dust
pressurized gas, such as a gas cylinder or aerosol can.
nuclear energy, such as in the fissile isotopes uranium-235 and plutonium-239
Explosive materials may be categorized by the speed at which they expand. Materials that
detonate (the front of the chemical reaction moves faster through the material than the speed
of sound) are said to be "high explosives" and materials that deflagrate are said to be "low
explosives". Explosives may also be categorized by their sensitivity. Sensitive materials that
can be initiated by a relatively small amount of heat or pressure are primary explosives and
materials that are relatively insensitive are secondary or tertiary explosives.
A wide variety of chemicals can explode; a smaller number are manufactured in quantity as
explosives. The remainder are too dangerous, sensitive, toxic, expensive, unstable, or
decompose too quickly for common usage.
Toxicity
There are many types of explosives which are toxic to some extent. Manufacturing inputs can
also be organic compounds or hazardous materials that require special handing due to risks
(such as carcinogens). The decomposition products, residual solids or gases of some
explosives can be toxic, whereas others are harmless, such as carbon dioxide and water.
Examples of harmful by-products are:
Heavy metals, such as lead, mercury and barium from primers (observed in high volume
firing ranges).
Nitric oxides from TNT.
Perchlorates when used in large quantities.
Green explosives seek to reduce environment and health impacts. An example of such is the
lead-free primary explosive Copper(I) 5-nitrotetrazolate, an alternative to lead azide.
Chemical composition
A chemical explosive may consist of either a chemically pure compound, such as
nitroglycerin, or a mixture of a fuel and an oxidizer, such as black powder or grain dust and
air.
Chemically pure compounds
Some chemical compounds are unstable in that, when shocked, they react, possibly to the
point of detonation. Each molecule of the compound dissociates into two or more new
molecules (generally gases) with the release of energy.
Nitroglycerin: A highly unstable and sensitive liquid.
Acetone peroxide: A very unstable white organic peroxide.
TNT: Yellow insensitive crystals that can be melted and cast without detonation.
Nitrocellulose: A nitrated polymer which can be a high or low explosive depending on
nitration level and conditions.
RDX, PETN, HMX: Very powerful explosives which can be used pure or in plastic explosives.
o C-4 (or Composition C-4): An RDX plastic explosive plasticized to be adhesive and
malleable.
The above compositions may describe most of the explosive material, but a practical
explosive will often include small percentages of other substances. For example, dynamite is
a mixture of highly sensitive nitroglycerin with sawdust, powdered silica, or most commonly
diatomaceous earth, which act as stabilizers. Plastics and polymers may be added to bind
powders of explosive compounds; waxes may be incorporated to make them safer to handle;
aluminium powder may be introduced to increase total energy and blast effects. Explosive
compounds are also often "alloyed": HMX or RDX powders may be mixed (typically by
melt-casting) with TNT to form Octol or Cyclotol.