ATMOSPHERE

Definition:
An atmosphere (New Latin atmosphaera, created in the 17th
century from Greek *atmos] "vapor"
[1]
and
[sphaira] "sphere"
[2]
) is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or
other material body of sufficient mass
[3]
that is held in place by
the gravity of the body. An atmosphere is more likely to be
retained if the gravity is high and the atmosphere's
temperature is low.
Earth's atmosphere, which is mostly nitrogen, also
contains oxygen used by
most organisms for respiration and carbon dioxide used
byplants, algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis, also
protects living organisms from genetic damage
by solar ultraviolet radiation. Its current composition is the
product of billions of years of biochemical modification of
the paleoatmosphere by living organisms.
The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a
star, and typically includes the portion starting from
the opaque photosphereoutwards. Stars with sufficiently low
temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer
atmosphere.
The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the
planet Earth that is retained by Earth's gravity.
The atmosphere protectslife on Earth by
absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface
through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and
reducingtemperature extremes
between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).
The common name given to the atmospheric gases used
in breathing and photosynthesis is air. By volume, dry air
contains 78.09%nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen,
[1]
0.93% argon,
0.039% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air
also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average
around 1%. Although air content and atmospheric
pressure vary at different layers, air suitable for the survival
of terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals currently is only
known to be found in Earth's troposphere and artificial
atmospheres.
The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.1510
18
kg, three
quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of
the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner
with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between
the atmosphere and outer space. TheKrmn line, at 100 km
(62 mi), or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used as the border
between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric
effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of
spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi).
Several layerscan be distinguished in the atmosphere, based
on characteristics such as temperature and composition.
The study of Earth's atmosphere and its processes is
called atmospheric science or aerology. Early pioneers in the
field include Lon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann.
[2]

The present atmosphere of the Earth is probably not its
original atmosphere. Our current atmosphere is what chemists
would call an oxidizing atmosphere, while the original
atmosphere was what chemists would call a reducing
atmosphere. In particular, it probably did not contain oxygen.
The atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%),
and other gases (1%) that surrounds Earth. High above the
planet, the atmosphere becomes thinner until it gradually
reaches space. It is divided into five layers. Most of
the weather and clouds are found in the first layer.
The atmosphere is an important part of what
makes Earth livable. It blocks some of the Sun's dangerous rays
from reaching Earth. It traps heat, making Earth a comfortable
temperature. And the oxygen within our atmosphere is
essential for life.
Over the past century, greenhouse gases and other air
pollutants released into the atmosphere have been causing big
changes like global warming, ozone holes, and acid rain.
The Earth's atmosphere is a thin layer of gases that surrounds
the Earth. It composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9%
argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other
gases. This thin gaseous layer insulates the Earth from extreme
temperatures; it keeps heat inside the atmosphere and it also
blocks the Earth from much of
the Sun's incoming ultravioletradiation.

The Earth's atmosphere is about 300 miles (480 km) thick, but
most of the atmosphere (about 80%) is within 10 miles (16 km)
of the surface of the Earth. There is no exact place where the
atmosphere ends; it just gets thinner and thinner, until it
merges with outer space.
Pressure:
Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area that is
always applied perpendicularly to a surface by the
surrounding gas. It is determined by a planet's
gravitational force in combination with the total mass of a
column of gas above a location. On Earth, units of air
pressure are based on the internationally recognized
standard atmosphere (atm), which is defined as 101,325
Pa (760 Torr or 14.696 psi).
The pressure of an atmospheric gas decreases with
altitude due to the diminishing mass of gas above each
location. The height at which the pressure from an
atmosphere declines by a factor of e (an irrational number
with a value of 2.71828..) is called the scale height and is
denoted by H. For an atmosphere with a uniform
temperature, the scale height is proportional to the
temperature and inversely proportional to the mean
molecular mass of dry air times the planet's gravitational
force per unit area of on the surface of the earth. For such
a model atmosphere, the pressure declines exponentially
with increasing altitude. However, atmospheres are not
uniform in temperature, so the exact determination of the
atmospheric pressure at any particular altitude is more
complex.
At sea level, the air pressure is about 14.7 pounds per
square inch. As your altitude increases (for example, if you
climb a mountain), the air pressure decreases. At an
altitude of 10,000 feet, the air pressure is 10 pound per
square inch (and there is less oxygen to breathe).
Composition:
Initial atmospheric makeup is generally related to the
chemistry and temperature of the local solar nebula during
planetary formation and the subsequent escape of interior
gases. The original atmospheres started with the radially local
rotating gases that collapsed to the spaced rings that formed
the planets. They were then modified over time by various
complex factors, resulting in quite different outcomes.
The atmospheres of the planets Venus and Mars are primarily
composed of carbon dioxide, with small quantities of nitrogen,
argon, oxygen and traces of other gases.
The atmospheric composition on Earth is largely governed by
the by-products of the very life that it sustains. Dry air from
Earth's atmosphere contains 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen,
0.93% argon, 0.038% carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen,
helium, and other "noble" gases (by volume), but generally a
variable amount of water vapour is also present, on average
about 1%.
The low temperatures and higher gravity of the gas giants
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptuneallows them more
readily to retain gases with low molecular masses. These
planets have hydrogenhelium atmospheres, with trace
amounts of more complex compounds.
Two satellites of the outer planets possess non-negligible
atmospheres: Titan, a moon of Saturn, and Triton, a moon of
Neptune, which are mainly nitrogen. Pluto, in the nearer part
of its orbit, has an atmosphere of nitrogen and methane
similar to Triton's, but these gases are frozen when farther
from the Sun.
Other bodies within the Solar System have extremely thin
atmospheres not in equilibrium. These include the Moon
(sodium gas), Mercury (sodium gas), Europa (oxygen), Io
(sulfur), and Enceladus (water vapor).
The atmospheric composition of an extra-solar planet was first
determined using the Hubble Space Telescope. Planet HD
209458b is a gas giant with a close orbit around a star in the
constellation Pegasus. Its atmosphere is heated to
temperatures over 1,000 K, and is steadily escaping into space.
Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and sulfur have been detected in
the planet's inflated atmosphere.[5]
Air is mainly composed of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, which
together constitute the major gases of the atmosphere. Water
vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass.
The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies
significantly from around 10 ppmv in the coldest portions of
the atmosphere to as much as 5% by volume in hot, humid air
masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are
typically provided for dry air without any water vapor.[3] The
remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases,[4] among
which are the greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace
amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many
substances of natural origin may be present in locally and
seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered
air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition,
pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various
industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols,
such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine
compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds
such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO2) may be
derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.
Nitrogen (N
2
) 780,840 ppmv (78.084%)
Oxygen (O
2
) 209,460 ppmv (20.946%)
Argon (Ar) 9,340 ppmv (0.9340%)
Carbon
dioxide (CO
2)
397 ppmv (0.0397%)
Neon (Ne) 18.18 ppmv (0.001818%)
Helium (He) 5.24 ppmv (0.000524%)
Methane (CH
4
) 1.79 ppmv (0.000179%)
Not included in above dry atmosphere:
Water
vapor (H
2
O)
~0.25% by mass over full atmosphere, locally
0.001%5% by volume
[3]


The original atmosphere may have been similar to the
composition of the solar nebula and close to the present
composition of the Gas Giant planets, though this depends on
the details of how the planets condensed from the solar
nebula. That atmosphere was lost to space, and replaced by
compounds outgassed from the crust or (in some more recent
theories) much of the atmosphere may have come instead
from the impacts of comets and other planetesimals rich in
volatile materials.
The oxygen so characteristic of our atmosphere was almost all
produced by plants (cyanobacteria or, more colloquially, blue-
green algae). Thus, the present composition of the atmosphere
is 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, and 1% other gases.

Structure/ Layers:
Exosphere
The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's
atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It
extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of
the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above
sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft).
The exosphere merges with the emptiness of outer space,
where there is no atmosphere.
This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities
of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules
including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to
the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart
that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without
colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer
behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into
space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic
trajectories and may migrate in and out of the
magnetosphere or the solar wind.
The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any
meteorological phenomena to be possible. However, the
aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in
the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into
the thermosphere. The exosphere contains most of the
satellites orbiting Earth.
Thermosphere
The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's
atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which
separates it from the mesosphere) Since the thermopause
lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also
referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the
thermosphere, from 80 to 550 km above Earth's surface,
contains the ionosphere.
This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor.
However non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as
the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally
seen in the thermosphere.
The boundary between the thermosphere and
theexosphere above it is called the thermopause. At the
bottom of the thermosphere is the mesopause, the
boundary between the thermosphere and
the mesospherebelow.
Although the thermosphere is considered part of Earth's
atmosphere, the air density is so low in this layer that
most of the thermosphere is what we normally think of as
outer space. In
Much of the X-ray and UV radiation from the Sun is
absorbed in the thermosphere. When the Sun is very
activeand emitting more high energy radiation, the
thermosphere gets hotter and expands or "puffs up".
Because of this, the height of the top of the thermosphere
(the thermopause) varies. The thermopause is found at an
altitude between 500 km and 1,000 km or higher. Since
many satellites orbit within the thermosphere, changes in
the density of (the very, very thin) air at orbital altitudes
brought on by heating and expansion of the thermosphere
generates a drag force on satellites. Engineers must take
this varying drag into account when calculating orbits, and
satellites occasionally need to be boosted higher to offset
the effects of the drag force. Like the oceans, Earth's
atmosphere has waves and tides within it. These waves
and tides help move energy around within the
atmosphere, including the thermosphere. Winds and the
overall circulation in the thermosphere are largely driven
by these tides and waves. Moving ions, dragged along by
collisions with the electrically neutral gases, produce
powerful electrical currents in some parts of the
thermosphere.
Finally, the aurora (the Southern and Northern Lights)
primarily occur in the thermosphere. Charged particles
(electrons, protons, and other ions) from space collide
with atoms and molecules in the thermosphere at high
latitudes, exciting them into higher energy states. Those
atoms and molecules shed this excess energy by emitting
photons of light, which we see as colorful auroral displays.
Thermosphere: The thermosphere is a thermal
classification of the atmosphere. In the thermosphere,
temperature increases with altitude. The thermosphere
includes the exosphere and part of the ionosphere
Very high up, the Earth's atmosphere becomes very thin.
The region where atoms and molecules escape into space
is referred to as the exosphere. The exosphere is on top of
the thermosphere.

Mesosphere
The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's
atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere
and below the thermosphere. It extends from the
stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000
ft) to the mesopause at 8085 km (5053 mi; 260,000
280,000 ft) above sea level.
Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the
mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the
atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an
average temperature around 85 C (120 F; 190
K).[9][10]
Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the
very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated
into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are
highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the
naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or
two after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise.
They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to
16 degrees below the horizon. A type of lightning referred
to as either sprites or ELVES, occasionally form far above
tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere is also the
layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric
entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet-
powered aircraft, and too low to support satellites and
orbital or sub-orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly
accessed by rocket-powered aircraft and unmanned
sounding rockets.
The mesosphere is a layer of Earth'satmosphere. The
mesosphere is above the stratospherelayer. The layer
above the mesosphere is called thethermosphere. The
mesosphere starts at 50 km (31 miles) above Earth's
surface and goes up to 85 km (53 miles) high.
In the mesosphere and below, different kinds of gase sare
all mixed together in the air. Above the mesosphere, the
air is so thin that atoms and molecules of gases hardly ever
run into each other. The gases get separated some,
depending on the kinds of
elements (like nitrogen or oxygen) that are in them.
You know that waves can form in the ocean or other
bodies of water. But did you know that there are waves of
air in the atmosphere? Some of these waves start in the
lower atmosphere, the troposphere and stratosphere, and
move upward into the mesosphere. The waves carry
energy to the mesosphere. Most of the movement of air in
the mesosphere is caused by these waves.
The mesosphere is characterized by temperatures that
quickly decrease as height increases. The mesosphere
extends from between 31 and 50 miles (17 to 80
kilometers) above the earth's surface.

Stratosphere
The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's
atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is
separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends
from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi;
39,000 ft) above Earth's surface to the stratopause at an
altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to
180,000 ft).
The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is
roughly 1/1000 the pressure at sea level. It contains the
ozone layer, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that
contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The
stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise
with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused
by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation
from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts
turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be
60 C (76 F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the
stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 C.[11]
The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable
atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the
weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in
the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost
completely free of clouds and other forms of weather.
However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are
occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the
atmosphere where the air is coldest. This is the highest
layer that can be accessed by jet-powered aircraft.
Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, where air flow
is mostly horizontal. The thin ozone layer in the upper
stratosphere has a high concentration of ozone, a
particularly reactive form of oxygen. This layer is primarily
responsible for absorbing the ultraviolet radiation from
the Sun. The formation of this layer is a delicate matter,
since only when oxygen is produced in the atmosphere can
an ozone layer form and prevent an intense flux of
ultraviolet radiation from reaching the surface, where it is
quite hazardous to the evolution of life. There is
considerable recent concern that manmade flourocarbon
compounds may be depleting the ozone layer, with dire
future consequences for life on the Earth.
The stratosphere is a layer of Earth's atmosphere. The
stratosphere is the second layer, as one moves upward
from Earth's surface, of theatmosphere. The stratosphere
is above the troposphereand below the mesosphere.
The top of the stratosphere occurs at 50 km (31 miles)
altitude. The boundary between the stratosphere and the
mesosphere above is called the stratopause. The altitude
of the bottom of the stratosphere varies withlatitude and
with the seasons, occurring between about 8 and 16 km (5
and 10 miles, or 26,000 to 53,000 feet). The bottom of the
stratosphere is around 16 km (10 miles or 53,000 feet)
above Earth's surface near the equator, around 10 km (6
miles) at mid-latitudes, and around 8 km (5 miles) near
the poles. It is slightly lower in winter at mid- and high-
latitudes, and slightly higher in the summer. The boundary
between the stratosphere and the troposphere below is
called the tropopause.
The stratosphere is very dry; air there contains
littlewater vapor. Because of this, few clouds are found in
this layer; almost all clouds occur in the lower, more
humid troposphere. Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) are
the exception. PSCs appear in the lower stratosphere near
the poles in winter. They are found at altitudes of 15 to 25
km (9.3 to 15.5 miles) and form only when temperatures
at those heights dip below -78 C. They appear to help
cause the formation of the infamous holes in the ozone
layer by "encouraging" certain chemical reactions that
destroy ozone. PSCs are also called nacreous clouds.
Air is roughly a thousand times thinner at the top of the
stratosphere than it is at sea level. Because of this, jet
aircraft and weather balloons reach their maximum
operational altitudes within the stratosphere.
Due to the lack of vertical convection in the stratosphere,
materials that get into the stratosphere can stay there for
long times. Such is the case for the ozone-destroying
chemicals called CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons). Largevolcanic
eruptions and major meteorite impacts can fling aerosol
particles up into the stratosphere where they may linger
for months or years, sometimes altering Earth's global
climate. Rocket launches inject exhaust gases into the
stratosphere, producing uncertain consequences.
Various types of waves and tides in the atmosphere
influence the stratosphere. Some of these waves and tides
carry energy from the troposphere upward into the
stratosphere; others convey energy from the stratosphere
up into the mesosphere. The waves and tides influence the
flows of air in the stratosphere and can also cause regional
heating of this layer of the atmosphere.
A rare type of electrical discharge, somewhat akin to
lightning, occurs in the stratosphere. These "blue jets"
appear above thunderstorms, and extend from the bottom
of the stratosphere up to altitudes of 40 or 50 km (25 to 31
miles).
The stratosphere is characterized by a slight temperature
increase with altitude and the absence of clouds. The
stratosphere extends between 11 and 31 miles (17 to 50
kilometers) above the earth's surface. The earth's ozone
layer is located in the stratosphere. Ozone, a form of
oxygen, is crucial to our survival; this layer absorbs a lot of
ultraviolet solar energy. Only the highest clouds (cirrus,
cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus) are in the lower
stratosphere.

Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere.
It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of
about 12 km, although this altitude actually varies from
about 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles to 17 km (56,000 ft) at
the equator,[7] with some variation due to weather. The
troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a
boundary marked by stable temperatures.
Although variations do occur, the temperature usually
declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere
because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy
transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the
troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest
section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing
(hence the origin of its name in the Greek word ,
tropos, meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly
80% of the mass of Earth's atmosphere.[12] The
troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric
layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of
the troposphere and causes it to be most severely
compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the
atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of
the troposphere. It is primarily composed of nitrogen
(78%) and oxygen (21%) with only small concentrations of
other trace gases.
Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in
the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth's
weather takes place. It has basically all the weather-
associated cloud genus types generated by active wind
circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder
clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise
into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional
aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is
the only layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven
aircraft.
The troposphere is where all weather takes place; it is the
region of rising and falling packets of air. The air pressure
at the top of the troposphere is only 10% of that at sea
level (0.1 atmospheres). There is a thin buffer zone
between the troposphere and the next layer called the
tropopause.
The troposphere is the lowest region in the Earth's (or any
planet's) atmosphere. On the Earth, it goes from ground
(or water) level up to about 11 miles (17 kilometers) high.
The weather and clouds occur in the troposphere. In the
troposphere, the temperature generally decreases as
altitude increases.
Nearly all of the water vapor and dust particles in the
atmosphere are in the troposphere. That is why
mostclouds are found in this lowest layer, too. The bottom
of the troposphere, right next to the surface of Earth, is
called the "boundary layer". In places where Earth's
surface is "bumpy" (mountains, forests) winds in the
boundary layer are all jumbled up. In smooth places (over
water or ice) the winds are smoother. The windsabove the
boundary layer aren't affected by the surface much.
The troposphere is heated from below. Sunlight warms the
ground or ocean, which in turn radiates the heat into the
air right above it. This warm air tends to rise. That keeps
the air in the troposphere "stirred up". The top of the
troposphere is quite cold. The temperature there is
around -55 C (-64 F)! Air also gets 'thinner' as you go
higher up. That's why mountain climbers sometimes need
bottled oxygen to breathe.
The boundary between the top of the troposphere and
the stratosphere (the layer above it) is called the
tropopause. The height of the tropopause depends on
latitude, season, and whether it is day or night. Near the
equator, the tropopause is about 20 km (12 miles or
65,000 feet) above sea level. In winter near the poles the
tropopause is much lower. It is about 7 km (4 miles or
23,000 feet) high. The jet stream is just below the
tropopause. This "river of air" zooms along at 400 km/hr
(250 mph)
Other layers
Within the five principal layers which are largely
determined by temperature, several secondary layers may
be distinguished by other properties:
The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. In this
layer ozone concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per
million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere
but still very small compared to the main components of
the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of
the stratosphere from about 1535 km (9.321.7 mi;
49,000115,000 ft), though the thickness varies seasonally
and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in our
atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.
The ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere that is ionized
by solar radiation. It is responsible for auroras. During
daytime hours, it stretches from 50 to 1,000 km (31 to 621
mi; 160,000 to 3,280,000 ft) and includes the mesosphere,
thermosphere, and parts of the exosphere. However,
ionization in the mesosphere largely ceases during the
night, so auroras are normally seen only in the
thermosphere and lower exosphere. The ionosphere forms
the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical
importance because it influences, for example, radio
propagation on Earth.
The homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether
the atmospheric gases are well mixed. The surfaced-based
homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, and the lowest part of the thermosphere,
where the chemical composition of the atmosphere does
not depend on molecular weight because the gases are
mixed by turbulence.[14] This relatively homogeneous layer
ends at the turbopause which is found at about 100 km (62
mi; 330,000 ft), which places it about 20 km (12 mi; 66,000
ft) above the mesopause.
Above this altitude lies the heterosphere which includes the
exosphere and most of the thermosphere. Here the
chemical composition varies with altitude. This is because
the distance that particles can move without colliding with
one another is large compared with the size of motions that
cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular
weight, with the heavier ones such as oxygen and nitrogen
present only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The
upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost
completely of hydrogen, the lightest element.
The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere
that is closest to Earth's surface and is directly affected by
it, mainly through turbulent diffusion. During the day the
planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed, whereas at
night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent
mixing. The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges
from as little as about 100 meters on clear, calm nights to
3000 m or more during the afternoon in dry regions.
Optical Properties
Scattering
When light passes through our atmosphere, photons interact with it
through scattering. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it
is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look directly
at the Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in the
atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when you cannot see
your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been
scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh
scattering, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer
(red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing
scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is
close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere
than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been
scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.
Absorption
Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For
example, O2 and O3 absorb almost all wavelengths shorter than 300
nanometers. Water (H2O) absorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm.
When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the
molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by
emitting radiation, as discussed below.
Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) to various
wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light.
The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the atmosphere leave
"windows" of low opacity, allowing the transmission of only certain
bands of light. The optical window runs from around 300 nm
(ultraviolet-C) up into the range humans can see, the visible spectrum
(commonly called light), at roughly 400700 nm and continues to the
infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also infrared and radio windows
that transmit some infrared and radio waves at longer wavelengths.
For example, the radio window runs from about one centimeter to
about eleven-meter waves.
Emission
Emission is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits
radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation
depending on their "black body" emission curves, therefore hotter
objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder
objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the
Sun is approximately 6,000 K (5,730 C; 10,340 F), its radiation peaks
near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately
290 K (17 C; 62 F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much
too long to be visible to humans.
Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation.
For example, on clear nights Earth's surface cools down faster than on
cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H2O) are strong absorbers and
emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at
night at higher elevations.
The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and
emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit
infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible
spectrum. Common examples of these are CO2 and H2O.
Refractive index
The refractive index of air is close to, but just greater than 1.
Systematic variations in refractive index can lead to the bending of light
rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some
circumstances, observers onboard ships can see other vessels just over
the horizon because light is refracted in the same direction as the
curvature of Earth's surface.

Circulation
Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air through the
troposphere, and the means (with ocean circulation) by which heat is
distributed around Earth. The large-scale structure of the atmospheric
circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains
fairly constant because it is determined by Earth's rotation rate and the
difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles.
The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to
refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example
of such effects is the mirage.
Formation:

The Earth's atmosphere was formed by planetary degassing, a process
in which gases like carbon dioxide, water vapor, sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen were released from the interior of the Earth from volcanoes
and other processes. Life forms on Earth have modified the
composition of the atmosphere since their evolution.
LITOSPHERE
Definition
A lithosphere (Ancient Greek: [lithos] for "rocky",
and [sphaira] for "sphere") is the rigid,
[1]
outermost shell of
a rocky planet, and can be identified on the basis of its mechanical
properties. On Earth, it comprises the crustand the portion of the
upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of thousands
of years or greater. The outermost shell of a rocky planet is, the
crust, defined on the basis of its chemistry and mineralogy.
The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of the Earth. The Earth
consists of three main layers: the core, or the inner layer;
themantle, in the middle; and the crust, which includes
thecontinents and ocean floor. The lithosphere, which is about 100
kilometers (60 miles) deep in most places, includes the brittle
upper portion of the mantle and the crust.

The lithosphere is always moving, but very slowly. It is broken into
huge sections called tectonic plates. The extreme heat from the
mantle part of the lithosphere makes it easier for the plates to
move; this is similar to how iron is bendable once it's heated. The
movement of the lithosphere, called plate tectonics, is the reason
behind a lot of Earth's most dramatic geologic events. When one
plate moves beneath another, or when two plates rub together,
they can create earthquakes and volcanoes.

The U.S. state of Hawaii was formed on a tectonic plate called the
Pacific plate. Its islands are in a chain because the plate was
constantly moving above the mantle.

Plate tectonics may explain why we have continents. Scientists
believe the continents used to be one
majorlandmass called Pangaea, which separated because the
lithosphere broke apart. There is evidence to support this theory.
For example, the eastern coast of South America and the western
coast of Africa look like they would fit together. And even though
they are separated by an ocean, similar animals and plants are
found in both regions.
The lithosphere is the outer solid part of the earth, including the
crust and uppermost mantle. The lithosphere is about 100 km
thick, although its thickness is age dependent (older lithosphere is
thicker).The lithosphere below the crust is brittle enough at some
locations to produce earthquakes by faulting, such as within a
subducted oceanic plate.
The lithosphere is the solid outermost shell of a rocky planet.
On the Earth, the lithosphere includes the crust and the uppermost
layer of the mantle (the upper mantle or lower lithosphere) which
is joined to the crust.



Earths Lithosphere
In the Earth, the lithosphere includes the crust and the uppermost
mantle, which constitute the hard and rigid outer layer of the
Earth. The lithosphere is underlain by the asthenosphere, the
weaker, hotter, and deeper part of the upper mantle. The
boundary between the lithosphere and the underlying
asthenosphere is defined by a difference in response to stress: the
lithosphere remains rigid for very long periods of geologic time in
which it deforms elastically and through brittle failure, while the
asthenosphere deforms viscously and accommodates strain
through plastic deformation. The lithosphere is broken into
tectonic plates. The uppermost part of the lithosphere that
chemically reacts to the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere
through the soil forming process is called the pedosphere.
The concept of the lithosphere as Earths strong outer layer was
developed by Joseph Barrell, who wrote a series of papers
introducing the concept.[2][3][4][5] The concept was based on the
presence of significant gravity anomalies over continental crust,
from which he inferred that there must exist a strong upper layer
(which he called the lithosphere) above a weaker layer which could
flow (which he called the asthenosphere). These ideas were
expanded by Harvard geologist Reginald Aldworth Daly in 1940
with his seminal work "Strength and Structure of the Earth"[6] and
have been broadly accepted by geologists and geophysicists.
Although these ideas about lithosphere and asthenosphere were
developed long before plate tectonic theory was articulated in the
1960s, the concepts that a strong lithosphere exists and that this
rests on a weak asthenosphere are essential to that theory.
There are two types of lithosphere:

Oceanic lithosphere, which is associated with oceanic crust and
exists in the ocean basins (mean density of about 2.9 grams per
cubic centimeter)
Continental lithosphere, which is associated with continental crust
(mean density of about 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter)
The thickness of the lithosphere is considered to be the depth to
the isotherm associated with the transition between brittle and
viscous behavior.[7] The temperature at which olivine begins to
deform viscously (~1000 C) is often used to set this isotherm
because olivine is generally the weakest mineral in the upper
mantle. Oceanic lithosphere is typically about 50140 km thick
[8](but beneath the mid-ocean ridges is no thicker than the crust),
while continental lithosphere has a range in thickness from about
40 km to perhaps 280 km;[8] the upper ~30 to ~50 km of typical
continental lithosphere is crust. The mantle part of the lithosphere
consists largely of peridotite. The crust is distinguished from the
upper mantle by the change in chemical composition that takes
place at the Moho discontinuity.
Oceanic lithosphere[edit]
Oceanic lithosphere consists mainly of mafic crust and ultramafic
mantle (peridotite) and is denser than continental lithosphere, for
which the mantle is associated with crust made of felsic rocks.
Oceanic lithosphere thickens as it ages and moves away from the
mid-ocean ridge. This thickening occurs by conductive cooling,
which converts hot asthenosphere into lithospheric mantle and
causes the oceanic lithosphere to become increasingly thick and
dense with age. The thickness of the mantle part of the oceanic
lithosphere can be approximated as a thermal boundary layer that
thickens as the square root of time.
Here, h is the thickness of the oceanic mantle lithosphere, \kappa
is the thermal diffusivity (approximately 106 m2/s) for silicate
rocks, and t is the age of the given part of the lithosphere. The age
is often equal to L/V, where L is the distance from the spreading
centre of mid-oceanic ridge, and V is velocity of the lithospheric
plate.
Oceanic Lithosphere
Oceanic lithosphere is less dense than asthenosphere for a few
tens of millions of years but after this becomes increasingly denser
than asthenosphere. This is because the chemically differentiated
oceanic crust is lighter than asthenosphere, but thermal
contraction of the mantle lithosphere makes it more dense than
the asthenosphere. The gravitational instability of mature oceanic
lithosphere has the effect that at subduction zones, oceanic
lithosphere invariably sinks underneath the overriding lithosphere,
which can be oceanic or continental. New oceanic lithosphere is
constantly being produced at mid-ocean ridges and is recycled back
to the mantle at subduction zones. As a result, oceanic lithosphere
is much younger than continental lithosphere: the oldest oceanic
lithosphere is about 170 million years old, while parts of the
continental lithosphere are billions of years old. The oldest parts of
continental lithosphere underlie cratons, and the mantle
lithosphere there is thicker and less dense than typical; the
relatively low density of such mantle "roots of cratons" helps to
stabilize these regions.[9][10]
Subducted lithosphere
Geophysical studies in the early 21st century posit that large pieces
of the lithosphere have been subducted into the mantle as deep as
2900 km to near the core-mantle boundary,[11] while others
"float" in the upper mantle,[12][13] while some stick down into the
mantle as far as 400 km but remain "attached" to the continental
plate above,[10] similar to the extent of the "tectosphere"
proposed by Jordan in 1988.[14]