PREAMBLE

Chapter 4: Action Research

Chapter 4: Chapter 4: ACTION RESEARCH ACTION RESEARCH
This chapter focus on understanding what is action research and how it is used in
qualitative research. The rationale for using action is discussed and who are the
people are often involved in action research. There are many several models of action
research but in this chapter focus will be one approach that consists of six steps.
Different types of action research are identified as well the issue of ethics is discussed.
1
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you have completed th! chapte"# you $ll %e a%le to&
Define what is action research
Justify the use of action research
Describe the steps involved in action research
Differentiate between the types of action research
Discuss the role of ethics in action research
CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Introduction to Qualitative Research
Chapter 2: Qualitative Data Collection Techniques
Chapter 3: Ethnography
Chapter 4: ction Research
Chapter !: Case "tudy
Chapter #: $ther Qualitative %ethods
Chapter &: Qualitative Data nalysis
Chapter ': Coding Qualitative Data
CHAPTER O'ER'IEW
Preamble
What is action research
What is not action research
Why action research
Who gets involved in action
research
!ction research models
"ase study# $athematics
Types of action research
%thics
&ummary
'ey Terms
(eferences
Chapter 4: Action Research
)ave you reflected or though about your teaching )ave you as*ed yourself
whether what you have doing in the classroom is really helping all students learn +s
there another way of doing things !ction research is a qualitative research method
that encourages the practioner ,or teacher- to be reflective of his or her own practice
with the aim of improving the system ,$c.iff/ 1001-. !s schools are increasingly
being held publicly accountable for student achievement/ action research may provide
a way for helping schools understand better their problems and to ma*e more
informed decisions about their practice that can lead to desired outcomes.

Action Research
THEOR( PRACTICE
Pe"!onal Te!t One)!
Theo"e! and Pe"!onal
*ele+! Theo"e! n the
Cla!!"oom
,-u"e ./0 Acton Re!ea"ch %"d-e! theo"y and p"actce
!ction research is becoming increasingly popular in education ,or for that
matter any social organisation-. !ction research is based on the belief that the teacher
,or practioner- is the best 2udge of his or her teaching ,or practice-. %ach teacher has
his or her own personal theories of educational practice. !ction research helps the
teacher to bridge the gap between theory and practice ,see 3igure 1.1-. )ere teachers
have the opportunity to test some of their personal theories in the classroom using
action research.
!ccording to 4us*ey ,5666-/ educational problems and issues are best
identified and investigated where the action is/ i.e. at the classroom and school level.
7y bringing research into these settings and engaging those who wor* at this level in
research activities ,i.e. teachers-/ findings can be applied immediately and problems
solved more quic*ly. !ction research in education has also been called several
different names such as#
classroom research/
5
WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?
Chapter 4: Action Research
self-reflective inquiry/
teacher research/
teacher self-evaluation,
teacher as researcher.
1u"t Le$n is generally considered the 8father of
action research9. )e was a 4erman social and experimental
psychologist who was concerned with social problems
especially in addressing conflicts/ crisis and bringing about
change within organisations. )e first coined the term
:action research; in his 101< paper Action Research and
Minority Problems. )e was interested in using action
research to investigate into conditions in organisations that
would lead to social action/ )e proposed a process which
was a spiral of steps involving planning/ action and fact=
finding about the result of the action.
!nother proponent of action research was E"c T"!t
,1011=100>-/ an %nglish social psychologist who was
engaged in applied social research. )e and ?ewin
emphasised on the importance of professional=client
collaboration and were proponents of the principle that decisions are best
implemented by those who help ma*e them.
The main reason for action research is for teacher to engage in the
improvement of their own teaching. !ction research leads the teacher to come to their
own understandings about their own teaching. $ost importantly/ action research see*
to change some of the beliefs teachers have about how students learn and to improve
the quality of education.
Ca"" and 1emm! ,10@<- define action research as a form of self-reflective
enquiry underta*en by participants ,teachers/ students or principals/ for
example- in social ,including educational- situations in order to improve the
rationality and 2ustice of ,a- their own social or educational practices/ ,b- their
understanding of these practices/ and ,c- the situations ,and institutions- in
which these practices are carried out.
O)*"an ,100@- defines action research as learning by doing in which a
person identifies a problem/ does something to resolve it/ see how successful
his or her efforts were/ and if not satisfied to try again. To achieve this goal/
the teacher ,or practioner- has to wor* in collaboration with students ,or
clients- stressing the importance of co=learning as a primary aspect of the
research process.
McN++ ,1001-/ states that action research when applied to classrooms is an
approach to improving education through change/ by encouraging teachers to
be aware of their own practice (reflective)/ to be critical of that practice/ and
to be prepared to change it.
>
1u"t Le$n
20345604.78
Chapter 4: Action Research
Ferrance (2000) defnes action research as a process in which
participants examine their own educational practice systematically
and carefully, using the techniques of research.
First, action research is not problem-
solving or consulting in the sense that
you are trying to fnd out what is wrong,
but rather a quest for knowledge
about how to improve. Even though
the word research is used, it is not
about doing research on or about
people, or fnding all available
information on a topic loo!ing for the
correct answers. For example, it is not a
library pro"ect where you investigate
about a problem or issue# neither is it
interviewing people to fnd out why. $t involves people %your
students& wor!ing to improve your s!ills, techniques, and strategies,
that is to improve practice.

'econd, action research is not about learning why we do certain
things, but rather how we can do things better. $t is about how
we can change our instruction to impact students.
Third/ the main focus of action research is on turning the
people involved into researchers %(9)rian, *++,&. -eople
learn best, and more willingly apply what they have learned,
when they do it themselves. .he teacher or practioner as
researcher spends refning the methodological tools to suit the
demands of the situation, and collecting, analysing, and
presenting data on an ongoing, cyclical basis.
Fourth, the researcher ma!es no attempt to remain ob"ective,
but openly acknowledges his or her bias towards the
sub"ects or participants
Fifth, action research has a social dimension whereby the
research ta!es place in real-world situations, and aims to
solve real concerns.
1
I! acton "e!ea"ch
!mla" to
p"o%lem !olvn-9
WHAT IS NOT ACTION RESEARCH?
LEARNING ACTIVITY
a- What is meant by the statement that :action research is the
bridge between theory and practice;
b- 7ased in the definitions given/ provide your definition of
action research
c- (elate one example you are not happy about your teaching.
Chapter 4: Action Research
$n short, action research is any systematic inquiry conducted by teachers/
principals/ school counsellors/ or other sta*eholders in the teachingAlearning
environment to gather information about how their particular school operates/ how
they teach/ and how well their students learn. This information is gathered with the
goals of gaining insights/ developing reflective practice/ effecting positive changes in
the school environment/ and improving student outcomes and the lives of those
involved ,.%3&T%$/ 500<-.
There are two main reasons for action research. Bne is to involve practioners
,such as teachers- in their wor*. The other is to encourage practioners ,or teachers- to
be researchers with the purpose of bringing about improvement in what they are
doing. !ction research means !"T+B./ both of the system under consideration and of
the people involved in that system.
The system could mean schools/ factories/ offices/ airlines and so forth.
The people means teachers/ managers/ wor*ers/ supervisors/ principals and so
forth.
3or example/ a teacher who discovered that if he adopted an alternative style
of dealing with students with discipline problems/ student attention in class greatly
improved. )e recommends the alternative method to his colleagues and soon the
whole school is seen practicing the method in all the classes. The 8action9 of action
research/ whether on a small scale or large scale/ implies change in people9s lives/ and
therefore in the system in which they live.
!ction research is used in real situations/ rather than in contrived/
experimental studies/ since its primary focus is on solving real problems. +t can/
however be used by social scientists for preliminary or pilot research ,B97rian/ 100@-.
)owever/ action research is most often used when you want change to ta*e place
quic*ly or holistically and is preferred because it is flexible. +t is often selected as a
method by practitioners who wish to improve understanding of their practice or an
academic invited into an organisation by decision=ma*ers aware of a problem
requiring action research ,B97rian/ 100@-.
C
WHY ACTION RESEARCH?
WHO GETS INVOLVED IN ACTION RESEARCH?
LEARNING ACTIVITY
a- )ow is action research different from problem=solving/
consulting and other types of research
b- Why would one want to engage in action research
c- !ction research is about :how can we do things better;
%laborate.
Chapter 4: Action Research
!ction research is conducted by individuals who want to change their practice.
Dou are concerned that things are not going as you wish. 3or example/ the curriculum
for teaching reading is not helping children who did not attend preschool and hence
you want to implement a new approach in teaching reading to children who do not
have preschool experience. Dou want practical solutions to your problem. Dou may
have read about how other9s have solved the problem but not sure whether it will
wor* for your group of pupils because you *now that practice is often influenced by
context.

What is the difference between teaching and action research on teaching
When doing action research you will need to adopt a more systematic approach to
ma*ing observations and *eeping records than may presently be the case. !t various
stages in a pro2ect/ your findings can be communicated to colleagues through
<
ACTION RESEARCH MODELS
The Teacher who gets involved in action research#
+s not !at!+ed with the status quo and has the confidence
and resolution to attempt to chan-e what is going on. )e
or she will not be satisfied with the present way of doing
things and see*s to change it.
+s "e!ou"ce+ul/ commtted and above all cu"ou!.
Re+u!e! to %e a !e"vant/ but instead wants to be an actn-
a-ent and rise above being a !:lled techncan and move
towards becoming an educato".
Esource: Jean McNiff, Action Research, Principles and
Practice, McNiff, 1988, 50]
Chapter 4: Action Research
seminars/ conferences and 2ournal publications. There are several other models of the
action research process. +n this chapter we will discuss three such models# The
original wor* of 'urt ?ewin/ the action research model by 4erald &usman and the
education action research model by 'emmis and $cTaggart.
A8 THE ORIGINAL WOR1 O, 1URT LEWIN
The social psychologist 'urt ?ewin was most interested in studying social
issues in organisations. )e felt that the best way for an organisation to progress is for
its people to engage in improving their own practice. )e stressed the importance of
the researcher to wor* collaboratively with others. )e described action research as
being a spiral of steps# Planning/ !cting/ Bbserving and (eflecting ,see 3igure 1.5-.
,-u"e ./; Sp"al Step! o+ Acton Re!ea"ch
E<AMPLE&
Plannn-& )ow can + ma*e my dog better behaved Perhaps + should ta*e him to
training classes.
Actn-& + ta*e him to training classes.
O%!e"vn-& + see how the dogs behave at class.
Re+lectn-& Perhaps + should do the same at home in a consistent fashion.
Esource# Kurt Lewin, 1946. Action Research and Minority Problems,
Journal of ocial !ssues, "# $4% 46/
F
ACTING
O*SER'ING RE,LECTING
PLANNING
Chapter 4: Action Research
This first phase continues to the second phase of the cycle involving (e=planning/
!cting/ Bbserving and (eflecting. ?ewin did not intend for his ideas to be applied in
education as he was more interested in social issues in organisations. )owever/ his
concept crept into education and today his basic model is widely adopted in
educational settings with slight modifications ERefer to the action research model by
Kemmis and McTaggartG.
*8 ACTION RESEARCH MO=EL *( SUSMAN
The model by &usman ,10@>- specifies five phases of the research cycle ,see
3igure 1.>-. The first step is identification of a problem followed by collection of
information about the problem. Then the data is analysed to find potential solutions
and based on the analysis/ one possible solution or intervention is implemented.

,-u"e
./> Su!man)! Acton Re!ea"ch Model 2043>8
?ater the data on the outcome of the intervention is studied and reviewed to
find out how well was the plan was carried out and whether the outcomes was
successful or not. The Problem is reassessed and cycle starts again and continues to
evolve until an adequate solution is found.
C8 ACTION RESEARCH MO=EL *( 1EMMIS AN= McTAGGART
@
LEARNING ACTIVITY
What types of person will be involved in action research
7riefly describe the action research model proposed by
4erald &usman ,10@>-.
Chapter 4: Action Research
!ction research is essentially a series of cycles of (%3?%"T+B./
P?!..+.4 and !"T+B.. 'emmis and $cTaggart ,10@@- developed a concept for
action research. They proposed a spiral model comprising four steps# planning/ acting/
observing and reflecting ,see 3igure 1.1-.


,-u"e ./. Ca"" and 1emm!)! Acton Re!ea"ch Model 2043?8
The diagram shows the four steps in actionH the movement from one critical
phase to another/ and the way in which progress may be made through the system.
!ction research is all about what happens in the classroom. Teachers are encouraged
to be researchers investigating what is happening in their classrooms.
7asically it is an approach to improve your own teaching practice. Dou start
with a problem you encounter in your teaching practice. +t could be a concern that
students do not spend enough effort in reviewing course materialsH or they have great
difficulty learning a particular topic in the course. 3aced with the problem/ the action
researcher will go through a series of phases ,reflect/ plan/ action/ observe- called the
!ction (esearch "ycle to systematically tac*le the problem.
+n practice/ things rarely go perfectly according to plan first time round.
Isually you discover ways to improve your action plan in light of your experience
and feedbac* from the students. Bne cycle of planning/ acting/ observing and
reflecting/ therefore usually leads to another/ in which you incorporate improvements
suggested by the initial cycle. Pro2ects often do not fit neatly into a cycle of planning/
0
Pha!e 0
Pha!e ;
Chapter 4: Action Research
action/ observation and reflection. +t is perfectly legitimate to follow a somewhat
dis2ointed process if circumstances dictate.
E<AMPLE&
Esource# "arr/ W. J 'emmis/ &. ,10@<- Becoming ritical! education, "no#ledge and
action research. ?ewes/ 3almerG
16
+ am not happy with the textboo* we are using/ but it is the only
one available. What can + do about it + cannot change the boo*#
should + change my method of using it Perhaps + should try paired
wor*.
+ show the children how to as* and answer questions of each other
to ma*e otherwise boring material relevant to themselves. We try
out this technique in class.
+ 2oin various pairs and listen to their conversations. + record some
conversations. + *eep my own notes.
The activity is lively/ but some questions wander from the text. +
want to get across the material in the text.
Perhaps + could develop with the children an interview technique/
where ! as*s 7 questions which will elicit responses based on the
material. Will that ma*e it boring again )ow can + guard against
this Perhaps + can involve them even more actively.
The children record their own conversations. There are not enough
tape recorders to go around/ so they wor* in fours/ ta*ing it in
turns to listen and tal*. !t the end of the two sets of interviews
they listen and comment on individual recordings.
Plannn-&
Actn-&
O%!e"vn-&
Re+lectn-&
Plannn-&
Actn-&
O%!e"vn-&
Re+lectn-&
They really en2oy this. !nd they seem to be gleaning information
from the text in formulating their own question and answers.
Points to ponder#
!m + correct pedagogically in teaching the content through this
process + must consult my head of department on this. &hould +
aim for this sort of learning more often and with other classes +
am worried about practical difficulties such as too much noise and
insufficient tape recorder.
Chapter 4: Action Research
Phase !
@UESTION (OUR PRESENT PRACTICE 2Re+lect on you" p"actce8
7efore you begin/ you should as* yourself the following questions ,7arrett and
Whitehead/ 10@C-#
1. What ! you" conce"n9 K +s there something
8bugging9 you that you are not happy about Dou
are mathematics teacher teaching primary > pupils.
!bout one=third of pupils in your class are not able
to do :fractions;. +t is already the end of the first
semester.
5. Why a"e you conce"ned9 K These one=third of
pupils who are ill=equipped with :fractions; s*ills
will find it difficult to cope when they proceed to
the second semester.
>. What do you thn: you could do a%out t9 A
+ can do something about it. + have read extensively
about peer=tutoring which wor*s quite in
mathematics teaching.
0/ PLAN&
+ will reduce the amount of content to be covered. 7rea* it down into smaller
manageable bits. Pupils are bro*en up into groups of three with one good pupil ,i.e.
tutor- assigned to help the other two pupils ,i.e. tutee- in the group.
;/ ACT&
+ begin the lesson with teaching the whole class about :fractions;. Then/ pupils wor*
in their groups on the problems given to them. The good pupil is told to help the other
two wea* pupils in his or her group. $y role is that of a facilitator attending to
questions and issues raised by students.
>/ O*SER'E&
11
CASE ST"DY!
ACTION RESEARCH IN PRIMARY MATHEMATICS
TEACHING
Chapter 4: Action Research
E$ou have to decide #hat "ind of evidence you need to collect to help you ma"e some
%udgement about #hat is happeningG. + 2oin the different groups and listen to their
conversations. + record as much of their conversations as possible which is 2otted in a
2ournal. + *eep notes of my impressions.
./ RE,LECT&
The lesson is lively but not all students are as*ing questions. They are not discussing
with other. &ome tutors did not *now what to do and how to help their groups mates.
This is not what + had in mind. E$ou have to chec" that your %udgement about #hat
has happened is reasonable, fair and accurateG.
Phase #!
0/ RE'ISE PLAN&
+ have to train pupils on the process of peer tutoring and strategies for
fulfilling their role of tutor or tutee.
+ have to device a structured tutoring procedure in which tutors present
material previously covered by the teacher/ and provide feedbac* to the tutee.
;/ ACT&
Tutor: The purpose of this lesson is to understand fractions as part of a
#hole& 'Tutor states the learning ob%ective&( $ou #ill practice #riting a
number as a fraction by loo"ing at the parts and the #hole in different
e)amples&
Tutor: *oo" at Picture +,& Tell me ho# many small squares there are in the
picture&
Tutee: -our small squares
Tutor: .ood/ This is the number of small parts in the #hole figure& 0rite that
number in the square at the bottom of the fraction sheet&
Tutor: 1o#, ho# many of those small squares are shaded2
15
Chapter 4: Action Research
Tutee: 3ne small square&
Tutor: .reat/ This is the number of shaded squares in the #hole figure& 0rite
this number on the top in the shaded square of the fraction sheet&
Tutor: 1o# #e #ant to name this fraction by using the number of shaded
squares and the number of small squares& 0hat are the numbers2
Tutee: , and 4
Tutee: That is correct/ To name the fraction #e say , out of 4& The bar divides
the parts on the top #ith the #hole on the bottom& Another #ay is to say it is
that , shaded square out of 4 squares means 5, or one fourth&
>/ O*SER'E&
(ecord their interactions by placing a tape=recorder in each group. &tudents are really
en2oying themselves. There is greater group discussion and consensus in decision
ma*ing.
./ RE,ELECT&
Wea* pupils when grouped with a good pupil benefits from the peer tutoring process
which results in mastery of s*ills in fractions. + also realises that tutors tended to drill
their tutees to master the concept of fractions. Peer tutoring should move beyond
drillings s*ills. &hould + aim for this sort of learning more often and with other
classes + am worried about practical difficulties such as too much noise.
&
.here are di0erent types of action research depending upon
the participants involved. 1ccording to Ferrance %2333&, a plan of
research can involve a single teacher investigating an issue in his
or her classroom, a group of teachers wor!ing on a common
problem, or a team of teachers and others focusing on a school- or
district-wide issue. 'he identifed the following types of action
research4
1>
TYPES O$ ACTION RESEARCH
LEARNING ACTIVITY
What is the first step in action research
Describe what is done at the :act; stage of the process;
c- Discuss the role of :reflection; in action research.
Chapter 4: Action Research
A) ndividual !eacher "esearch
$ndividual teacher research usually focuses on a single issue in
the classroom. .he teacher may be see!ing solutions to problems of
classroom management, instructional strategies, use of materials,
or student learning. .eachers may have support of their supervisor
or principal, an instructor for a course they are ta!ing, or parents.
.he problem is one that the teacher believes is evident in his or her
classroom and one that can be addressed on an individual basis.
.he research may then be such that the teacher collects data
or may involve loo!ing at student participation. (ne of the
drawbac!s of individual research is that it may not be shared with
others unless the teacher chooses to present fndings at a sta0
meeting, ma!e a formal presentation at a conference, or submit
written material to a listserv, "ournal, or newsletter. $t is possible for
several teachers to be wor!ing concurrently on the
same problem with no !nowledge of the wor! of others.
*8 Colla%o"atve Acton Re!ea"ch
5ollaborative action research may include as few as two teachers or
a group of several teachers and others interested in addressing a
classroom or department issue. .his issue may involve one
classroom or a common problem shared by many classrooms. .hese
teachers may be supported by individuals outside of the school,
such as a university or community partner.
#) $chool-%ide Action "esearch
'chool-wide research focuses on issues common to all. For example,
a school may have a concern about the lac! of parental involvement
in activities, and is loo!ing for a way to reach more parents to
involve them in meaningful ways. (r, the school may be loo!ing to
address its organi6ational and decision-ma!ing structures. .eams of
sta0 from the school wor! together to narrow the question, gather
and analyse the data, and decide on a plan of action. 1n example of
action research for a school could be to examine their state test
scores to identify areas that need improvement, and then determine
a plan of action to improve student performance. .eam wor! and
individual contributions to the whole are very important, and it may
be that problem points arise as the team strives to develop a
process and ma!e commitments to each other. 7hen these
obstacles are overcome, there will be a sense of ownership and
accomplishment in the results that come from this school-wide
e0ort.
&) &istrict-%ide Action "esearch
11
Chapter 4: Action Research
8istrict-wide research is far more complex and utili6es more
resources, but the rewards can be great. $ssues can be
organi6ational, community-based, performance-based, or processes
for decision-ma!ing. 1 district may choose to address a problem
common to several schools or one of organi6ational management.
8ownsides are the documentation requirements %communication&
to !eep everyone in the loop, and the ability to !eep the process in
motion. 5ollecting data from all participants needs a commitment
from sta0 to do their fair share and to meet agreed-upon deadlines
for assignments. (n the positive side, real school reform and change
can ta!e hold based on a common understanding through inquiry.
.he involvement of multiple constituent groups can lend energy to
the process and create an environment of genuine sta!eholders.
)ecause action research is carried out in real-world
circumstances, and involves close and open communication among
the people involved, the researchers must pay close attention to
ethical considerations in the conduct of their wor!. 9ichard 7inter
%*++:& lists a number of principles4
;<a!e sure that the relevant persons, committees and
authorities have been consulted, and that the principles
guiding the wor! are accepted in advance by all.
1ll participants must be allowed to in=uence the wor!, and
the wishes of those who do not wish to participate must be
respected.
.he development of the wor! must remain visible and open
to suggestions from others.
-ermission must be obtained before ma!ing observations
or examining documents produced for other purposes.
8escriptions of others wor! and points of view must be
negotiated with those concerned before being published.
.he researcher must accept responsibility for maintaining
confdentiality.>
.o this might be added several more points4
8ecisions made about the direction of the research and the
probable outcomes are collective
9esearchers are explicit about the nature of the research
process from the beginning, including all personal biases and
interests
1C
ETHICS
Chapter 4: Action Research
.here is equal access to information generated by the process
for all participants
.he outside researcher and the initial design team must
create a process that maximises the opportunities for
involvement of all participants.
!ction research
!ct
Bbserve
(eflect
Plan
?earning by doing
Practitioners
"ycle
"hange
%thics
1<
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Discuss the differences between the types of action research.
What are the ethical considerations when doing ethical research
%EY WORDS
Chapter 4: Action Research
!ction research is a qualitative research method that encourages the practioner
,or teacher- to be reflective of his or her own practice with the aim of
improving the system.
!ction research is based on the belief that the teacher ,or practioner- is the
best 2udge of his or her teaching ,or practice-.
!ction research helps the teacher to bridge the gap between theory and
practice where teachers have the opportunity to test some of their personal
theories in the classroom using action research.
!ction research in education has also been called several different names such
as classroom research/ self-reflective inquiry/ teacher research/ teacher self-
evaluation, teacher as researcher.
1ction research is not problem-solving or consulting in the
sense that you are trying to fnd out what is wrong, but rather
a quest for !nowledge about how to improve.
!ction research leads the teacher to come to their own understandings about
their own teaching.
!ction research adopts a spiral approach comprising four steps# planning
acting/ observing and reflecting.
Bne cycle of planning/ acting/ observing and reflecting/ therefore usually leads
to another/ in which you incorporate improvements suggested by the initial
cycle.
)ecause action research is carried out in real-world
circumstances, and involves close and open communication
among the people involved, the researchers must pay close
attention to ethical considerations in the conduct of their
wor!.
1F
S"MMARY
Chapter 4: Action Research
RE$ERENCES
7arrett/ J J Whitehead. J. ,100C- . &upporting teachers in their classroom research.
Iniversity of 7ath/ &chool of education.
"arr/ W. J 'emmis/ &. ,10@<- Becoming ritical! education, "no#ledge and action
research. ?ewes/ 3almer.
%lliott/ J. ,1001- Action Research for 6ducational hange/ 7uc*ingham/ Bpen
Iniversity Press.
?ewin, @. %*+A:&. 1ction 9esearch and <inority -roblems, Bournal of
'ocial $ssues, 24 CA- A:.
$c.iff/ J. ,10@@- Action Research! Principles and Practice/ 7asingsto*e/ $acmillan
.%3&T%$/ The .ortheast 3lorida &cience/ Technology/ and $athematics "enter for
%ducation. 566<. http#AAwww.nefstem.orgAteacherLguideAintroAdefinition.htm
B97rien/ (. ,100@- !n Bverview of the $ethodological !pproach of !ction
(esearch. 3aculty of +nformation &tudies/ Iniversity of Toronto
&usman/ 4.,10@>- !ction (esearch# ! &ociotechnical &ystems Perspective. %d. 4.
$organ. ?ondon# &age Publications/ 0C=11>.
Winter/ (. ,100<-. &ome Principles and Procedures for the "onduct of !ction
(esearch/ +n Brtrun Muber=&*erritt ,%d.-. .ew Directions in !ction (esearch/
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Chapter 4: Action Research
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