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DLP/BOE-II/ I/1692001
CHAPTER - 1
Fundamentals of Physics
1.1 Units for measurement
Physical measurement always requires specification of both a value (i.e., a
number representing how much) and a unit (i.e., of what). Systems of
measurement are formal strategies for indexing amounts of specified physical
quantities.
1.1.1 Unit:
To express the magnitude of a physical quantity a standard is chosen which is
of the same kind as physical quantity. This standard is taken as reference to
measure a physical quantity which is known as unit.
Therefore the process of measurement of a physical quantity involves.
i) The selection of the unit and
ii) Number of times the unit is contained in that physical quantity
In general,
measure of a physical quantity = numerical value of the quantity X size of its
unit
1.1.2 Fundamental and derived units:
Fundamental units are those units, which can neither be derived from one
another, nor can they be further resolved into any other units.
The three fundamental units are
(i) Mass (ii) Length and (iii) Time
Derived units are units of all such physical quantities which can be expressed
in terms of the fundamental units of mass, length and time.
Ex. unit of area = (metre)2
unit of volume = (metre)3
hence all derived units can be obtained by writing it in terms of fundamental
units.
1.1.3 System of Units:
The common system of units are:
(i) CGS system: It was set up in France and is based on centimetre, gram and
second as the fundamental units of length, mass and time respectively. It is a
metric system of unit
(ii) FPS system or British system of units: - It is based on foot, pound and
second as the fundamental units of length mass and time.
(iii) MKS system: It was also set up in France and is based on metre, kilogram
and second as the fundamental units of mass, length and time.
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1.1.4
SI system of unit:
In 1960 The General Conference of Weights and Measures introduced a new
system of, units known as SI units. It is based on seven basic and two
supplementary units given as:
Symbol
m
kg
s
A
K
mol
cd
Symbol
rad
sr
All properties of interest to a Boiler Engineer can be derived from the above
Base and Supplementary Units as can be seen from the following:
1.1.4.3 Derived Units:
Name
of
Property
Acceleration
Area
Density
Energy
Entropy
Specific entropy
Force
Power (Rate of Work)
Pressure
Quantity of Heat
Stress
(Same
as
Pressure)
newton
watt
pascal
joules
pascal
Symbol
m/s2
m2
kg/m2
J = N.m
J/K
J/(kgK)
N = kg.m/s2
W J/s
Pa = N/m2
J = N.m
Pa = N/m2
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Velocity
Work
Moment of force
specific energy
m/s
J = N.m
Nm
J/kg
1.1.4.4 Advantage of SI
(i) It is a rational system of units - Its makes use of only one unit for one
physical quantity. Ex. all types of energies are expressed in Joules. Whereas in
MKS system different units are used for different types of energies. For ex.
mechanical energy is measured in Joule, heat energy in calorie and electrical
energy in watt hour.
(ii) SI is a coherent system of units i.e all derived units can be obtained by
dividing and multiplying the basic and supplementary units and no numerical
factors are introduced as used to be the case with certain units of the CGS and
MKS systems.
(iii) SI is a metric system. The multiples and sub-multiples can be expressed
as the powers of 10.
1.1.4.5 The Prefixes of the S I
The S I allows the sizes of units to be made bigger or smaller by the use of
appropriate prefixes. For example, the electrical unit of a watt is not a big unit
even in terms of ordinary household use, so it is generally used in terms of
1000 watts at a time. The prefix for 1000 is kilo so we use kilowatts[kW] as
our unit of measurement. For makers of electricity, or bigger users such as
industry, it is common to use megawatts [MW] or even gigawatts [GW]. The
full range of prefixes with their [symbols or abbreviations] and their
multiplying factors are given below.
yotta [Y] = 1024
zetta [Z] = 1021
exa [E] = 1018
peta [P] = 1015
tera [T] = 1012
giga [G] = 109
mega [M] = 106
kilo [k] = 1000
hecto [h] = 100
deca [da] = 10
1 deci [d] = 0.1
1 centi [c] = 0.01
1 milli [m] = 0.001
1 micro [] = 10-6
1 nano [n] = 10-9
1 pico [p] = 10-12
1 femto [f] = 10-15
1 atto [a] = 10-18
1 zepto [z] = 10-21
1 yocto [y] = 10-24
(a thousandth)
(a millionth)
(a thousand millionth)
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1.1.5
1.1.6
Reciprocal
1.02
0.987
14.504
750.1
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To obtain
Multiply
By
in Hg
0.034
mm WC
98.07 x 10-4
Heat Work and Energy
MJ
k cal
4.187 x 10-3
Btu
1.055 x 10-3
kg m
9.807 x 10-8
ft lb
1.356 x 10-6
kW h
3.60
Power
MJ/s
k cal/s
4.187 x 10-3
Btu/min
17.57 x 10-6
To obtain
Multiply
By
kg m/s
9.807 x 10-8
ft lb/s
1.356 x 10-6
metric hp
0.7355 x 10-3
Calorific value and Specific Enthalpy
MJ/kg
k cal/kg
4.187 x 10-3
Btu/lb
2.326 x 10-3
kg m/kg
9.807 x 10-6
ft lb/lb
2.989 x 10-8
kW h/kg
3.60
Heat Transfer Coefficient
W/m2K
k cal/h m2 oC
1.163
Btu/h ft2 oF
5.878
Heat Flux
W/m2
k cal/h m2
10163
Btu/h ft2
3.155
Mass flow rate
kg/s
lb/h
0.126 x 10-3
t/h
0.28224
g/s
10-3
Specific heat and Specific Entropy
kJ/kg K
Kcal/kgoC
4.1868
Btu/lboF
4.1868
Dynamic Viscosity
N s/m2
lb/ft h
0.41338 x 10-3
lb/ft s
1.4882
poise
0.10
Kinematic Viscosity
m2/s
ft2/h
25.806 x 10-6
stoke
10-4
Torque
Nm
kgf m
9.806
ft lb
1.355
1.2
Reciprocal
29.53
10.2 x 103
238.85
948.0
101.97 x 103
737.6 x 103
1360
238.85
56.8 x 103
Reciprocal
101.97 x 103
73.76 x 103
1360
238.85
429.92 x 103
101.97 x 103
334.55 x 103
0.278
0.860
0.176
0.860
0.317
7.9365 x 103
3.5431
1000
0.2388
0.2388
2.420 x 103
0.6720
10
38.7506 x 103
10000
0.102
0.737
Matter:
The Matter exists in three states:
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1.2.1
Volume:
Volume of gas or any substance is defined as the space, which it occupies.
Unit of volume of any substance is cubic centimeter or cubic meter.
The volume is also expressed in litre.
1 liter = 1000 cm3 =106 mm3 = 10-3 m3
1.2.2
Specific volume:
The specific volume of a substance is its volume per unit mass i.e m3/kg.
The unit of specific volume is m3/kg.
One kilogram of air at 00 C and under an absolute pressure of 1.0332 kg/cm2
(760 mm of Hg) has volume of 0.7734 m3.
Therefore the specific volume of air under these conditions is 0.7734 m3/kg. It
is denoted by v
1.2.3
1.2.4
Concentration:
Concentration is the amount of a substance contained in a given volume.
"Amount of a substance" and "given volume" can take many forms.
1.2.4.1 Mole/Volume
when a known number of moles of a substance is dissolved or dispersed in a
liquid to give a known volume of solution or suspension.
Moles per litre (mol/L) and moles per cubic centimetre (mol/cc) express
concentration in the terms of mole per unit volume (mol/v).
Five mol/L is equal to five mole of substance in one litre of solution.
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Pressure:
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Pressure is defined as Force per Unit Area. Take a jar of glass with a flat
bottom, filled with water and keep it over a table. The weight of water in the
jar exerts a force on the surface of the table. If this force is measured over a
unit area of the surface, then it is called the pressure. Therefore pressure can
be defined as the force exerted by an object over the surface of unit Area.
i.e. pressure = force / area
In practice it is expressed or measured in following units:
N/m2
Kg/cm2
Lb/in2
bar (1 bar=105N/m2)
pascal (1Pascal= 1 N/m2)
height of liquid column (Normally water & Mercury)
1.2.6
Atmospheric Pressure:
The atmosphere, surrounding the earth, exerts a pressure on its surface
equivalent to the weight of air acting over unit area of the earth's surface and it
is known as atmospheric pressure. At sea level, the weight of air over a weight
of unit area of earths surface is equivalent to weight of a column of 76 cm
(760 mm) of mercury column (Hg) at 0 0C. It is taken as the standard
barometric pressure. This is also known as a physical atmosphere or
barometric atmosphere.
The density of mercury is 13. 595 grams per cubic centimeter
Therefore standard barometric pressure = 76 x 13. 595 = 1033. 32 grams / sq.
cm. i.e. 1.03322 kg/sq.cm
One metric or technical atmosphere (1 kg/cm2) = 760 /1.0332 =735.6 mm of
Hg
Pressure is also measured in the unit of mm of water column. One
Atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 760x13.595mm of water column. That
is 10332.2mm of water. This is 10.332 meter of water.
1kg/cm2 = 735.6mm of Hg = 735.6x13.595 = 10meter of water
We know that the atmosphere exerts pressure as mentioned. However, if we
take a pressure gauge in our hand, it reads Zero, even though the atmospheric
pressure is present. Thus pressure Gauge measures the pressure with reference
to Atmospheric pressure (Ref. Fig.-1). The pressure indicated by the gauge
above atmosphere is known as gauge pressure. The pressure indicated by the
gauge when the system pressure is less than atmospheric is termed as
Vacuum, which is generally measured in mm of water or mercury column and
the gauges are known as vacuum gauges.
Absolute Pressure
= Atm. Pressure + Gauge Pressure
Vacuum =
Atm. Pressure - Absolute Pressure
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Absolute zero Pressure
DLP/BOE-II/ I/1692001
Fig. 1
Thus the Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
Pab
=
Pat
+ Pg
or
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure Vacuum
Pab
=
Pat
- Vacuum
1.2.7
Barometer:
The barometer is the simplest instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure.
The earth's atmosphere at sea level has a weight of 14.7 pounds over a square
inch of surface. This is the weight of a column of air that extends from sea
level at the earth's surface to the edge of the atmosphere. This weight changes
as the temperature and composition of the air mass changes. A barometer uses
a substitute column of mercury fluid in place of the air. One atmosphere in a
mercury barometer is equaled by a column of only 760 mm Hg.
h = 760 mm of Hg
Fig.2
1.2.8
Manometer:
The manometer is one of the simplest tools for measuring gas pressure
differences. A manometer is a u-tube. One side of the "U" is open to
atmosphere and the other side is connected to a closed container. The "U" is
filled with a fluid. If both sides of the "U" have the same liquid levels then the
pressure inside and the pressure outside are the same. The difference between
the liquid levels equals the pressure difference between inside and outside.
The mercury level will be lower on the side with greater pressure. The higher
pressure "pushes" the mercury down. The Manometer measures the Gauge
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GA
S
GAS
GA
S
GAS
Fig-3
Manometer
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Temperature:
Temperature is the measure of the relative warmth or coolness of an object.
The temperature of a substance does not measure its heat content but rather
the average kinetic energy of its molecules resulting from their motions. A
one-pound block of iron and a two-pound block of iron at the same
temperature do not have the same heat content. Because they are at the same
temperature the average kinetic energy of the molecules is the same; however,
the two-pound block has more molecules than the one-pound block and thus
has greater heat energy.
For measurement of Temperature there are two scales of measurements, one is
Fahrenheit and the other is Centigrade or Celsius. The arbitrary
reference taken is the freezing point of water under atmospheric conditions.
This point at which water freezes to a solid state is considered as ZERO in
Celsius or Centigrade Scale. Again the point of reference of water boiling at
atmospheric condition and transforming to vapor stage is taken as 100 in
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1.3.2 Thermometer:
An instrument used for measuring temperature is called a thermometer and is
constructed by using one of the following principles:
the change of length, such as length of a mercury column,
the change of volume, such as volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant
pressure,
the change of pressure, such as pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant
volume,
the change in electric resistance, as in a thermistor,
the flow of electricity due to Seebeck effect, as in a thermocouple,
the radiation, as in radiation pyrometers.
1.3.2.1 Glass Bulb (Mercury thermometer): Most common for measuring air
temperature is the liquid-in-glass thermometer, which consists of a glass tube
enlarged at the bottom into a bulb that is partially filled with mercury(or
organic liquid). The tube's bore is extremely smallless than 0.02 inch (0.5
millimeter) in diameter. Thus a small amount of expansion or contraction of
the mercury in the bulb, caused by heating or cooling, produces a noticeable
rise or fall in its level in the tube.
1.3.2.2 Bimetal thermometer: Two different metals are bonded together with one
end attached to an indicating needle which aligns with a circular scale on the
face of the instrument. Since the metals expand at different rates, movement
occurs depending on the temperature fluctuation and the needle moves.
1.3.2.3 Indicating Material: A variety of crayons and pellets are available that
melt at specific temperatures. These do not really measure temperature
directly, but do indicate the maximum temperature that a material was
exposed to.
1.3.2.4 Vapor/Gas Filled: Such thermometer operates on a similar principle to the
glass bulb type thermometer.
1.3.2.5 Galileo thermometer: These tend to be used in decorative settings around
the home or office. These interesting models operate based on principles of
specific gravity.
1.3.2.6 RTD and Thermistor: These are based on the change in resistance of a
conductor when the temperature of the wire changes. In both the instruments
temperatures are digitally displayed and have better accuracies.
1.3.2.7 Thermocouple: These operate based on the temperature change that occurs
at the junction of two dissimilar wires. When the temperature changes a small
current is generated by the junction. This current is then compared to a
reference junction (calibrated standard or ice water bath) and converted to a
temperature by electric or electronic means. So the system includes the
thermocouple itself, connecting wiring and some method (Generally a digital
meter) to display the temperature reading.
Another significant advantage of the thermocouple is that the indicating
instrument can be a very long distance from the thermocouple environment.
Once the system is calibrated and the current from the thermocouple is
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1.4
Work:
If a heavy mass is to be moved from one place to other, one has to apply force
or spend energy. The Force applied to a body multiplied by the distance
moved is the amount of work done or amount of energy spent.
Work = Force x distance (traveled in the direction of force)
Work only involves the useful part of a force, namely the part that is effective
in causing the motion.
[Suppose a pail of water weighing 7 N is carried over a distance of 10 m. In
order to hold the pail up against gravity a vertical force of 7 N is exerted on
the pail. The motion, however, is horizontal, and the force exerted does no
work, even though one might get tired of holding the pail after a while.]
In SI system, the unit for work done is Newton-metre (Nm), which is the
product of a unit force (one Newton) acting through a 1-metre distance. This
unit of work done is also called joules (J).
1 J = 1 Nm
1 kg.m = 9.81 Nm = 9.81 Joules (J)
Work can also be measured in foot pounds or Kg metres
1.5 Power:
Suppose a weight is lifted off the floor at a fixed a distance. The work done in
this case would be the product of the force exerted times the distance covered,
independent of how fast the weight was lifted. Now if the same weight is
lifted faster that is in lesser period, then one might be tempted to say that more
``work'' is done. Actually the work done in both the cases is same and it is the
Power that is different.
The power exerted by a force is defined as change in work done over a period.
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1.6
Gravitational
Potential Energy
PE=0
Fig 4
Kinetic Energy of a body is due to its being in motion with respect to another
body. A kilogram of water at rest at a height of 100 metres above level of the
sea possesses 100 kg.m of potential energy and if this water is allowed to fall
freely to the level of the sea, without doing work on the way it will in every
position of its fall possess 100 kg.m of energy, but as it descends its potential
energy will diminish, and the remainder of 100 kg.m will be stored in water as
kinetic energy. When the 1kg of water would have fallen 25 metres its
potential energy would be reduced by 25 kg.m to be only 75 kg.m and its
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1.8
Torque:
Torque is a measure of the 'strength' being used in turning (or attempting to
turn) something.
A common example is that of a spanner being used to move a nut. A force is
being applied at one end of the spanner. That force is multiplied by the
distance between it and the turning-point (which, in this case, is the centre of
the nut) to give a measure of the torque which is being applied. This seems to
be the same as for work which is also a force being multiplied by a distance
but look closely, in the definition for torque there is no mention of the force
moving as there is in the full definition for work.
So, they are different things even though the units are the same, and no work
is done until, in this case, the spanner moves - and even then it is a matter of
how far the force moves, and not its distance from the centre.
The SI preferred unit for torque is newton metres [Nm] and for work is
joules [J].
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1.9
Specific Energy :
This is a measure of the amount of energy contained in a unit quantity of some
substance. The unit quantity may be either of mass or of volume. For unit
mass, usually referred to as Specific Energy, Its units are [J/kg] or [kJ/kg]
For unit volume, usually referred to as Calorific Value, units such as [kJ/m]
or [MJ/m]. should be used .
1.10
1.11
1.11.1 Heat
Heat is believed to be a mode of motion. It is supposed that a body
possessing heat has its particles or molecules in a state of motion, the rate of
motion increasing as the body gets warmer and diminishing as the body cools.
As to the character of motion of the molecules it may be imagined to be an
oscillatory motion in the case of solids and liquids, but in the case of gases it
is supposed to be a motion of translation.
It is found that all the phenomenon of Heat may be explained by this theory.
For example, it is well known that in general the effect of heat on matter is to
enlarge it. A piece of iron when heated gets longer, wider and thicker (due to
thermal expansion). Now it is natural to expect that if the molecule of iron
have more motion as the iron gets hotter they will require more room and will
therefore push one another further apart and consequently cause the whole
body to get larger, just as a crowd of people take up more space when they
jostle one another than they do when standing still or when jostling to a less
extent.
For the purpose of explaining how heat is transmitted through space the latter
is supposed to be filled or permeated with an invisible imponderable (and
imaginary) fluid called the ether which takes up the motion of the molecules
of a body and transmits them to the molecules of other bodies in space, just as
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walls of the kettle. When the fire is put out, the water started cooling down as
transfer of heat in water occurs by Convection from centre of the Kettle to the
water layer immediately in contact with Kettle walls and by Conduction
within walls of the Kettle. Outer surface of the Kettle transfers heat to the
surroundings by way of Convection & Radiation.
.
In Boiler generally the heat transfer takes place in all the three modes of heat
transfer process namely Conduction, Convection and the Radiation.
The general equation for heat flow rate by any of the above three modes of
heat transfer from one media to other may be written as
q = US t
Where q = heat flow rate in K.Cal/hr
S = Surface area involved in the heat transfer in m2
t = Temperature difference causing heat flow in C
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient in K.cal/m2/hr/C
= 1/R where R is overall resistance
1.11.4.1 Conduction:
Conduction is the process of transfer of heat through solids from one part of
the body to the other, by physical contact, without the molecules moving, but
imparting vibration from one molecule to the neighbouring one.
In a Boiler the water tubes are exposed to fire. The heat travels by Conduction
from outer surface to inner surface of water tubes and then transfers to water
at centre of the tubes and in the drum from the water immediately in contact
with inner surface of the tubes by convection. In a metal the heat transfer
takes place by passing on heat from particle to particle by contact without any
physical movement of the particles themselves.
The quantity of heat conducted depends on:
a. the differential temperature between combustion chamber and the water
inside the tube,
b. the thickness of the tube,
c. surface area of the tube,
d. the characteristics of the metal and
e. the cleanliness of the surface.
If a flat plate is heated on one side and cooled on other side, heat will flow
from hot side to the cold. The heat flow rate q can be expressed as below:
q = KS (t1 t2) / l
Where q = rate of heat flow K.Cal/hr
K = Thermal conductivity for 1 cm thickness K.cal/m2/hr/C
S = Heating surface in m2
t = temperature difference causing heat flow (t1 t2) in C
l = length or thickness of the plate in cm.
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If we consider two parallel planes of infinite size and they are black bodies,
then heat transfer from the hot plane (at T1 K) to the other plane (at T2 K) is
given by the formula
q = S (T14 T24)
If all the radiation emitted by one does not fall on the other it is essential to
introduce an angle factor in the formula
In boiler the radiation becomes luminous by entrained particles such as
pulverised coal, soot etc. and calculation of luminous radiation is complex.
The gases such as oxygen and nitrogen absorbs or emit only slight amount of
radiation. But water vapours, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and carbon
monoxide which are part of flue gases in the boiler also absorb and emit. They
emit and radiate only in certain wave length bands that lie outside of the
visible range and are called as non-luminous gas radiation.
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Examples
1. Question: Defined absolute temperature scale
(Feb-88, Aug-89)
Answer:
Absolute temperature scale or Kelvin temperature scale is based on absolute zero of
temperature. Absolute zero, or 0K, is the temperature at which molecular energy is a
minimum and it corresponds to a temperature of 273.15 on the Celsius temperature
scale. At absolute temperature a perfect gas is considered to have a zero volume.
Absolute temperature is expressed by the capital latter K and at this scale the
freezing point of water (0C) is 273.15 K, and the boiling point of water (100C), is
373.15 K, respectively.
2. Question: Give in a tabular form a list of devices which are used to measure the
temperatures between that of liquid air (- 1830C) and the melting point of
Platinum ( 17700C) and show the range of temperature over which each can be
used
Answer:
Devices
Mercury in glass thermometer
Mercury thermometers, fused silica
Gas expansion thermometer (N2)
Metal expansion thermometer
Resistance pyrometer
Thermoelectric pyrometer (le-Chateleir)
Thermo-electric pyrometer (base metal)
Seger cones
Radiation pyrometer
Optical pyrometer
Temperature
range in 0C
- 40 to 525
- 40 to 650
260 to 1600
0 to 500
- 180 to 1000
0 to 1500
0 to 1000
600 to 2000
400 upwards
650 upwards
Effect utilised
Expansion of fluid
Expansion of fluid
Expansion of fluid
Expansion of solid
Change of electrical resistance
Thermo-electric effect
Thermo-electric effect
Fusion (softening)
Radiation (total)
Radiation (mono-chromatic)
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Answer:
When the mass of the gas is not known, we use the equation
p1V1/ T1 = p2V2/ T2
p1 = 7 x 105 N/m2; V1 = 3 cu metre; V2 = 9 cu metre
T1 = 150 + 273 = 423 K and T2 = 273 + 10 = 283 K
Therefore, (700000 x 3) / 423 = p2 x 9 / 283
or
p2 = 156200 N/m2
or
p2 = 1.562 bar.
5. Question: The compression ratio of an engine is 12 to 1, the pressure at the
commencement of the compression stroke is 100 kN/m2 and the temperature
115C. Calculate the absolute pressure at the end of compression stroke if the
temperature has then risen to 180C.
Answer:
We know,
p1V1/ T1 = p2V2/ T2
We have,
p1 = 100 kN/m2 ; T1 = 115 + 273 = 388 K ;
V2 = V1/12
On substitution of values, we get
100 x V1 / 388 = p2 x V1/(12 x 453)
or p2 = 1401 kN/m2 (14.01 bar) absolute
6. Question: Calculate the molecular volume of all gases at 200 kN/m2 and 30C.
According to the characteristic equation of a gas we have pV = mRT where p is
the pressure of the gas in N/m2, V is the volume of mass m kg of gas in cu metre,
R is the characteristic gas constant and T is the absolute temperature of the gas in
kelvin.
Answer:
If V is the molecular volume, then m will be molecular mass of the gas and
mR = 8314.3 J/kg mole/K
We have, P = 200 x 103 N/m2 ; T = 273 + 30 = 303 K
Therefore, 200 x x V = 8314.3 x 303
V = (8314.3 x 303) / (200 x 103) =12.596 m3
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ASSESSMENT SHEET
1.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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