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Pipe Pipe Stress Stress and and Flexibility Flexibility Analysis Analysis I I Chapter Chapter 2 2


2 . FLEXI BI LI T Y AN ALYSI S
PURPOSE PURPOSEOF OFCHAPTER CHAPTER
The aim of this chapter is to introduce the fundamental concepts and ideas that are handled in the analysis of flexibility and efforts in piping systems.
Chapter begins with the construction of the concept of flexibility analysis. Below are the objectives of the analysis of flexibility in the context of the function it
occupies in the development of a piping system.
Immediately lists the mandatory codes and standards referred to the analyst flexibility.
After submission of the codes and standards provides a categorization of different ways to approach a flexibility analysis, depending on the criticality of a
system pipes.
The chapter ends with the development of the workflow for systems analysis of pipes that allow the reader to turn the radar in order to put in all contexts and
each of the concepts that will be developed throughout the course.
BASIC BASICCONCEPT CONCEPT
Today, the practice of the discipline of flexibility is driven by a mixture of two generations of specialists. Analysts with more years of experience witnessed two
great moments in this discipline. The appearance of electronic computers in the decade of the 70 and then the availability of personal computers in the early
of the 80.
These moments turn a marked change in the definition of flexibility analysis. Originally "Analysis of flexibility of a system" was defined as the study of support
system geometry and a system of pipes, in order to ensure sufficient flexibility to absorb movements resulting from thermal expansion of the materials of the
components of the system.
This concept, despite having a reduced extent, in comparison to today handled day, to the discipline of flexibility is managed by a group of engineers highly
skilled engineers that made the other characters they saw as mysterious. These engineers were built only with experience, and its main feature, management
beyond the concepts needed for calculations, had great common sense engineering, which gave them the ability to visualize the behavior of a system without
need to simulate on a computer.
In most modern engineering companies, refer to the analysis of flexibility, with the phrase in English of "Stress Analysis".
Currently there are specialized computer programs to calculate stresses in piping systems, generally based on finite element numerical method. This has
possible to achieve greater depth in the analysis, and objectivity in the results. This changed the working methods of the analysts of the discipline. For
example, instead of raising geometry to a system to minimize stress on the connection of a team, now calculates the value of these efforts.
However, the advent of computer programs that brought engineers deepen much on the tool and leave on one side and the basics common sense of the
engineer. The computer will yield results depending on the input the analyst entered, if it does not handle the fundamentals, the model you have to enter
numeric computer probably does not pose the problem real, and worse still lacking, common sense engineering will be unable to notice when analyzing
results.
For the foregoing can build an updated concept of what the Flexibility Analysis. Is understood as flexibility analysis:
1. The calculation of stresses in a piping system subject to operating loads such as weight, pressure, thermal expansion and occasional loads such as
wind, earthquake, water hammer, etc..
2. As with any piping system connected to equipment such as towers, tanks, compressors, turbines, furnaces, heat exchangers, the analysis also
provides the flexibility calculation of forces and moments at connections to equipment and analysis effect of such actions on them.
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3. The definition of the bracket assembly on the piping system for controlling strains.
The concept enunciated above, is fairly complete but not enough. To finish define the essence of flexibility analysis is necessary to know which is your goal,
for which dedicate the following lines.
OBJECTIVES OBJECTIVESOF OFFLEXIBILITY FLEXIBILITYANALYSIS ANALYSIS
The objectives of flexibility analysis can be summarized in two tasks:
1. To ensure the structural integrity of the system: This involves the calculation of internal stresses product design loads acting on it.
The International Codes provide minimum requirements for analysis, but importantly, define allowable stress limits which may be subjected systems.
Ensuring that the calculated values are within these limits, it is guaranteed no cracks or ruptures occur in pipes. Note, that in referring to the concept
set forth in previous section , only the numeral 1 would be associated with this objective.
2. Ensure the continued operation of the system. Give guarantee the structural integrity of a system is simply the first step usually the easiest to get.
The line failure by effects associated with stress as the cause of the interrupt system operation, rarely occurs. In fact, the only mechanical failure on
elements of line attributable to a possible interruption of a service system is the failure of some component by mechanical fatigue.
In the analysis of a piping system, the greater commitment of the analyst should focus in the analysis of the components outside the pipe and
connected to it.
The most common problems associated with poor flexibility analysis that disrupt operation of the system are for example:
Leaking flanges spilling the product that carries the line. This usually affects the surrounding environment where the leak occurs
Lock valves excessive deformations product or fatigue of parts
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Problems with excessive deformations and / or cracks in vessel nozzles pressure, the effects of excessive stresses which promote localized
attack corrosion
Images from: http://met-tech.com/cracked-nozzle-analysis.html#images
Poor performances and shortening the life of the effect of rotating equipment of the loads transmitted through the pipe connections. Fatigue
action overstress corrosive product.
Images from: http://www.risiinfo.com/db_area/archive/p_p_mag/1997/9705/feat2.htm
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The above are just some examples of the different problems that can be put into risk the operability of a system and should consume most of the
attention dedicated by the analyst flexibility to a system.
The picture shown in the following sheet is taken from the book "PIPE STRESS ENGINEERING "reference number [1] of this chapter. Y represents a
very good map mind, what is the scope of the current concept Flexibility Analysis. "
The first objective "To ensure the structural integrity of the system" is only a small part analysis. Faults in the calculation of this first range, and usually
begin detected at the start of the plant, and although they may represent serious problems, for a client ensuring a continuous operation that results in
production and gain continuous, is much more important.
Other disciplines such as towers and tanks, mechanical and / or heat transfer, who responsible for procurement and negotiation of the teams in each
of its areas, normally ignore the loads transmitted through the pipes that connect teams as an important element to consider. Early action of the
analyst and good communication, the only guarantee that manufacturers take into account these loads in their design. Later be taken up this issue in
greater depth.
CODES CODESAND AND STANDARDS STANDARDS
On the morning of November 19, 1984, occurred in the storage terminal liquefied petroleum products (LPG, Liquefied Petroleum Gas) plant Petroleos
Mexicanos PEMEX in San Juan de Ixhuatepec, a series of explosions and fires that occurred about the death of 500 people and destroying almost
total storage facility.
In August 2003, said an explosion at the refinery in Puertollano Repsol YPF, which was followed by the burning of several storage tanks containing a
total of 8,600 cubic meters of gasoline. Four workers were killed and seven others were seriously injured.
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On April 26, 1986, a power surge in reactor 4 of the nuclear Chernobyl was overheating nuclear reactor core, which ended causing the explosion of
hydrogen accumulated inside. The amount of material radioactive and / or toxic was estimated that about 500 times greater than that released by the
pump atomic dropped on Hiroshima in 1945 and directly caused the deaths of 31 people and forced the government of the Soviet Union to the
evacuation of 116,000 people causing a international alarm radioactivity detected in at least 13 countries in Europe.
In total, 600,000 people received radiation dose for decontamination after the accident, 5,000,000 people lived in contaminated areas and 400,000 in
severely contaminated areas, to date there is no definitive number on the number of died of this nuclear disaster.
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These are just some examples of accidents that have occurred in industrial plants and nuclear, since they are in operation. Accidents have been
precisely as these This has led to various international agencies, academic institutions, engineering companies, insurers, government agencies,
owners of industries and equipment manufacturers to come together to create and update design standards and codes for the design and construction
of industrial and nuclear plants in a safe, reliable and profitable.
For these reasons it is vital that the analyst flexibility, has good understanding of regulations and codes applicable to the project in the works.
Analysis of flexibility as well as, the piping design is primarily regulated by three types different regulatory and / or codes.
INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONAL CODES CODES
They are internationally applicable codes and are the reference point for designers, manufacturers and builders.
The following are the most used by international codes analyst Pipe flexibility and designers.
ASME B31.1 Power Piping: piping code applicable to generation facilities energy, geothermal heating systems and centralized heating and cooling.
ASME B31.3 Process Piping: piping code applicable to petroleum refineries, chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, and general cryogenic process
plants.
ASME B31.4 Pipeline Transportation System for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids: code applicable to pipes used to transport products,
usually liquid between plants and terminals, pumping stations or regulation.
ASME B31.5 Refrigeration Piping: code applicable to piping systems cooling and secondary cooling.
ASME B31.8 Gas Transportation and Distribution Piping System: code applicable to pipes used to transport and distribution of products,
especially gas.
ASME B31.9 Building Service Piping: piping typically apply code used in commercial buildings, institutional, residential, which do not require the
range of sizes, temperatures and pressures covered in the B31.3
ASME B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping System: code applicable to pipes used to transport aqueous slurries between plants, terminals and
stations pumping or regularization.
The basic differences between the various standards listed above is the way calculating the forces and safety factors used to calculate the basic
efforts. In this course we will use the Code B31.3-2010 Process Piping, to calculate the piping systems.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII Division 1: The Division 1 of Section VIII shows the requirements applicable to the
design, manufacture, inspection, testing and certification of pressure vessels operating at internal or external pressure greater than 15 psig.
API 560 for General Refinery Haters Fired System: API 560 code indicates the requirements and recommendations for the design, materials
selection, manufacturing, inspection, testing, shipping and installation, for furnaces, heaters and preheaters air, which are used in refineries.
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API 610 Centrifugal Pumps for Petroleum, Heavy Duty Chemicals and Gas Industry Services: API 610 code is a standard that indicates the
minimum requirements for centrifugal pumps used in the petroleum industry, chemical services high resistance and gas industry.
Centrifugal Compressors API 617 for Petroleum, Chemicals and Gas Service Industries: API 617 code indicates the minimum requirements
for compressors centrifuges used in the petroleum industry, chemical and gas service or air. This code does not apply to fans or blowers that
develop a pressure less than 34 kPa (5 lb / in ^ 2), as these are covered by API 673 code.
Reciprocating Compressors API 618: API 618 code includes requirements minimum for reciprocating compressors and their drive
mechanisms that are used in the petroleum industry, chemical and gas service or air.
API 650 Welded Steel Tank for Oil Storage: API 650 code includes requirements minimum for the design, material selection, fabrication,
testing and assembly for tanks storage of petroleum, petroleum products.
Air-Cooled 661 API Heat Exchangers for General Refinery Service: API 661 code indicates the requirements and design recommendations,
use of materials, manufacturing, inspection, testing and delivery arrangements for heat exchangers are used in the oil and gas.
API 676-Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps: API 676 code indicates the minimum requirements for rotary positive displacement pumps and
drives pumps are used in the oil industry, petrochemical and gas services. Reciprocating positive displacement pumps and controlled volume
pumps or dosing, are not covered by this code, since they are included within the scope codes API 674 and API 675 respectively.
NEMA SM 23: Steam turbines for mechanical drive service: NEMA SM23, covers the minimum requirements for steam turbines of a single
stage or multistage compressors and fans.
Expansion Joints Manufacture Association (EJMA): the EJMA, is the association of manufacturers of metal expansion joints, which includes
in its standards the knowledge and experience of the leading manufacturers of expansion joints metal in order to support designers in
selecting the Metal expansion joint.
LOCAL LOCAL CODES CODESAND AND REGULATIONS REGULATIONS
There are codes and local application of the country where it will build the plant or application in a union of countries, such as those applicable to the
European Union.
The following are some of these codes, however, to initiate a project should always be to check local regulations apply.
As an example shows two rules that are usually applied in projects within European Union.
BS EN 13480-3:2002. Metallic piping industry. Design and calculation (British Standards, applicable to members of the European Union).
Directive 97/23/EC of the European Parliament and Council of 29 May 1997 the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning
pressure equipment
YOUR YOURPROJECT PROJECT SPECIFICATIONS SPECIFICATIONS
Specifications and requirements are specific to the project, usually caused by the customer or by the engineering company responsible for the design
and construction
CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION OF OFSYSTEMS SYSTEMSON ON THEIR THEIRGRADE GRADECRITICALITY CRITICALITY
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Every day the projects require tighter timetables for the development of engineering. Although current methods of calculation have accelerated the
process of systems analysis pipeline, both the clients, as contractors criteria adopted for measuring the criticality of a system, to define the degree of
formality of the calculation to be performed, in order to minimize the time of calculation
STRESS CATEGORIES
At present, the practical exercise of discipline reflected on the specifications of Customers and Engineering, usually defined requirement levels for the
calculations of the systems pipes. These levels are referred to as Stress categories. The scope of each category may vary depending on the client.
Below is an example of categorized into three levels of demand
CATEGORY I requires an analysis using computational tools, demanding presentation of a calculation report.
CATEGORY II requires the analysis using computational tools and methods simplified calculations, such as tables or nomograms. It does not
require the submission of a report, just the isometric stress.
CATEGORY III does not require analysis using computational tools. Can done by visual inspection and judgment of the analyst, if he deems it
necessary may use tables or nomograms.
CRITICALITY VARIABLES FOR ESTABLISHING A SYSTEM
The variables normally used to define the degree of criticality are:
1. Pressure and Temperature Operation and Design
As pressure is increased from a piping system, increase the thickness of components. This produces a potential increase in the loads
are transmitted to the points supported and connected to other computers.
On the other hand, as shown in the next units, the higher the temperature, the greater the thermal expansions generated in the
component. The Hottest systems have greater thermal movement and therefore require more flexibility.
2. Nominal diameter pipe
The graph shown in the previous page, shows the calculation of the length L required for limit the maximum flexural stress at a particular
value, to produce a deformation XXX particular, for pipes of different diameters
What conclusions can be drawn from the graph on the previous page?
A key conclusion would be that as you increase the arm L, a same pipeline has greater deformation capacity (XXX) before reaching a
limiting value of strains. In other words, by increasing L the system is more flexible.
Likewise, note that to achieve a same deformation XXX, by increasing the diameter pipe requires greater arm L. That is, the increase in
diameter means that the system becomes more rigid.
Thus, it is understood that in systems of small diameter is easier to get the necessary flexibility, in systems with larger diameters.
Therefore a larger diameter, with a critical system.
3. Equipment connected to the system
Understood for static equipment, equipment with no moving parts, i.e. tanks, vessels pressure, heat exchangers, furnaces, etc.. And
dynamic teams as teams motor, i.e., compressors, pumps, turbines and fans.
Why dynamic teams are more susceptible the static equipment?
Dynamic teams are more susceptible than static equipment, due to problems of operation and effect of the loads transmitted by the pipes
to which is connected.
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1. Substances handled by the system
Regardless of the conditions of temperature and pressure of the system, the size of lines or equipment connected, if handling toxic substances
or compositions chemical or physical properties that may pose a high risk the health of operators, systems should be treated with the utmost
formality of calculation.
The status of "High Risk" is bounded by the ASME 31.3 in paragraph 300.2.b to define services with fluids in category "M" says:
Fluid services category M: a service fluid in which there is a significant potential exposure of personnel and in which a single exposure to a very
small of a toxic fluid, caused by leaks in the system, may cause damage serious irreversible people on breathing or bodily contact, even though
the early implementation of emergency measures.
INHERENT FLEXIBILITY
A system has inherent flexibility when geometric morphology, and environment support is flexible in nature. For example, a pipe which connects to a
computer for download gases into the atmosphere (see sample image), and has no require any other type of bonds, the computer connection. Is
flexible nature.
The codes, since its inception have handled a numerical correlation to assess the inherent flexibility of a system and thus to decide on the need of a
calculus formal flexibility.
These formulas must be used carefully, and who value flexibility in the face of tensions on the pipe, but leave out the assessment of charges in
connections and therefore do not satisfy the second objective mentioned in the section.
Additionally, its use is rather restricted. In the states the following pictures approach reflected in ASME B31.3 code.
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Formal analysis not required by the ASME B31.3-2010:
The ASME 31.3 in paragraph 319.4.1 states that no analysis is required formal flexibility to a piping system where:
1. The system duplicates or replaces without significant changes to another operating system with a successful service history.
2. You can easily judge the system as flexible compared to systems discussed previously.
3. Is a system of uniform size, no more than two mounting points, it has no intermediate restrictions and falls within the limits of the empirical
equation following:
\frac{D\cdot y}{(L-U)^2} \le K_1
Where:
D = Outside diameter of pipe in mm (inches in imperial system)
y = Resultant displacement by total strain being absorbed by the system pipe. Units in mm (in)
L = Total length of the path of development of pipe between the anchor points in m (ft)
U = Straight line distance between the anchor points in m (ft)
K = 208000 to S /E to in (mm / m) (30 S /E to in (in / ft) )
S = Voltage admissible range of thermal deformation Mpa. (Ksi) This concept is explained in Chapter XXX, Module XXX.
E = Reference modulus at 21C (70F) in MPa (ksi)
The code follows the equation with the following warning note:
There is no evidence that this equation is accurate or yield results consistently conservative.
Not applicable to systems with severe cyclical conditions.
It should be used with caution in systems with unequal lengths in U, or zigzag-shaped paths, or thick-walled pipes D/t greater than or equal to 5 or
systems in which most of the displacements to occur in directions absorb different from normal to the planes of the anchor points.
This equation does not guarantee that the reactions at the anchors are acceptably low, even when the limits of the equation is satisfied. With the
speed of current tools, no practical sense to apply this equation for the validation of a system. The following exercise will solve a practical example:
EXAMPLE 1
The pipe shown is anchored between two flanged ends. Determine through the concept of inherent flexibility if the system requires no calculation or
formal.
DATA:
Operating temperature: 260C
Material: API 5L Grade B
Properties:
TEMPERATURE [C] E [MPa] S [MPa]
260 188.227,00 117.9
1 a a
2
a a
2
a
a
a a
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SOLUTION:
You should start by reviewing each and every one of the conditions of application established by the code. In this case there is no condition that does
not meet requirements of the method.
This chapter will as thermal displacement data to be absorbed by the system. In Chapter 3, Section 3.4 will explain the concept of thermal expansion
so that the student will be able to perform this calculation.
The picture shown below, which would represent the deformation by expansion heat produced by releasing one end. This is the strain that has absorb
the system to be anchored at both ends flanged.
Note that it is releasing the anchor of the vertical section.
The stretch horizontal expands thermally displacing the other end a distance dX.
Similarly, the vertical section thermally expands displacing other a distance dY.
Both movements generate a dR resultant corresponding to value "and" code of the equation.
Thermal expansion values obtained data are given as in this chapter. Values are:
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dX = 6.258 mm and dY = 6.258 mm
Note that both values are same lengths as in each section are as well.
Calculate the value of "y" as the resulting from dX and dY, ie:
\mathbf{y} = \sqrt{\mathstrut 6,258^2 + 6,258^2 }
\mathbf{y} = 8,85mm
Calculates the total length travel "L" and the distance between the fixing points "U". Note that these two values are in IS meters
\mathbf{U} = \sqrt{\mathstrut 2^2 + 2^2 }
\mathbf{U} = 2,83mm
\mathbf{L} = \mathstrut 2m + 2m
\mathbf{L} = 4mm
Returning to the equation, it remains to establish the value of K that is:
\mathbf{K_1} = 208000 \cdot\frac{S_a}{E_a}
\mathbf{K_1} = 208000 \cdot\frac{117,9}{188.227,00}
\mathbf{K_1} = 130,285
Thus the equation becomes:
\frac{D\cdot y}{(L-U)^2}\le 130,285
Evaluating the left end of the equation:
\frac{D\cdot y}{(L-U)^2} = \frac{168,3\cdot 8,85}{(4-2,83)^2}
\frac{D\cdot y}{(L-U)^2} = 1.088,07
In conclusion by not satisfied the condition:
\frac{D\cdot y}{(L-U)^2}\le 130,285
THE SYSTEM REQUIRES A FORMAL ANALYSIS OF FLEXIBILITY
SEQUENCE SEQUENCEOF OFWORK WORK
This chapter presents a way to outline the steps of a calculation of flexibility. The goal is for the reader to know is anticipated to be done before
entering the next course units where you will learn to "how to".
From the description of each discipline involved in a project carried out in the Chapter 1 Introduction, is now presented in terms of designing a unique
pipe which is the sequence of engineering work, up to the issue for construction of a Line and isometrics. The term "line" tubing that connects together
two particular points of a chemical or thermodynamic.
1
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1. Review the project specifications.
When incorporated into a project, the analyst must make a thorough review of the project specifications. Generally, it is the task of the leader of
the discipline develop an instruction for analysts working under his charge, which is collected all required information. The following is a list of
technical data must be located within the specifications:

LOCATION INFORMATION OR PROJECT LOCATION
Installation temperature
Solar
Radiation temperature
Data on earthquake load, wind and snow
Behavior of the land (Differential Settlements)

PERFORMANCE DATA STRUCTURES
allowable structural stiffness

CONDITIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS OF CALCULATING YOUR FLEXIBILITY
Coefficient of Friction
Categorization Scheme on the criticality of the systems
Limitations of self-weight deflections
Limitations of displacement
Recommended maximum spacing between supports
Limits allowable loads in static and dynamic equipment
Restrictions on the use of components and solutions to increase flexibility, such as expansion joints or pre-stressed cold.

2. Collection of Documents.

Listed below are the documents to be considered for the analysis of a system. Today, many analysts are turning to computer programs in the
they can review the 3D model of the plant. However, the model is a living resource and can often induce errors attributable to the lack of
updating or incorporation of components under development or study without being consolidated.
List of lines: Allow to know the design and operating conditions of the line, the properties Fluid and isolation characteristics of the line.
Piping and Instrument Diagrams P & ID: Provide little information of relevance to the analyst. Among other things, allow know the
equipment and piping systems that interact with the line under study. Many customers demand that accompanies the report of a formal
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calculus, with a copy of the P & IDs where line appears in the study, highlighting the extent of calculations on them. Plan implementation:
Helps identify the equipment and structures that are part of the environment route length.
Isometric: Fundamental to the analysis. They allow to understand the exact route of the line, and associated piping components are the
means of communication The instructions are transmitted to engineers of supports and are expressed corrective actions to the design
group.
It is the document used for the development of so-called isometric Stress. Document which follows, position and supported the data points
relevant to their design, displacement of relevance to the points supports, loads transmitted to relevant equipment and media. Once check
the system's flexibility, the isometric stress is the document that the analyst firm giving its approval.
Location Equipment: They are indispensable to analyze the behavior of the nozzles to the connecting line, facing the movement's own
expansion of the equipment and / or other phenomena as seismic movements, banana effect, etc..
Structure Plans: Needed to locate the natural points of the line or supported generate new points by the addition of these new beams or
porches supported.

3. REVIEW AND EQUIPMENT SUPPORTED ENVIRONMENT RELATING TO THE LINE
Using the Deployment Plans, drawings and structures is A first review of these documents, in order to study any source interaction with the
pipe by an element external to it, for example:
Location of nearby structures to define points of support.
Determine if you need to consider thermal motions externally imposed in the calculation, even for categorization. This is very important,
because in establishing the category of the line, you happen that the operating conditions and the line diameter placed at a level calculating
depth low. However, that line can be linked to a equipment or structure, which induces a certain condition imposed movement significantly
deforming the pipe.

4. CATEGORISATION LINE
With the previous steps, the analyst is able to get an idea of the complexity of the system, beyond what can preset conditions operation or
design. The analyst should establish the status of the line respecting the categorization of the project, unless it considers that a system be
analyzed with increasing you more rigorous category.
5. CALCULATION OF LOADING CONDITIONS IMPOSED BY THE ENVIRONMENT THE LINE.
It is necessary to identify all types of input in terms of loads and displacements that the environment of the pipe applied on it. Among the
calculated values are:
Displacement of points seismic structures supported.
Displacement differential between equipment, structures and points supported.
Thermal expansion teams

6. OWN WEIGHT ANALYSIS OF DETERMINING POINT LINE SUPPORTED
Depending on the criticality of the line, the system can be evaluated whether or not by computational tools. Assuming that the analysis requires
the use of computer The first step is to model the line with a specialized program, with particular attention to the implementation of all external
conditions applied so far.
In this first step should include the necessary supports to specification and maximum spacing tables between brackets. It is important that the
analyst takes into constructibility of the support account when setting a point supported.
An analysis of stress levels and verify that they meet the standards permissible under code.
7. STRESS ANALYSIS BY THERMAL EFFECT AND THE EXTERNAL LOADS O WIND SYSTEM AS EARTHQUAKE
After the self-weight analysis, usually the system is statically determinate in the vertical direction. The correct practice of the profession,
establishes that the systems should be restricted enough, without compromising flexibility. The excessive piping systems with freedom of
movement may react contingency undesirable situations such as an earthquake or strong wind, or even an irregular situation in the behavior of
fluid flowing through the pipe.
On the other hand, restrict the thermal motions of the piping in excess, can generate excessive stresses and levels load in physically unwieldy
equipment and media.
In nuclear plants, unlike other plants, usually as a philosophy of design, minimizing the levels of stresses and loads. A common practice is to
make a Thermal test called Free, which is to study the thermal expansion of the pipe, without any lateral restraint, seeking to locate this point
inflection, i.e. points of the pipe which by their geometric location does not move. For example, a metal disk, the center is a turning point
because it does not move to dilate the disc.
This raises a hypothesis support system and an analysis, assessing the stress levels at which the pipe is subjected. If the levels do not fall
within the permissible within the code, we proceed to take action on the system according to the list shown below in the order indicated:
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1. Relocation of the supports
2. Change the type of media at specific points
3. The use of flexible (Springs)
4. Partial modification of the route of the line in specific areas
5. The use of bonds for expansion
As a last resort but avoiding them the most:
1. Pre-stressed (Cold Spring)
2. Use of Expansion Joints
Must be ruled out changes in the diameter or thickness of the pipe or the location of the computers in the system.

8. EVALUATION OF CHARGES ON EQUIPMENT AND SUPPORTS
Actually this step is linked to the above, we must analyze the magnitudes of the forces and moments transmitted to connected equipment and
supported the points system. When these values are not met, but are an order of magnitude reasonably close to those eligible, you can resort to
other departments involved to get the approval of the levels of charges passed on to their equipment.
9. Isometric STRESS
Once you achieve the values of stresses and loads allowed, it validates the path of the pipeline. By signing the Stress Isometric described in
paragraph B, paragraph Isometric of this section. This isometric is transmitted to the designer of the supports (Often the same analyst).
10. BUILDING DESIGN DETAILS OF COMPUTERS
Once approved, the flexibility of the layout of the line, proceed to realize the detailed engineering of each of the supported points, which must
coexist in harmony with the environment of the path of the line. Structures, equipment, areas of maintenance of free movement, etc..
REFERENCES
[1] Peng, Peng LC and Alvin, 2009. Engineering Stress pipe. ASME Press
[2] ASME B31.3 Process Piping
[3] Spielvogel, SW, 1951, Simplified Piping Stress Calculation. McGraw - Hill.
[4] MW Kellogg Company, 1956. Design of Piping Systems. John Wiley & Sons.
[5] Helguero, V. 1985. Piping Stress Hanbook. Second Edition. Hulf Publishing Company.
[6] Nayyar, Mohinder. 2000. Piping Handbook. Seventh Edition. McGraw - Hill.