Advanced Combustion

Introduction to Mass Transfer
Mass Transfer Rate Laws

Consider a non-reacting gas mixture with two molecular species
Flick's Law of Diffusion
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Combustion Combustion
(3.1) (3.1)
Species A is transported by two means : Bulk motion Bulk motion and Diffusion Diffusion
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A
Y
A m m
A A
/ & & =
Mass fraction of species A Mass fraction of species A
Mass flux of species A, kg/s Mass flux of species A, kg/s- -m2 m2
AB
D
The binary diffusivity, m2/s (a property of mixture The binary diffusivity, m2/s (a property of mixture- - Appendix D Appendix D) )
The diffusional flux of A, is proportional to the gradient of the mass fraction and the
constant of proportionality.
Species A, preferentially moves from a region of high concentration to region of low
concentration.
An analogy between the diffusion of mass and the diffusion of heat (conduction) can be
drawn
In the general form
The molar form
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Assuming one dimensional flow
or
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It is important that we are assuming the ordinary binary diffusivity. Real
mixture of interest in combustion contain many components.
Also gradient of temperature and pressure can produce thermal and pressure
diffusion
Molecular basis of diffusion
To obtain insight to the molecular process of mass and heat diffusion
(conduction) we apply some concepts from the kinetic theory of gases. Two
molecular species
Consider a stationary plane layer of binary gas mixture consisting of rigid,
non-attracting molecules in which the molecular mass of species A and B are
equal.
An small concentration gradient exists in the gas layer in x-direction. Mass
fraction distribution can be considered linear over a few distance of molecular
mean free path,
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(3.12) (3.12)
(3.13) (3.13)
(Sub 3.12 in 3 (Sub 3.12 in 3- -13) 13) (3.14) (3.14)
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(3.15) (3.15)
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Comparison with conduction
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Species conservation
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(3.15) (3.15)
For the multi-dimensional case:
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Some application of mass transfer
The Stefan Problem
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Some application of mass transfer
Liquid-Vapor Interface Boundary Conditions
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Droplet evaporation
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Assumptions
The evaporation process is quasi-steady.
The droplet temperature is uniform
The mass fraction of vapor at the droplet surface is determined by liquid-vapor
equilibrium at the droplet temperature.
All thermophysical properties are constant
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Evaporation Rate
(3.48) (3.48)
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Droplet mass conservation
(3.56) (3.56)
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(3.57) (3.57)
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Home works of chapter 3
Problems (2,5 and 10)
Chemical kinetics
Overview
Understanding the underlying chemical process is an essential element in our
study of combustion
In many combustion processes, chemical reaction rates control the rate of
combustion
The study of elementary reactions and their rates, chemical kinetics, is a
specialized field of physical chemistry.
In this section we will look at basic chemical kinetic concepts.
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Chemical kinetics
Global and Elementary Reactions
The overall reaction of a mole of fuel with a moles of an oxidizer to form b
moles of combustion products can be expressed by the global reaction
mechanism
From experimental measurements, the rate at which the fuel is consumed can
be expressed as:
: molar concentration if ith species(kmol/m
3
)
:the constant of proportionality is called the global rate coefficient
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. pr b Ox a F +
[ ]
[ ] [ ]
m
Ox
n
F G
F
X X T k
dt
X d
) ( =
(4.1) (4.1)
(4.2) (4.2)
[ ]
i
X
) (T k
G
Chemical kinetics
The global rate coefficient is a strong function of temperature
The minus sign indicates that the fuel concentration decreases with time.
The exponents n and m relate to the reaction order. The equation indicates that
the reaction is nth order with respect to fuel , mth order with respect to the
oxidizer and (n+m)th order overall.
Different expressions for and different values for n and m must be
applied to cover a wide range of temperatures.
The global reactions expresses the chemistry in a specific problem as a black
boxapproach.
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[ ]
[ ] [ ]
m
Ox
n
F G
F
X X T k
dt
X d
) ( =
) (T k
G
Chemical kinetics
It is totally unrealistic to believe that a oxidizer molecules simultaneously
collide with a single fuel molecule to form b product molecules
This would require breaking several bonds and subsequently forming many new
bonds
In reality, many sequential processes can occur involving many intermediate
species.
For example consider the global reaction
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O H O H
2 2 2
2 2 +
. pr b Ox a F +
Chemical kinetics
To effect this global conversion of hydrogen and oxygen to water, the following
elementary reactions are important:
When oxygen and hydrogen molecules collide and react they dont yield water,
but instead form the intermediate species HO
2
(hydroperoxy radical) and the
hydrogen atom, H another radical
Radicals or free radicals are reactive molecules or atoms that have unpaired
electrons
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O H O H
2 2 2
2 2 +
Chemical kinetics
To have a complete picture of the combustion of H
2
and O
2
, more than 20
elementary reactions can be considered
The collection of elementary reactions necessary to describe an overall reaction
is called the reaction mechanism.
Reaction mechanisms may involve only a few steps (elementary reactions) or as
many as several hundred.
A field of active research involves selecting the minimum number of
elementary steps necessary to describe a particular global reaction.
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O H O H
2 2 2
2 2 +
Chemical kinetics
Elementary Reaction rates
Bimolecular Reactions and Collision Theory
most elementary reactions of interest in combustion are bimolecular
The rate at which the reaction proceed is directly proportional to the concentrations
(kmole/m
3
) of two reactant species
All elementary bimolecular reactions are overall second order, being first order
with respect to each of reacting species
: The rate coefficient, is a function of temperature and has a theoretical
basis
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D C B A + +
[ ]
[ ] [ ] B A k
dt
A d
biomoleec
=
biomoleec
k
(4.9) (4.9)
Chemical kinetics
molecular collision theory can be used to provide insight into the form of equation
4.9
To determine the collision frequency of a pair of molecules, we start with the
simpler case: two identical molecule with diameter
One traveling with constant speed
The other molecule stationary
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[ ]
[ ] [ ] B A k
dt
A d
biomoleec
=
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Chemical kinetics
If we assume maxwellianvelocity distribution for all molecules:
The analysis can be extended to collisions between unlike molecules having
diameter and
Which expresses the frequency of collisions of a single A molecules with all B
molecules
A
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Chemical kinetics
For collisions frequency associated with all A and B molecules:
Which can be expressed in terms of temperatureas:
Where
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Chemical kinetics
For collisions frequency associated with all A and B molecules:
or
Where
(4.15b) (4.15b)
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Chemical kinetics
The probability that a collision leads to a reaction can be expressed as a product of
two factors:
An energy factor, , which expressed the fraction of collision that
occur with an energy above the threshold level necessary for reaction,
activation energy
Stericfactor: p, takes into account the geometry of collisions between A andB.
for example in the reaction of OH an H to form H2O, intuitively one expect a
reaction to be more likely if the H strikes the O side of hydroxyl rather than the
H side
In general, stericfactors are much less than unity; how over there are expressions
[ ] T R E
u A
/ exp
A
E
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Chemical kinetics
Thus the equation 4.15b becomes
compare with
The bimolecular rate coefficient based on collision theory is:
[ ]
[ ] [ ] B A k
dt
A d
bimoleec
=
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Chemical kinetics
If the temperature range of interest is not too great, the bimolecular rate coefficient
can be expressed by the empirical Arrhenius form
Where A is a constant termed the pre-exponential factor or frequently factor
A is not constant and strictly depends (based on collision theory) on T
1/2
. the three
parameter function form:
[ ] T R E A T k
u A
/ exp ) ( =
[ ] T R E T A T k
u A
b
/ exp ) ( =
Chemical kinetics
Other Elementary Reactions
unimolecular reactions involve a single species undergoing a rearrangement to
form one or two product species
Isomerization
decomposition
Unimolecular reactions are first order at high pressure
While at high pressure the reaction rate also depends on the concentration of any
molecules, M
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[ ]
[ ] [ ] M A k
dt
A d
=
C B A +
B A
O O O +
2
H H H +
2
[ ]
[ ] A k
dt
A d
uni
=
Chemical kinetics
Other Elementary Reactions
Termolecular reactions involve three reactant species and correspond to the
reverse of unimolecular reaction at low pressure
Recombination reactions are important example of termolecular reactions such as
Termolecular reactions are third order and their rates can be expressed
Where again M may be any molecule and is frequently referred to as a third body
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[ ]
[ ][ ][ ] M B A k
dt
A d
ter
=
M C M B A + + +
M H M H H + + +
2
M O H M OH H + + +
2
Chemical kinetics
Rates of Reaction for Multi-Step Mechanism
Net Production Rates
knowing how to express the rates of elementary reactions, we can now
mathematically express the net rates of production or destruction for any species
Consider H
2
-O
2
reaction mechanism which include both forward and reverse
reactions
Where k
fi
and k
ri
are the elementary forward and reverse rate coefficients
respectively for the ithspecies
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Chemical kinetics
The net rate of production of O
2
for example is the sum of all of individual
elementary rates producing O
2
minus the sum of all of the rates destroying O
2
and for H atoms
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Chemical kinetics
We can write similar expressions for each species, yield a system of first order
ordinary differential equations
Compact notation
For the mechanism with many elementary steps and many species
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Chemical kinetics
Relation between Rate Coefficient and Equilibrium Constants
Consider both forward and reverse rates for the arbitrary bimolecular reaction
For species A we can write
For the equilibrium condition, A+B=C+D, the time rate of change of [A] must be
zero
By rearranging
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Chemical kinetics
The molar concentration relates to the mole fractions and partial pressurees
We can define equilibrium constant based on molar concentrations, K
c
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Chemical kinetics
where
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Chemical kinetics
Steady State Approximation
In many combustion systems highly reactive intermediate species (radicals) are
formed.
Analyses of such systems can be simplified by applying steady state
approximation.
A good example of this is the Zeldovichmechanism for formation of nitric oxide:
The first reaction is slow while the second is extremely fast
After a rapid transient allowing the build up of N atoms
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Chemical kinetics
or
[N]
ss
may change as it rapidly adjusts
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Chemical kinetics
Chain and chain-branching reactions
Chain reactions involve the production of a radical species that subsequently
reacts to produce another radical.
This sequence of events continues until a reaction involving theformation of a
stable species from two radicals breaks of the chain
Chain reaction can occur in many chemical processes of importance to
combustion
Consider the following global reaction
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AB B A 2
2 2
+
Chemical kinetics
Chain and chain-branching reaction
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Chemical kinetics
In the early stages of reaction the reverse reactions can be neglected :
Steady-state approximation for radicals A and B:
Solving these two equation for [A]:
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Chemical kinetics
A similarly complicated expression results for [B]
Knowing the steady state values for [A] and [B] the initial reaction rates of
d[A
2
]/dt, d[B
2
]/dt and d[AB]/dt can be determined:
These equations van be simplified by recognizing that k
1
k
4
[M]
2
/(2k
2
k
3
[B])<<1
The rate coefficients k
2
and k
3
must be much larger than k
1
and k
4
.
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Chemical kinetics
Using a truncated Taylor series:
Knowing the steady state values for [A] and [B] the initial reaction rates of
d[A
2
]/dt, d[B
2
]/dt and d[AB]/dt can be determined:
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Chemical kinetics
Chemical Time Scales
AIM: estimation of characteristic chemical time scales for elementary reactions
Substitute [A]
Bimolecular reactions
Consider the bimolecular reaction
And its rate
Time history of [A]
Characteristic chemical time, :
The time required for concentration of A to fall from its initial value to a value
equal to 1/e times the initial value
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D C B A + +
[ ]
[ ] [ ] B A k
dt
A d
bimoleec
=
chem
Chemical kinetics
Chemical Time Scales
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( )
chem app
k e = exp / 1
app chem
k / 1 =
Chemical kinetics
Chemical Time Scale for Termoulecular Reactions
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Consider the simple termolecular reaction
k
ter
[M] plays the same role as k
bio
[M]:
The characteristic time for termolecular reaction:
And when [B]
0
>>[A]
0
M C M B A + + +
Chemical kinetics
Partial Equilibrium
Combustion processes:
1. Fast reactions:
fast in both forward and reverse reactions
Chain propagating or chain-branching steps
2. Slow reactions
Termolecular recombination reactions
Partial Equilibrium approximation: fast reaction are equilibrated
This approximation simplifies the chemical kinetics by eliminating the need
to write rate equations for radical species
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Chemical kinetics
Partial Equilibrium
Assume that forward and reverse reaction in each pair are equal:
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Chemical kinetics
Partial Equilibrium
Equilibrium constants
Radical species, A, B and AB can be expressed in terms of stablespecies A
2
, B
2
and A
2
B
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Chemical kinetics
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Home works of chapter 4
Problems (5,8,18 and 20)
Partial Equilibrium
Product formation rate can be calculated by knowing the radical concentration
Some Important Chemical Mechanism
Introduction
Elementary steps involved in a number of chemical mechanism of major
importance to combustion and combustion generated air pollution
Our purpose is simply to illustrate real systems, which are generally complex
It is important to point out that complex mechanism are evolutionary products
of chemists thoughts
Fundamentals of chemical reactions are important to understanding such
systems
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The H
2
-O
2
system
The hydrogen-oxygen system is important such as in rocket propulsion
The oxidation of hydrogen as follows:
The initiation reactions:
Chain-reaction steps (O, H and OH)
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The H
2
-O
2
system
Chain terminating steps
Include reactions involving HO
2
Reverse reactions
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The H
2
-O
2
system
Hydrogen peroxide formation
and hydrogen peroxide reactions
Depending upon the temperature, pressure and extent of reaction the reverse
reactions may be important.
The H
2
O
2
system contains as many as 40 reactants with eight species:
H
2
, O
2
, H
2
O, OH, O, H, HO
2
, and H
2
O
2
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Carbon Monoxide Oxidation
The oxidation of carbon monoxide is important in hydrocarbon combustion.
In general hydrocarbon combustion can be considered in two steps
Break down the fuel into carbon monoxide
Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide
Steps describe oxidation of CO
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Oxidation of Higher Paraffins
Olefin: C
n
H
2n
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Three processes in eight steps
Step 1. A carbon-carbon (C-C) bonds is broken
Step 2. The two hydrocarbon radicals break down and create olefins
Step 3. Developments of radicals
Step 4. New fuel-molecule attack pathways open up
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Three processes in eight steps
Step 5. hydrocarbon radicals again decay into olefin and H atoms
Step 6. The oxidization of olefins created in steps 2 and 5
Step 8. Oxidization
The carbon monoxide oxidize via CO mechanism CO.1-CO.7)
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Global and Quasi-Global Mechanism
Global Models
Researchers present and evaluate one-step, two step and multi step global
kinetics for a wide variety of hydrocarbons.
Global models, dont capture the details of hydrocarbon oxidation.
They may however be useful for engineering approximations.
The following single-step expression is suggested for engineering
approximations
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Quasi Global Models
An example of a multi-step, quasi global mechanism is the four step scheme of
Hautmanet al.
Where the reaction rates are:
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Quasi Global Models
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Methane Combustion
Because of its unique tetrahedral molecular structure with largeC-H bond energies,
methane exhibit some unique combustion characteristics: (High ignition
temperature and low flame speed)
Methane chemical kinetics are perhaps the most widely researched with different
elementary steps and various species
Complex mechanism
Low-temperature reaction pathway analysis
High-temperature pathway analysis
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Methane Combustion
Complex mechanism
Less than 15 elementary steps with 12 species
75 elementary steps with 25 species
277 elementary reactions involving 49 species
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Methane Combustion
Low-temperature reaction pathway analysis (T=1345 K, P=1 atm, t=0.1s )
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Methane Combustion
High-temperature reaction pathway analysis (T=2200 K, P=1 atm, t=0.1s )
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Oxides of Nitrogen Formation
Nitrogen oxide is an important minor species in combustion because of its
contribution to air pollution.
In the combustion of flues that contain no nitrogen, nitric oxide is formed by three
chemical mechanism that involves nitrogen from the air
Thermal or Zeldovichmechanism
Fenimoreor prompt mechanism
N
2
O-intermediate mechanism
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Thermal or Zeldovich mechanism
The thermal mechanism is dominant in high temperature combustionover the wide
range of equivalence ratio .
The NO concentration are much less than their equilibrium values: the reverse
reaction rate can be neglected
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Fenimore or prompt mechanism
The Fenimore mechanism is important in rich combustion. dominant in high
temperature combustion over the wide range of equivalence ratio .
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N
2
O-intermediate mechanism
N
2
O-intermediate mechanism plays important role in very lean low temperature
combustion
Solve problem (5-8,13)
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Simplified Conservation Equation for Reacting Flows
Introduction
It is important to present the physics and chemistry of combustion as simple as
possible
The details of multi-component reacting mixtures are both physically and
mathematically complex
Simplified governing equations (conservation of mass, species, momentum and
energy) can be useful in some situations:
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Introduction
Overall Mass Conservation
Consider a one dimensional control volume:
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In the general form for a fixed point:
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Steady flow for spherical system:
Which is equivalent to:
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for axisymmetric system the continuity equation
yields to:
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Species Mass Conservation
for one dimensional steady flow
A more general one dimensional form
For mass conservation of ith species:
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v
i
is the species velocity
The sum of all individual species mass fluxes is the mixture mass flux:
The mass average velocity V is ( ):
V is referred to as the mass average bulk velocity.
The difference between the species velocity and bulk velocity is defined as the
diffusional velocity
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V v v
i diff i
=
,
The diffusional mass flux can be expressed in terms of diffusional velocity
As discussed in chapter 3:
or in terms of velocities
General species conservation equation:
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For the spherical system with binary diffusion
For axisymmetric geometry
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Momentum Conservation
One dimensional
For 1-D systems with neglect both viscous and the gravitational body force
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One dimensional
Dividing the left and right hand sides of equation by
Expressing the mass flux in terms of the velocity
For 1-D laminar premixed flame and droplet combustion, it is assumed that kinetic
energy change across the flame is small
The momentum equation simplifies to
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x
dx
dv
m
dx
dP
x

= &
dx
dv
v
dx
dP
x
x
=
( )
0
2
=
dx
dv
v
dx
v d
x
x
x
0 =
dx
dP
Two-Dimensional Forms
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Applying the principle of momentum conservation
Dividing each term by
and for the y-direction
Where for Newtonian fluid
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y x
( )
=
ij
i
j
j
i
ij
V
x
v
x
v
.
3
2
The corresponding equations for the axisymmetric flow in cylindrical coordinate:
Where for Newtonian fluid
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( )
=
ij
i
j
j
i
ij
V
x
v
x
v
.
3
2
( )

=
x
v
rv
r r
V
x
r
1
.
J et flame (Boundary layer approximation)
The axisymmetric flow momentum equations can be applied for jet flames.
J ets have characteristics very similar to boundary layer
J et width is typically small in comparison to its length
Velocities changes (gradient) in radial direction are more axial direction
Axial velocities is much larger than radial velocities
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) (
(*)
) (
(*)
x r
>>
r x
v v >>
J et flame (Boundary layer approximation)
Dimensional analysis
Simplified axial momentum equation
Simplified radial momentum equation
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0
r
p
dx
dp
x
p


Vertical jet flame
For the vertical jet (upward) with gravity effect (downward)
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g
dx
dp
x
p

Energy Conservation
General one dimensional form
First law of thermodynamic
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Energy Conservation
Dividing by the area A
Dividing the left and right hand sides of equation by
The general vector for the heat flux
For 1-D plane layer
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x
Energy Conservation
In terms of the bulk and species mass flux
Rearranging
Expand the first term
and
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Energy Conservation
Shvab-Zeldovich form
Final 1-D energy conservation equation
Species mass flux and enthalpies are replaced with terms having temperature as the
only dependent variable
Key assumption in Shvab-Zeldovich equation: Lewis number is unity
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1 = = =
D D c
k
Le
p

Energy Conservation
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Energy equation assumptions
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Energy equation assumptions
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The concept of conserved scalar
The conserved scalar concept greatly simplifies the solution of reacting flow
problem (velocity, temperature and species fields)
Conserved scalar: Any scalar property that is conserved throughout the flowfield.
The absolute enthalpy is conserved at every point in a flow when there is no
source of thermal energy.
Element mass fractions are also conserved scalars, since elements are neither
created nor destroyed by chemical reaction.
Many conserved scalars can be defined
Here we deal with two conserved scalars:
Mixture fractionand Absolute enthalpy
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Definition of Mixture Fraction
We restrict the flow system to consist of single inlet for fuel and oxidizer to form a
single product. The mixture fraction, f , a conserved scalar can be defined as:
Sincethis definitionapplies to an infinitesimally small volume, f is a kind of mass
fraction, formed as a combination of fuel, oxidizer and product mass fraction.
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=
field flow the in
stream oxidizer the in
stream fuel the in
f
1 0
0
1
For three species system:
in other words
Where fuel stuff is that material originating in the fuel stream. For a
hydrocarbon fuel, fuel stuff is carbon and hydrogen.
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The definition of mixture fraction can be written more simply
This conserved scalar is particularly useful in dealing with diffusion (non
premixed) flames. For premixed combustion, the mixture fraction is uniform
everywhere.
The conserved scalar can be used to generate a sourceless species conservation
equation
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Conservation of Mixture Fraction
Writing species mass conservation for fuel and product species
Dividing this equation by
knowing that
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) 1 ( +
Writing species mass conservation for fuel and product species
knowing that
The conservation of mixture fraction can be written as:
for 1-D spherical system
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and for 2-D axisymmetric geometry can be obtained:
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Conservation Scalar Energy Equation
The mixture enthalpy is also a conserved scalar
the conserved scalar forms of energy conservation can be expressed as
for 1-D spherical system :
and for 2-D axisymmetric geometry :
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Solve problem 7(1,7,10)
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Laminar Diffusion Flames
Non reacting Laminar Jet
Consider a non-reacting laminar jet of fuel into quiescent oxidizer
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As the jet issues into the surrounding air, some of its momentumis transferred
to the air.
The processes that control the velocity field, are similar to the processes that
control the convection and diffusion of mass
Similar to the initial jet momentum, the mass of issuing from the nozzle is
conserved:
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In order to provide a very simple analysis of non-reacting laminar jet, following
assumptions are employed
The molecular weight of fuel and oxidizer are equal
Species molecular transport governed by Fickslaw.
Momentum and species diffusivity are constant and equal,
Only radial diffusion of momentum and species is important
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1 = =
D
Sc

Conservation Laws
The basic governing equations (mass, momentum and species) are the so called
boundary-layer equations
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Boundary Conditions
In order to solve the governing equations 7 boundary conditions are needed
Along the jet centerline (r=0)
At large radius
At the jet exit (x=0)
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r
Solution
The velocity field can be obtained by similarity solution (similarity variable: r/x)
For axial and radial velocities
The jet initial momentum flow
The similarity function contains similarity variable (r/x)
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Solution
The non-dimensional axial velocity
The non-dimensional centerline velocity
The velocity decays inversely with axial distance and is directly proportional to
jet Reynolds number.
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Centerline velocity decay of laminar jet
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Spreading rate and spreading angle
J et half width: the radial location where the jet velocity has decayed to one half of
its centerline value.
Thespreading rate:
Spreading angle
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Solution for concentration field
The fuel mass fraction plays the same role as the dimensionless axial velocity if
The functional form of the solution for Y
F
is identical to that for v
x
/v
e
Based on the jet Reynolds number
This solution can be applied far from the nozzle
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1 = =
D
Sc

Jet Flame Physical Description
Flame Surface: where the fuel and oxidizer meet in stoichimetricproportion
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Jet Flame Physical Description
Flame length: is simply determined by the axial location where
The flame zone can be demonstrated in a simple experiment by a metal screen
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Simplified Theoretical Descriptions
For a simple analysis of reacting laminar jet, following assumptions are employed
The flow is laminar, steady and axisymmetric
Only three species are considered
Fuel and oxidizer react in stoichiometric proportions
Species molecular transport governed by Fickslaw.
Thermal energy and species diffusivities are equal
Radiation heat transfer is negligible
Only radial diffusion of momentum, thermal energy and species is important
The flame axis is oriented vertically upward
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1 = =
D
Le

Conservation Laws
With these assumptions the governing equations (velocity, temperature and
species) are developed as follows
Mass conservation
Axial momentum conservation
Species conservation
Energy conservation
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Additional Relations
The equation of state relate density and temperature
Total number of conservation equation: 5
Total number of unknowns: 5
Problem: some of the boundary conditions necessary to solve the fuel and
oxidizer and energy equation must be specified at the flame
Solution: employing conserved scalars
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Conserved Scalar Approach
Mixture Fraction
Replacing the two species conservation equations with the singlemixture fraction
equation
The appropriate boundary condition for f:
Energy conservation
Replacing the Shvab-Zeldovich energy equation
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Conserved Scalar Approach
Appropriate boundary for h :
The continuity and axial momentum equations remain. Boundary conditions for
the velocities:
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Non dimensional equations
Valuable insights can be obtained by defining dimensionless variable
The mixture absolute enthalpy and density
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Non dimensional equations
Dimensionless governing equations
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Dimensionless boundary conditions
The mixture fraction and dimensionless enthalpy equations and their boundary
conditions are of identical form.
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Additional assumptions
Schmidt number is unity
Buoyancy force is negligible
Single conservation equation for axial momentum, mixture fraction and enthalpy
and are coupled though continuity
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*
*
x
v
State relationships
To solve the jet flame, requires that the density be related to mixture fraction f
To determine the mixture temperature
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State relationships
Calorific equation of state
Similarity of governing equations
Solving recent equation for T
With the appropriate expression for Y
F
Advanced Advanced
State relationships
Simplified state relationships
Advanced Advanced
State relationships
Advanced Advanced
Various solutions
Burke-Schumann
Assumptions
Flame sheet approximation
A single velocity characterized the flow (v
x
=v, v
r
=0)
Neglect buoyancy force
Solution
Variable density species conservation
Final partial differential equation
Assuming product of density and diffusivity is constant:
Advanced Advanced
Burke-Schumann
Solution for flame length based on Bessel functions
The effect of buoyancy is to cause narrowing of the flame
Advanced Advanced
Various solutions
Roper
Assumptions
Proceeded in the sprit Burke-Schumann approach
Variable axial characteristic velocity
Solution
Constant density solution (non reacting jet)
Variable density solution (Fays solution)
Advanced Advanced
Flame lengths for circular port
Roper correlations
For various burner geometries
Various flow regimes (momentum control, buoyancy control or transitional).
Fuel jet emerging into quiescent or coflowingoxidizer
Advanced Advanced
Empirical and theoretical correlation for vertical laminar jet flames
Advanced Advanced
Flow and geometry effects
Geometry effects
Advanced Advanced
Fuel type
Advanced Advanced
Primary aeration:
Premix some air with the fuel make the flame short and prevents soot formation.
Advanced Advanced
Effect of Oxygen content in the oxidizing stream
Advanced Advanced
Soot Formation
For hydrocarbon fuels, soot is frequently present, change flame to yellow or
orange
Soot is formed in the fuel side and is consumed in oxidizing region
All of the soot may not be oxidized, in this case soot wings mayappear with the
soot breaking through the flame (smoke generation)
Advanced Advanced
Soot formation and destruction
The formation and destruction of soot is an important feature of non premixed
flames
The incandescent soot is the primary source of diffusion flames luminosity
Soot also contributes to radiant heat loss from the flame
Soot is formed in diffusion flames over 1300 K<T <1600 K
Advanced Advanced
Soot formation and destruction
Soot is contained in the region where the scattered light is high
Advanced Advanced
Soot formation steps
1- Formation of precursor species (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, PAH)
e.g. C
20
H
14
, C
22
H
12
2- Particle inception: formation of small particles (3000-10000 atomic mass unit)
3- Surface growth
4- Particle oxidation
Advanced Advanced
Sooting and non-sooting condition
Sooting condition: all of the soot particles are oxidized
Incomplete oxidation yields a sooting flame
Advanced Advanced
Soot volume of fractions for Propylene and Butane (sooting and non sooting
condition)
Advanced Advanced
Smoke point
Tendency of fuel to form soot (an experimental parameter)
the smoke point is tested originally devised for liquid fuels
Increasing the fuel flow rate until smoke is observed to escape from the flame
tip
Advanced Advanced
Smoke point
Advanced Advanced
Smoke point
Advanced Advanced
Solve problems 9(6,12,18)
Advanced Advanced
Turbulent Non-premixed Flames
Turbulent nonpremixed flames are employed in the majority of practical
combustion systems. In comparison with premixed flames:
nonpremixed flames are more controlling
nonpremixed flames produce more NO
x
There are many types of nonpremixed flames
Advanced Advanced
For any particular application, the designer is faced with many issues:
Flame shape and size
Flame holding and stability
Heat transfer
Pollutant emissions
Advanced Advanced
Jet Flames
Turbulent nonpremixed jet flames have fuzzy edge and generally are more
luminous
Instantaneous and time average of ethylene flame
Advanced Advanced
Jet Flames
Instantaneous planar of OH radicals in an H
2
-air jet flame
Advanced Advanced
Jet Flames
Effect of flow rate on flame length
Advanced Advanced
Jet Flames
Attached flame
Liftoff (liftoff distance)
Blowout
Two important flow condition related to flame stability: liftoff andblowout
Flame stability has many applications for practical applications
Liftoff should be avoided
Advanced Advanced
Simplified Analysis
Assumptions
The time average flow is steady and axisymmetric
Molecular transport of momentum, species and thermal energy is unimportant
in comparison with turbulent transport
The turbulent eddy viscosity is constant
All correlations involving density fluctuations are negligible
The turbulent transport of momentum, species and thermal energy are all equal.
Buoyancy is neglected
Radiation heat transfer is negligible
Only radial turbulent diffusion is important
The fuel jet velocity is uniform
Only three species; fuel, oxidizer and product are considered
The fluctuations in mixture fraction are ignored
Advanced Advanced
( ) R v
e turb
0285 . 0 / = =

= =
D D
t t t
Le Sc Pr = =
Simplified Analysis
Conservation laws
Defining dimensionless variables using characteristic length, R and characteristic
velocity v
e
Mass conservation
Axial momentum conservation
Mixture fraction equation
Where the turbulent Reynolds number is defined
Advanced Advanced
Simplified Analysis
Boundary Conditions
Advanced Advanced
Simplified Analysis
solutions
A finite difference scheme is used to solve the above mentioned problem
Advanced Advanced
Flame Length
Factors affecting flame length
For vertical flame created by fuel jet
Initial jet momentum flux and buoyancy forces
Stoichiometry
Ratio of nozzle fluid and ambient density
Initial jet diameter
The flame Froudenumber and momentum diameter are defined as:
Advanced Advanced
Flame Length
Correlations
Advanced Advanced
Flame length
Buoyancy dominated regimr
Momentum dominated regime
Advanced Advanced
Solve problems 13(4,5 and 8)
Advanced Advanced

Advanced Combustion

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Advanced Combustion

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Introduction to Mass Transfer

Mass Transfer Rate Laws

Simplified Conservation Equation for Reacting Flows

Simplified Conservation Equation for Reacting Flows

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