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Child Development and Pedagogy
INTRODUCTION
Developmental Psychology, study of changes in human behavior and thought
from infancy to old age. Developmental psychology is the study of how people
change over time, but it also investigates how and why certain characteristics
remain consistent over the life course. A child changes dramatically in size, physical
coordination, and thinking capacity while maturing into an adult, for example, but
may also maintain the same basic temperament while growing up.
Traditionally, developmental psychologists have focused on child
development, believing that most formative experiences of life occur during infancy
and childhood. The early years are indeed a time of extremely rapid development,
when children acquire motor skills, thinking abilities, social skills, capacities for
feeling and regulating emotion, and other characteristics that will last a lifetime.
But psychologists have more recently turned their attention to adolescence and
adulthood, recognizing that development continues throughout the life span. The
study of adult development focuses on the unique experiences of this stage of life
and examines how adults maintain and refine their capabilities as they age.
In studying development, researchers seek answers to many basic questions:
In what ways do early experiences influence later growth? To what extent does
heredity influence individual characteristics? What roles do the family, community,
and culture play in a persons development? How does the developing mind actively
create understanding from everyday experiences? How do children acquire
language? How does change in one area, such as physical growth, influence other
aspects of development, such as social growth? What forms of parental discipline
are effective in helping childrens moral growth? Answers to these and other
questions can offer important practical guidance to those who care for children. For
all individuals, understanding how we have become the people we are today
contributes to greater self-awareness and greater appreciation of the forces that
shape all people.
The study of human development requires an especially broad and
integrative approach. Thus, developmental psychology incorporates ideas from
almost every other area of psychology, including social
psychology, cognitive psychology, biopsychology, clinical psychology,

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and educational psychology. It also draws from many other fields concerned with
human behavior. These include sociology, biology (especially genetics and
evolutionary biology), anthropology, and economics. The variety of fields relevant
to developmental psychology reflects the complexity of human growth and change.
Development
Psychologists interested in social and emotional development focus on
relationships, the growth of social skills and social understanding, and the influence
of the social world on emotional life. Social relationships begin with the attachments
that infants develop with their caregivers. Social life expands considerably with the
growth of peer relationships in childhood, romantic relationships in
adolescence, marriage and child-rearing in adulthood, and friendships in the
workplace, neighborhood, and elsewhere. The people in a persons social world
parents, relatives, friends, and othershelp to shape that persons emotional life.
They provide infants with a sense of security, provoke the first feelings of pride,
shame, guilt, or embarrassment in young children, and offer experiences of
nurturance, conflict, and love at all ages.
The importance of social relationships to the regulation of emotion is a topic
that interests developmental scientists across the life course. A baby depends on
caregivers to manage his or her distress, and children learn to manage emotions by
seeking assistance and talking about their feelings with trusted adults. Adolescents
rely on their peers for emotional understanding, and adults maintain emotional
well-being through supportive friendships, especially in later life. Researchers are
exploring these social influences on emotion regulation in observational studies of
people of all ages, and through interviews with children, adolescents, and adults
about how they manage their feelings.
The study of personality development explores how the distinctive qualities
of people develop over life: their characteristic social and emotional dispositions,
self-concept, views of the world, and ways of acting and thinking. Personality
development is closely related to social and emotional development, but it is also
much broader. It encompasses the emergence of a distinctive temperament early in
life, growth in self-understanding and identity, formation of personal goals and
values, and the influence of ones adult rolessuch as marital partner, parent, and
worker.

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Of the scientific challenges of studying personality development is
determining the extent to which personality is based on family upbringing or on
genetically inherited dispositions. Certainly, parents influence their childrens
personalities in many important ways: in the examples they provide, in their
warmth and style of discipline, and in the security or insecurity they inspire. But
parents and their biological children are also genetically related, and studies of
identical twins raised by different families have concluded that much of the
resemblance between parents and childrens personalities is based on hereditary
similarity. Even so, many characteristics in children are not easily explained by
heredity, which makes continued study of the interaction of genes and family
influencenature and nurtureimportant to developmental science.
Moral development concerns the development of moral values and behavior.
Moral values are beliefs about what is right and wrong; moral behavior refers to
actions consistent with these beliefs. Moral development is closely tied to other
aspects of psychological growth. The ability to think and reason enables moral
judgment, social and emotional development leads to moral values and empathy,
and personality development includes the growth of conscience. Moral development
is a lifelong process, especially as individuals encounter new and more complex
ethical dilemmas in relations with peers, at the workplace, and in intimate
relationships.
Young children acquire a sense of right and wrong partly through parental
discipline but also in everyday conversations with their parents, who convey simple
lessons about peoples feelings, the consequences of breaking rules, and what it
takes to be a good boy or good girl. Another resource for early moral growth is
the empathy that young children feel for the distress of others. For example, when
parents or peers are upset, toddlers often look concerned and try to assist them.
Psychologists continue to explore how interaction between parents and their young
children contributes to the development of conscience and to the growth of caring
for other people.
Moral development also influences the development of prosocial or altruistic
behavioractions such as sharing, cooperating, and helping performed for the
benefit of others without expectation of a reward. Studies indicate that
the motivation to act altruistically emerges very early. Young children are
motivated to do the right thing primarily because they want to maintain warm

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relationships with caregivers and others who matter to themnot simply to avoid
punishment, as was once believed



TOPICS OF STUDY - Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychologists generally adopt one of two approaches to
studying human development. Some developmental psychologists focus on the
changes and influences that occur during specific stages of life. This ages and
stages approach typically divides the life course into eight age-related periods.
These are (1) the prenatal period, from conception to birth;
(2) infancy, from birth to age 2;
(3) early childhood, ages 2 to 6;
(4) middle childhood, ages 6 to 12;
(5) adolescence, ages 12 to 19;
(6) early adulthood, ages 19 to 40;
(7) middle adulthood, ages 40 to 60; and
(8) late adulthood, ages 60 and beyond.
Researchers using this approach study how development unfolds within each
stage. Such a strategy reveals how developmental changes within each stage relate
to each othersuch as how cognitive growth facilitates social understanding in
young childrenbut it sometimes neglects how these influences are maintained
from one stage to the next.
The other main approach to the study of human development focuses on
specific aspects of development across the life span. This topical approach divides
human development into different areas of growth, including physical, cognitive,
social, emotional, and personality development. Such an approach enables
scientists to understand how certain influences, such as emotional attachments to
others, are important throughout life. However, it sometimes focuses on one aspect
of development to the neglect of others. Thus, each approach has advantages and
disadvantages.
This article discusses some of the major topics that developmental psychologists
study. These are physical development, cognitive development, social and
emotional development, personality development, and moral development.
A Physical Development
The study of physical development focuses on the growth of the brain, body,
and physical capabilities, along with the psychological implications of this growth.
Early in life, the brain and body grow remarkably in size and sophistication, leading
to rapid increases in sensory ability and muscular strength and coordination. These
changes provide a foundation for equally remarkable advances in cognition,
emotion, and sociability. Late in life, health problems and physical changes may
lead to declines in mental speed and other abilities and to changes in mood and
sociability.
Scientists are discovering, however, that physical development throughout
life does not produce inevitable psychological changes. Rather, the psychological
effect of physical changes is largely determined by the way in which an individual
interprets and responds to them. One example is the influence of puberty on

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adolescents. Despite societys perception that hormonal changes in puberty cause
adolescent turmoil, self-consciousness, and rebelliousness, careful studies of
adolescents reveal that the psychological impact of puberty depends on a variety of
factors. These include the timing of puberty (whether it is early or late in relation to
peers), cultural values about the meaning of sexual maturity (including media
portrayals of adolescence), and the warmth of family relationships, especially the
relationship between the teenager and the parent of the same sex.
Although physical development usually proceeds normally, a variety of
environmental factors can adversely affect it. Poor nutrition, exposure to harmful
viruses, drugs, and environmental hazards (including lead and pesticides), and
enduring physical stress can imperil healthy growth beginning from conception.
Maintaining good health promotes optimal physical and psychological growth
throughout life.
B Cognitive Development
Cognitive development concerns the growth of the mind throughout life. One
of the challenges of studying cognitive development is that there are so many
aspects of mental growth, including the development of memory, perception, logical
reasoning, problem-solving skill, numerical understanding, intelligence, and
hypothetical thinking. Language development includes the development of
vocabulary, grammar, the pragmatics of language use, and bilingualism. Brain
development, or developmental neuroscience, is another major topic of study.
The questions that guide research on cognitive development vary depending
on the age group being studied. Studies of infancy investigate how very young
children, whose minds are still quite immature, can effortlessly achieve so much
understanding of the world. Are innate learning processes at work? Is rapid brain
growth the reason? Developmental psychologists use cleverly designed experiments
to explore what infants know and when and how they achieve understanding.
Studies of older adults explore how the mind adapts to the changes in sensory
ability and mental speed that accompany aging. Do some features of mental
functioning improve in later life while others decline? Can older adults avoid or
reverse age-related changes in mental functioning through changes in lifestyle or
through training? To answer such questions, researchers are studying the mental
performance of older adults with different backgrounds and lifestyles.
C Social and Emotional Development
Psychologists interested in social and emotional development focus on
relationships, the growth of social skills and social understanding, and the influence
of the social world on emotional life. Social relationships begin with the attachments
that infants develop with their caregivers. Social life expands considerably with the
growth of peer relationships in childhood, romantic relationships in adolescence,
marriage and child-rearing in adulthood, and friendships in the workplace,
neighborhood, and elsewhere. The people in a persons social worldparents,
relatives, friends, and othershelp to shape that persons emotional life. They
provide infants with a sense of security, provoke the first feelings of pride, shame,
guilt, or embarrassment in young children, and offer experiences of nurturance,
conflict, and love at all ages.
The importance of social relationships to the regulation of emotion is a topic that
interests developmental scientists across the life course. A baby depends on
caregivers to manage his or her distress, and children learn to manage emotions by
seeking assistance and talking about their feelings with trusted adults. Adolescents
rely on their peers for emotional understanding, and adults maintain emotional
well-being through supportive friendships, especially in later life. Researchers are

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exploring these social influences on emotion regulation in observational studies of
people of all ages, and through interviews with children, adolescents, and adults
about how they manage their feelings.
D Personality Development
study of personality development explores how the distinctive qualities of
people develop over life: their characteristic social and emotional dispositions, self-
concept, views of the world, and ways of acting and thinking. Personality
development is closely related to social and emotional development, but it is also
much broader. It encompasses the emergence of a distinctive temperament early in
life, growth in self-understanding and identity, formation of personal goals and
values, and the influence of ones adult rolessuch as marital partner, parent, and
worker.
One of the scientific challenges of studying personality development is
determining the extent to which personality is based on family upbringing or on
genetically inherited dispositions. Certainly, parents influence their childrens
personalities in many important ways: in the examples they provide, in their
warmth and style of discipline, and in the security or insecurity they inspire. But
parents and their biological children are also genetically related, and studies of
identical twins raised by different families have concluded that much of the
resemblance between parents and childrens personalities is based on hereditary
similarity. Even so, many characteristics in children are not easily explained by
heredity, which makes continued study of the interaction of genes and family
influencenature and nurtureimportant to developmental science.
E Moral Development
Moral development concerns the development of moral values and behavior.
Moral values are beliefs about what is right and wrong; moral behavior refers to
actions consistent with these beliefs. Moral development is closely tied to other
aspects of psychological growth. The ability to think and reason enables moral
judgment, social and emotional development leads to moral values and empathy,
and personality development includes the growth of conscience. Moral development
is a lifelong process, especially as individuals encounter new and more complex
ethical dilemmas in relations with peers, at the workplace, and in intimate
relationships.
Young children acquire a sense of right and wrong partly through parental
discipline but also in everyday conversations with their parents, who convey simple
lessons about peoples feelings, the consequences of breaking rules, and what it
takes to be a good boy or good girl. Another resource for early moral growth is
the empathy that young children feel for the distress of others. For example, when
parents or peers are upset, toddlers often look concerned and try to assist them.
Psychologists continue to explore how interaction between parents and their young
children contributes to the development of conscience and to the growth of caring
for other people.
Moral development also influences the development of prosocial or altruistic
behavioractions such as sharing, cooperating, and helping performed for the
benefit of others without expectation of a reward. Studies indicate that the
motivation to act altruistically emerges very early. Young children are motivated to
do the right thing primarily because they want to maintain warm relationships with
caregivers and others who matter to themnot simply to avoid punishment, as was
once believed.
Principles of the development of children

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Although children develop at different rates and, therefore, the notion of
interindividual differences exists, a single child can show more rapid change in
some developmental areas than in others; thus, intraindividual differences also
exist. Regardless of the perspective, there are certain principles of development
that apply to all children.
These include the following:
Development progresses in a step-by-step fashion. It is orderly, sequential, and
proceeds from the simple to the complex. Each achieved behavior forms the
foundation for more advanced behaviors.
Rates of development vary among children as well as among developmental
areas in a single child.
Development is characterized by increasing specificity of function
(differentiation) as well as integration of these specific functions into a larger
response pattern. A good example of this principle is the infant startle reflex.
When an infant is startled, his entire body tenses and his arms move out to the
side. With age, this reflex becomes integrated into more specific behavioral
patterns such that a startled preschooler will tense only the shoulder and neck
muscles.
Neurological development contributes significantly to the acquisition of
physical skills in young children. Physical development proceeds in
cephalocaudal and proximodistal directions. Cephalocaudal development
describes the progression of body control from the head to the lower parts of
the body. For example, an infant will achieve head, upper trunk, and arm
control before lower trunk and leg control. Proximodistal development describes
progress from the central portions of the body (i.e., the spinal cord) to the distal
or peripheral parts. In this developmental progression, gross motor skills and
competencies precede fine motor skills. This developmental progression
continues throughout early childhood, with upper trunk control being achieved
first, then arm control, and finally finger control. According to this principle,
each change in the childs development should result in an increasingly refined
level of skill development.
Development of any structure follows a sequential pattern; however, there
appear to be specific times during development in which a developing structure
is most sensitive to external conditions. These sensitive periods, or critical
periods, are the times during which a specific condition or stimulus is necessary
for the normal development of a specific structure. Conversely, these periods
also represent times when a structure may be most vulnerable to disruption
(Rice & Barone, 2000). The concept of critical periods has created much debate
in theoretical circles, particularly with respect to parentinfant bonding (Anisfeld
et al., 1983) and language development (Lenneberg, 1967).
All development is interrelated. Although it is convenient for the student or
early interventionist to discuss development in terms of discrete developmental
areas, such as motor skills, development in other areas such as social-emotional
or communication functions does not cease, nor is it necessarily separate from
other areas. The student or child practitioner must recognize how different areas
of development are interrelated to understand how a particular child develops.
Development is influenced by heredity and environment. Although there has
been much discussion by experts in the field about which is more important,
there is no doubt that they both play a role in a childs development. A childs
genetic inheritance (i.e., heredity) provides the basic foundation for many

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physical and personality attributes, but the influences of social, cultural, and
familial variables (i.e., environment) also contribute to development.














Aim of School Based CCE
1.Elimination of chance element and subjectivity (as far as possible), de-emphasis
on memorization,
2.encouraging comprehensive evaluationincorporating both Scholastic and Co-
Scholastic aspects of learners development
3. Continuous evaluation spread over the total span of the instructional time as an
integral built-in aspect of the total teaching-learning process
4. Functional and meaningful declaration of results for effective use by teachers,
students, parents and the society
5. Wider uses of test results for purposes not merely of the assessment of levels of
pupils achievements and proficiencies, but mainly for their improvement, through
diagnosis and remedial/enrichment programmes
6. Improvement in the mechanics of conducting examinations for realizing a
number of other allied purposes
7. Introduction of concomitant changes in instructional materials and methodology
8. Introduction of the semester system.
9. The use of grades in place of marks, in determining and declaring the level of
pupil performance and proficiency
A complete picture of the childs learning, assessment
In view of getting a complete picture of the childs learning,
assessment should focus on the learners ability to
1. Learn and acquire desired skills related to different subject areas
2. Acquire a level of achievement in different subject areas in the requisite measure
3. Develop childs individual skills, interests, attitudes and motivation
4. Understand and lead a healthy and productive life
5. Monitor the changes taking place in childs learning, behaviour and progress over
a period of time
6. Respond to different situations and opportunities both in and out of school
7. Apply what is learnt in a variety of environment, circumstances and situations
8. Work independently, collaboratively and harmoniously
9. Analyze and evaluate

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10. Be aware of social and environmental issues
11. Participate in social and environmental projects
12. Retain what is learned over a period of time
Characteristics of learning
1. All children are naturally motivated to learn and are capable of learning
2. Understanding and developing the capacity for abstract thinking, reflection and
work are the most important aspects of learning
3. Children learn in a variety of ways - through experience, making and doing
things, experimentation, reading, discussion, asking, listening, thinking , reflecting,
and expressing oneself in speech or writing both individually and with others. They
require opportunities of all these kinds in the course of their development
4. Teaching something before the child is cognitively ready takes away real
learning. Children may remember many facts but they may not understand them
or be able to relate them to the world around them
5. Learning takes place both within the school and outside school. Learning is
enriched if these two arenas interact with each other. Art and work provide
opportunities for holistic learning that is rich in tacit and aesthetic components.
Such experiences are essential to be learnt through direct experience and
integrated with life
6. Learning must be paced so that it allows learners to engage with concepts and
deepen the understanding rather than remembering only to forget after
examinations. At the same time learning must provide variety and challenge, and
be interesting and engaging Boredom is a sign that the task may have become
mechanically repetitive for the child and of little cognitive value
7. Learning can take place with or without mediation. In the case of the latter, the
social context and interactions, especially with those who are capable, provide
avenues for learners to work at cognitive levels above their own
Teaching and learning in the language classroom
Teaching and learning in the language classroom is aimed primarily at
language teachers with some experience, and though it could be very useful for
teachers to explore on their own, its main use is likely to be as a core textbook on
in-service training courses. Throughout, it encourages teachers to reflect on issues
in language teaching and learning on the basis of their own experience. Each
chapter begins with an introductory task which focuses thought on the area to be
considered and which in most cases invites teachers to identify aspects of their
current ideas and practice on the issue. Similarly, the penultimate section of each
chapter is a considerable list of discussion topics and projects, many of which are
based on examples of teaching materials. These activities are likely to be most
profitable when carried out in groups, and the most obvious way in which to exploit
them is on a formal training course.
In between these discussion tasks, each chapter produces a highly
concentrated but still readable exploration of the issues in the topic under
consideration. Though the main subheadings in each chapter take the form of

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questions, such as How do second language learners acquire vocabulary? or
What role can self-access facilities play in language learning?, these are questions
which the author sets out to answer; they are not specifically addressed to the
reader. The general pattern of each chapter is to move from more theoretical to
practical considerations, and Hedge draws on both research and published teaching
materials in exploring central issues in language teaching. The conclusions drawn
are often fairly tentative, though; this is not a book which implies that there are
clear and straightforward answers to the questions that concern language teachers,
or which sets out to provide simplistic classroom recipes. After working through
the chapters teachers should end up making more informed choices and decisions,
but they will still be making the choicesHedge views teachers as the decision-
makers in managing the classroom process (1), and it is not her aim to usurp that
role by spelling out some fixed set of classroom practices which she believes to be
ideal. As she says in the introduction, her book is not based on the belief that
teachers sit at the feet of educationists and applied linguists waiting for ideas to
drop, like crumbs, to sustain them, since experienced teachers are more robust
and independent than that(2). She recognises that neither theoretical nor
classroom research can provide a base for unshakeable principles of classroom
practice. Her aim is to help provide a foundation of knowledge against which we
can evaluate our own ideas about teaching and learning, to which we can apply for
insights in our attempts to solve pedagogical problems, and from which we can
draw ideas to experiment with in our own classrooms (ibid.). Such an approach
should appeal to the experienced teacher.
Principles of Language Teaching and Learning
1. Consider the whole person: You should take into consideration who the student
is. Know different aspects of the individual.(Students psychology, social
background, etc.) Consult with the guiding and class teachers (Check with the other
teachers his progress). Dont grade only by looking at his learning English.

2. Language learning is both forming habit and also utilizing the the students
innate capacity for language as a rule governed creative activity.(By Noam
Chomsky) Cognitive school of psychology: using the students innate capacity for
the language. The student uses his creative mental power.

3. Keep the students involved. Try to have a student centered class as far as
possible. Keep the appropriate ratio of teacher talk and student talk. The minimal
requirement: Teacher talking time 50%, student talking time 50%. (Traditional
class is a teacher centered class, modern class is a student centered class.)


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4. Language learners learn to do by doing. Items of language should be practiced.
Practice is extremely important in foreign language learning. Practice, especially
drilling, helps with habit formation.

5. Teach all 4 language skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing. Listening and
reading are receptive, speaking and writing are productive skills. All four language
skills should go hand-in-hand. They should be integrated. All people understand far
more than they can produce. The child has the more following order in acquiring
the four skills. Listening-Speaking-Reading-Writing.

6. Grade the learning tasks. Items should be presented according to the order of
ease. It shouldnt be too rigid grading. There should be Structural and Vocabulary
grading Functional-Notional Approach. (A matter of presenting syllabus. They
introduce all of them at the same time. Language material should be presented in
the order of function and notion.

Formal: Informal:
Open the door please. Can/could you open the door?
Will you open the door please? Would you mind opening the door please?
Would you oopen the door please? Would you be so kind enough to open the door?

7. All learning should be functional and have meaning for the students in terms of
their needs and life values. Start with their experiences.

8. Go from the known to the unknown. Build on what the students know either in
their native language or in English. Compare and Contrast where possible.Similar
points in L1 and L2 are easy to learn. As a principle, try to have as meaningul
language material as possible. Present Perfect is difficult to teach, because there is
no equivalent, no counter part in Turkish.

9. Go from the concrete to the more abstract.

10. Teach only one thing at a time. Dont teach vocabulary and structure at the
same time. Teach a new grammatical pattern with the known vocabulary items.
While teaching new vocabulary items, use known grammatical patterns in your
illustrated sentences.

11. It is easier to learn a thing correctly the first time than to have to relearn it.
Here it is important to emphasize that the teacher should have a good command of
the language material which he presents and practices in class. To have to relearn
something that is learned incorrectly before is much more difficult than to learn it
correctly the first time. Turkish should be used in rule explanation. Do not pour
upon your student all your Grammar knowledge. In Grammar teaching both
Inductive-Rule Teaching and Deductive-Rule Teaching approaches should be used
students can also discover the rules themselves.

12. Rules are essential in language learning. But knowing the rules just as an
intellectual activity is not enough. All the native speakers of a language know the
language rules subconsciously. What is needed is the use of language by the
students for communicative purpose both in spoken and written form of language.
The degree of emphasis attached to rules in language learning will be different

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depending on the age of the students. Adults are more rule-oriented and they need
to study them.

13. Teach first those language patterns which will be the most useful in
manipulating other language items.

14. Teach beginning (elementary) students only the forms most frequently used in
normal speech. Help them realize that there may be more than one way of
expressing the same ideas. But in the beginning, teach then only one form. e.g.
The most commonly used request pattern is: Please open the door, Open the door
please.

15. Errors will naturally occur in language learning. It is not necessary to correct
every error. Be selective in error correction. Be gentle in error correction. Errors are
a natural, necessary, and inevitable part of learning. Never interrupt your student
while he is talking or reading for a correction. Wait until he finishes his part of
talking or reading. Gentle correction should be a principle. Correct only common
mistakes. Mistake is the wrong use of language, although you know the correct
form. Error is a wrong use but the correct form is not known. Be selective in error
correction. Common errors ocur because of the difference between L1 and L2. best
way to correct the errors is to give a mini-presentation. In communicative
situations what they speak is important than how they speak.

16. Provide Review since language learning is spiral. Do not teach ib isolated
blocks. But teach in spiral fashion. For example different functions of the present
continuous form of the verb should be taught at different levels by reviewing the
known functions. Review will make it possible to tight a new item to the thing
already learned.

I am leaving zmir now. (at the moment of speaking)
I am leaving zmir tomorrow.(It is going to take place tomorrow)
(The same form but different meanings and functions).

17. Recognize individual differences. All students learn at differnt roles. In every
class there will naturally be slow, average, and bright students. Give opportunity to
all the students to participate in class activities. Do not let the bright students
monopolize. You can give bright students difficult tasks to keep their interest alive.
To form mixed ability groups we should do anything possible not to foster the
feeling of impriority.

18. Items that are similar to language items in the students own language will be
easy to learn in the case of differences between the native language and the target
language learning will be more difficult. Consequently more time and practice will
be needed. There is a transfer theory (Audio Lingual Approach). Foreign students
transfer. He uses his L1 habits in learning and using L2. f two points are similar in
L1 and L2 they are easy to learn. If two points are different such things are difficult
to learn. They constitute problems. Two kinds of mother tongue interference:
positive,interference
negative,interference.
Before the teacher present the new item he will anticipate the problems by the

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contrastive analysis. Audio-Linguistics beleive that great majority of problems
occur because of the differences between Turkish and English.

19. Keep the pace alive. Provide a variety of activities. Class activities should not go
at a monotonous rate. There will be boredom and little or no learning. The activities
should go dynamically not monotonously. If the students are not interested with the
activity, stop that activity. Any game which fixed into your present project can be
used.

20. Teach with examples. Examples speak louder than language explanation.
Examples can help the students learn much better than complicated explanations.

21. Make legitimate use of mother tongue. Use it at the right time and in the right
dose. You must avoid overuse of mother tongue clarifying abstract vocabulary
items. In teaching grammatical items while giving the instructions if they are
difficult we can use Turkish.

22. Relate form to meaning and contextualize. All class activities should be
meaningful. Meaning should always be in the foreground. Whatever activity the
students are involved in, the students should be able to understand the meaning of
what they hear, say, read, or write. Teach new vocabulary items or a grammatical
pattern or pronunciation in context. In teaching vocabulary give the meaning and
pronunciation. Smallest context is a sentence meaning arises out of the situation.
We can use dialogues, anectodes in the spoken form as context.

23. Assign tasks in class. Involve the students as much as possible. A variety of
tasks can be assigned in class.

24. Give students a feeling of confidence and success and encourage them.
Education should be geared on success. When the grading time comes at the first
cemester, if there is a student on borderline, pass him.
25. Assign as homework what the students can do by themselves.

26. Use Audio-visual aid as much as possible.

27. Teach well before you test. Students often fail because of poor teaching, poor
testing, poor evaluation of the exams.
Classroom discipline and management
Classroom discipline and management causes the most fear and
consternation in new teachers. However, classroom management is a skill that is
not only learned but practiced daily. Here are ten tips that can lead to successful
classroom management and discipline. These tips can help you cut down on
discipline problems and leave you with fewer interruptions and disruptions.

Here's How:
Begin each class period with a positive attitude and high expectations. If you
expect your students to misbehave or you approach them negatively, you will get

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misbehavior. This is an often overlooked aspect of classroom management.

Come to class prepared with lessons for the day. In fact, overplan with your
lessons. Make sure to have all your materials and methods ready to go.Reducing
downtime will help maintain discipline in your classroom.

Work on making transitions between parts of lessons smooth. In other
words, as you move from whole group discussion to independent work, try to
minimize the disruption to the class. Have your papers ready to go or your
assignment already written on the board. Many disruptions occur during transitional
times during lessons.
Watch your students as they come into class. Look for signs of possible
problems before class even begins. For example, if you notice a heated discussion
or problem before class starts, try to deal with the problem then. Allow the students
a few moments to talk with you or with each other before you start your lesson to
try and work things out. Separate them if necessary and try to gain agreement that
during your class period at least they will drop whatever issue they have.
Have a posted discipline plan that you follow consistently for effective
classroom management. Depending on the severity of the offense, this should allow
students a warning or two before punishment begins. Your plan should be easy to
follow and also should cause a minimum of disruption in your class. For example,
your discipline plan might be - First Offense: Verbal Warning, Second Offense:
Detention with teacher, Third Offense: Referral.
Meet disruptions that arise in your class with in kind measures. In other
words, don't elevate disruptions above their current level. Your discipline plan
should provide for this, however, sometimes your own personal issues can get in
the way. For example, if two students are talking in the back of the room and your
first step in the plan is to give your students a verbal warning, don't stop your
instruction to begin yelling at the students. Instead, have a set policy that simply
saying a student's name is enough of a clue for them to get back on task. Another
technique is to ask one of them a question.

Try to use humor to diffuse situations before things get out of hand.
Note: Know your students. The following example would be used with students you
know would not elevate the situation to another level. For example, if you tell your
students to open their books to page 51 and three students are busy talking, do not
immediately yell at them. Instead, smile, say their names, and ask them kindly if
they could please wait until later to finish their conversation because you would
really like to hear how it ends and you have to get this class finished. This will
probably get a few laughs but also get your point across.
If a student becomes verbally confrontational with you, remain calm and
remove them from the situation as quickly as possible. Do not get into yelling
matches with your students. There will always be a winner and a loser which sets
up a power struggle that could continue throughout the year. Further, do not bring
the rest of the class into the situation by involving them in the discipline or the
writing of the referral. More on dealing with confrontational students in your
classroom.

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If a student becomes physical, remember the safety of the other students
is paramount. Remain as calm as possible; your demeanor can sometimes diffuse
the situation. You should have a plan for dealing with violence that you discussed
with students early in the year. You should use the call button for assistance. You
could also have a student designated to get help from another teacher. Send the
other students from the room if it appears they could get hurt. If the fight is
between two students, follow your school's rules concerning teacher involvement as
many want teachers to stay out of fights until help arrives.
Keep an anecdotal record of major issues that arise in your class. This might
be necessary if you are asked for a history of classroom disruptions or other
documentation.
Let it go at the end of the day. Classroom management and disruption
issues should be left in class so that you can have some down time to recharge
before coming back to another day of teaching.

Thanks to : Mr. K.Bakthavachalm M.A.(Tamil) M.A.,Eng M.Sc.,(Maths) M.Phil., P.G.D.C.A.