Tom Cannavan

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Tom Cannavan is a Scottish author and a wine journalist. He is considered a pioneer
presence on internet of the British wine writing establishment.
[!
Career
"anna#an has run the website Wine$pages.com since %o#ember &&', widely
considered one of the best sites on wine,
[(!['!
which recei#ed a recommendation by
)obert *arker in his book The Wine Buyer's Guide.
[+!
"anna#an has published the book The Good Web Guide to Wine ,-.../
[(![0!
and is a
contributor to the annual publications Which? Wine Guide and The Wine Report. He has
also contributed to publications such as The Sunday Times, The Independent, The World
of Fine Wine, Decanter and GrapesTA!.
1n September -..2, "anna#an won 1nternational 3nline Writer of the 4ear at the 5ouis
)oederer awards for his website. 6pon accepting the award "anna#an joked, 71 deser#e
it, 1 work bloody hard7.
[2!
8lso in September -..2 "anna#an was one of fi#e 69 wine
writers to launch :he Wine ;ang, an online wine ratings maga<ine for the 69. :he
other members of :he Wine ;ang are 8nthony )ose, =oanna Simon, =ane *arkinson
and >a#id Williams. :he Wine ;ang also hold li#e wine tasting e#ents and festi#als.
Since the programme?s launch in @ay -..&, "anna#an has appeared on S:A?s The
"our as their resident wine eBpert.
Awards
-..2C 5ouis )oederer 1nternational 3nline Wine Writer of the 4ear
-..C Wine =ournalist of the 4ear, *ortuguese Wine 8wards
Wine Appreciation Course
D :om "anna#an, &&2
SourceC httpCEEwww.wine$pages.comEresourcesEhandout.htm
Part 1: What is wine?
8 classical definition of wine is #ery simpleC
7Wine is an alcoholic be#erage obtained from the
fermentation of juice from freshly gathered grapes, the
fermentation taking place in the district of origin
according to local tradition and practice7.
Fermentation is the process by which sugar is con#erted to
alcohol by yeasts. 8t its simplest, wine is made by crushing
grapes and allowing the natural yeasts present on the skins to
come in to contact with the natural sugars present in the juice. %o
other human inter#ention is neededC crushed and fermented like
this, any grapes will make wine.

:he winemaker, of course, inter#enes in this process in many ways to affect the Fuality
of the wine that is produced. He must choose the best Fuality of fruit, he must ensure the
operation is carried out with scrupulous hygiene, he must ensure the final product is
bright, clear and fit for consumption. Beyond these simple steps howe#er, the
winemaker can influence the wine in many other ways, taking certain decisions and
actions that affect the style of the wine and how it will taste. We will look at these
actions in detail later in the course, but they includeC the selection and miBture of grapes
used, the method of fermentation and the treatment the wine is gi#en as it matures in his
cellars.
:he rules #ary from region to region, but most authorities allow the addition of
controlled Fuantities of certain other ingredients in the making of wineC
Sugar is allowed in many areas if there is insufficient sun to fully ripen the
grapes
Some strains of yeast perform better than others, and introducing yeast is
allowed
:he addition of natural fruit acids is permitted in some hotter regions
*owdered tannins may be added in some regions
Small Fuantities of sulphur can be used to sanitise wines.
The origins of wine
%obody knows who 7in#ented7 wine. 1ts disco#ery was probably accidental. 8fter
har#esting, some grapes were left in a container o#er the winter and the natural yeasts
and sugars con#erted the juice into wine.
From earliest times, the process of winemaking de#eloped and was encouraged. 8part
from the taste, and the 7magical7 effect wine had on drinkers, it was granted religious,
e#en mystical properties. :he ;reek ;od >ionysus and the )oman ;od Bacchus were
high ranking ;ods of wine. :he "hristians used sacramental winesC the miracle of the
con#ersion of water into wine and the use of wine to represent "hrist?s blood in the
communion ser#ice, are eBamples of its importance in the "hristian religion. :he wine
industry would not be flourishing in "alifornia today had not the "hristian missionaries
planted #ines there for religious purposes.
8lthough archaeologists ha#e traced the origins of wine grapes ,#itis $inifera/ back tens
of thousands of years, the first e#idence of wine ha#ing actually been made from grapes
comes from a clay pot found in *ersia ,now 1ran/ dating from around .,... years B.".
3ur understanding of how #ine growing and winemaking grew, spread and flourished
has been pieced together.
Separate wa#es of the great, ancient, seafaring cultures took the #ine and the secrets of
winemaking on their tra#els along the shores of the @editerranean and beyond. :he
;reeks introduced #ines where#er they set up colonies, from France to Ggypt.
:his Ggyptian wall painting shows
each stage of the winemaking process,
from gathering the grapes, to drinking
the finished product.
1n turn the )omans spread their
#ineyard lands throughout France and
to their other colonies throughout
Gurope, including ;reat Britain.
Where is Wine Made?
:he climatic conditions needed for growing Fuality #ines are strictly defined. Aines
need cool winters when the #ine can 7sleep7 and gather strength for the production of
the neBt summer?s crop. :oo cold though, and the roots of the #ine can be damaged by
frost leading to the death of the plant. Spring must be warm and wet, though not too
wet, so that the plants can bud and produce the tiny flowers that will e#entually become
bunches of grapes. Summers should be long, sunny, and hot, but again, too much heat is
counter$producti#e, leading to scorched fruit that ripens too Fuickly and doesn?t ha#e
enough Fuality. :he autumn must be gentle and relati#ely dry so that the grapes can
reach full maturity and the har#est can be completed before eBcessi#e rain or cold
damages the mature grapes.:hese reFuirements eBclude much of the northern and
southern latitudes, as these are too cold and ha#e too little sun. :he eFuatorial lands are
also eBcluded, as they are too hot, with no period in which the #ines can rest.
Aines flourish in two Fuite narrow bands of latitude approBimately H.$'.I north and H.$
'.I south of the eFuator.

3nly here are the
climatic conditions
right for wines of
the highest standard.
Wines are made on
the margins of these
latitudes, but they
are rarely consistent
or of real Fuality.
Conditions for growing vines
6nlike most agricultural crops, the grape#ine does not reFuire rich, fertile soil to thri#e.
1n fact, soils which are too rich, too full of nitrogen and nutrients, might produce
abundant grape crops, but these will be grapes suitable for eating, not for making wine.
:he fruit will be too simple and sweet and lacking in compleB minerals, sugars, acids
and fla#ours. :he world?s finest wines are in#ariably produced from poor Fuality soils
where few other crops would be worth planting. :he great wines of BordeauB are
produced from soil composed largely of gra#el and pebbles, on a base of clay or chalk.
:he great Burgundies come from acidic, granite soil on a base of limestone.
:he reason for this anomaly $ poor land producing great wines $ is that the thinness of
the soil naturally restricts the Fuantity of the crop, so that fewer grapes are produced,
but of higher Fuality. :his is the same principle that a pri<e rose grower might adoptC
thinning the bush to encourage the blooms that remain to reach a higher Fuality. 8lso,
poor, free draining topsoil encourages the #ine to send its roots deeper in search of
water and nutrients. 8s the roots reach further down, compleB minerals will be absorbed
that will add compleBity to the grape and, e#entually, to the wine. Aineyards tend to be
situated along ri#er #alleys, on gentle slopes where they ha#e maBimum eBposure to the
sun, where the soil is free draining, and where, historically, the ri#ers could be used for
transport.
Grapes and Wine
"uriously, wine rarely tastes or smells of grapes. :he grapes from which wine is made,
howe#er, are the most important factor in taste. Wines made from the chardonnay, for
eBample, are said to ha#e a taste of peaches, lemons or butter. Wines made from the
cabernet sau#ignon are reckoned to ha#e fla#ours of blackcurrant, plums or chocolate.
Historically, old world producers stressed the importance of where the wine came from
on the label, rather than what was in the bottleC
BordeauB, Burgundy, "hablis, Sancerre, )ioja, *ort, Sherry.
Some producers, on the other hand, used brand names for their productsC
Hirondelle, Black :ower, @ateus )osJ, Blue %un, 5e *iat d?3r.
:he one thing that ne#er appeared on the label was the grape #ariety. :he consumer
simply didn?t know the origins of the wine they were drinkingC . years ago we didn?t
ask for a chardonnay or a riesling because we didn?t know we liked chardonnay or
riesling.
The Old World and the ew
:he %ew World had a lot to contend with in trying to compete in this marketplace. Why
would we buy some strangely named bottle from "alifornia or 8ustraliaK 8t first, the
%ew World competed by simply 7borrowing7 famous names from the 3ld WorldC
78ustralian Burgundy7 and 7"alifornian "hablis7 became commonplace. 1nternational
law soon caught up with this practice howe#er, ruling that Burgundy or "hablis can
only be made in Burgundy or "hablis. So e#en though the %ew World producer could
use identical grapes and identical methods to produce a high Fuality #ersion of one of
these famous wines, he couldn?t use any name that the consumer would recognise.
)ather than battle against tradition and prejudice, the solution the %ew World arri#ed at
was to use #arietal labelling. :hey attempted to change the whole way we thought
about, talked about, selected, chose between, and most importantly, bought wine. :hey
educated us in the grapes from which the wine was made by stressing this, rather than
the place of origin on the label. Soon we got used to the idea of buying a bottle of
chardonnay, a bottle of sau#ignon blanc, a bottle of merlot or a bottle of pinot noir.
:his is perhaps the biggest change e#er in the way wine is regarded by consumersC
ordinary people learned to recognise wine by the grape #ariety used. 1n turn this lead to
a willingness to eBperimentC to buy and eBperience the type of wine they like, no matter
where it was made, %ew World or 3ld World. G#en France has recognised that they
must mo#e in to this modern world in order to compete and sur#i#e. @aybe not in the
great, classical regions, but in the simpler country wines the naming of grapes on labels
is now as common in Gurope as anywhere in the winemaking world.
8lthough the %ew World has altered the whole way we buy and think about wine, they
ha#e always acknowledged that the 3ld World $ France in particular $ had a huge
amount to teach them. France has a combination of many factors which mean it is still
at the fore$front of Fuality wine productionC
an ideal location ,latitude/
a highly suitable range of soil types
suitable weather conditions
generations of knowledge
long established #ineyards
a well established set of wine laws ,appellation contrLlJe/
a highly skilled support industry $ nurserymen, barrel makers, shippers,
scientists, etc.
1n other countries around the world winemakers ha#e taken the grape #arieties and
techniFues used in France and ha#e attempted to create their own #ersions of classic
wines.
Below is a table with H columnsC
. gi#es the name of some of the 7classic7 French wines
-. gi#es the principal grapes from which they are made
H. shows some of the countries around the world who are making successful wines
in a similar styleC
Wine ;rapes %ew world competitors
BordeauB
"abernet Sau#ignon, @erlot,
"abernet Franc, *etit Aerdot
6S8, 8ustralia, South 8frica, "hile,
Bulgaria, )omania, Spain, 1taly, 5ebanon
Burgundy
,red/
*inot %oir
6S8, %ew Mealand, 8ustralia, South
8frica
Burgundy
,white/
"hardonnay
8ustralia, %ew Mealand, 6S8, South
8frica, "hile, 8rgentina, Spain, 1taly,
Bulgaria, Hungary
%orthern
)hLne
Syrah ,shira</
8ustralia, %ew Mealand, 6S8, South
8frica
8lsace ;ewur<traminer, )iesling %ew Mealand, 8ustralia, 6S8
Sancerre Sau#ignon Blanc %ew Mealand, "hile, 6S8, South 8frica
"hampagne
"hardonnay, *inot %oir, *inot
@eunier
6S8, 8ustralia, %ew Mealand
:he challenge for the newer producers is to create wines that ha#e the Fuality of the
7originals7 from France and will ha#e the staying power to keep them being bought and
enjoyed by wine lo#ers around the world for generations. For us, this results in a wider
choice of wines than e#er before, from a wider #ariety of places. 1t also means $ with
some wines of BordeauB and Burgundy now costing upwards of N'.... per bottle $
that we ha#e a chance to eBperience a glimpse of what some of the world?s greatest
wines ha#e to offer, at a reasonable price.
Wine Appreciation Course
D :om "anna#an, &&2
Part !: White wine
The grape
:o begin to understand how any wine is
made we must first look at the composition
of the grape. 1f you take any grape $ black,
red or green $ and slice it through the
middle it looks much the sameC
The stal"
is woody and full of a substance called
tannin. :annin is a preser#ati#e with a bitter
fla#our.
The s"in
is co#ered in a whitish bloom which is a
dusting of wild yeasts and bacteria. :he
skin itself contains more tannin and, in
black grapes, a colouring pigment.

The pips
contain bitter oils and are ne#er desirable in white winemaking.
The pulp
is the most interesting part of the grape in white wine making. 3#er 0.O of the pulp is
just water, but the remaining H.O contains most of the elements which gi#e a wine
character, fla#our and interest. :hese elements include #arious fruit sugars and acids,
trace elements absorbed from the earth and pectin, a gelling agent. :he pulp of almost
all grapes is the same colourC a pale greenEyellow.
Since the juice of almost all grapes is the same pale, almost clear colour, white wines
can be made from any colour of grapes. 1f using black grapes to make a white wine, the
winemaker must separate the juice from the skins immediately after pressing and before
the fermentation stage so that no colour is picked up from the skins. Some eBamples of
white wine made from black grapes are "hampagne, blanc de noirs and white <infandel.
@ost whites are actually made from green grapes. :here is, therefore, no hurry to
separate juice from skins since there is no danger of them picking up colour, but most
winemakers prefer to separate anyway, to pre#ent tannin leaching from the skins into
the juice. :hough there is an insignificant group of black grapes whose flesh and juice is
actually dark, almost all red wines eBtract their colour only from the skins of black
grapes. )ed wines therefore, can only be made from black ,or red/ grapes.
Ma"ing white wine
:he first priority with freshly gathered white
wine grapes is to get them to the presses as
Fuickly as possible. :his a#oids oBidisation of
the grapes as they sit on lorries, eBposed to
the sun and air.
8t the winery, the grapes go through a
machine called a crusher$destalker. :his
machine breaks the skins of the grapes but
doesn?t press them, and remo#es all stalks and
some of the pips.
:he resulting mash of broken grapes is
immediately poured into a press. 8 gentle
pressing is reFuired for white wines. :here
ha#e been many impro#ements on the original
hea#y stone presses, including the screw press
which is like a giant mincing machine, and
pressing by inflating a bag inside a tank, so
that the grapes are gradually sFuee<ed against
the sides.
:he pure juice that is collected from this
process is poured directly into the
fermentation tank. Some producers will lea#e
the skins in during fermentation to add some
eBtra dimension to the wine, but most do not.
8fter fermentation most white wines are run
into stainless$steel tanks for a period of
settling. 8 few months later they are filtered
and bottled. Some wines will undergo a
further period of maturation in oak casks
before bottling.
:emperature has always been the bugbear of
white wine makers. Hotter countries simply
could not make Fuality white wines as these
reFuire long, cool fermentation ,at around 'I
"elsius/ to allow fla#ours and compleBity to
de#elop. :he act of fermentation itself creates
heat, and in a hot climate, with uncontrolled
tanks, the result is a #ery #iolent fermentation
with temperatures rising to H'I or more and
the yeasts dying off Fuickly.
*erhaps the greatest inno#ation in the history of white wine making has been the
introduction of temperature controlled stainless steel tanks for fermentation. 1ntroduced
first in 8ustralia and "alifornia, these huge, refrigerated tanks ha#e taken the
winemaking world by storm. G#en in the hottest climates, white wines of distinction can
now be produced. "ountries like Spain, ;reece and southern 1taly can, for the first time,
produce whites of world class Fuality.
:his use of new technology has also led to a new breed of eBpert, known as the 7flying
winemaker7. 5argely from 8ustralia and "alifornia, these winemakers tra#el the world
to ad#ise old$fashioned wineries on new technology ,like stainless steel/ that can bring
them up to date.
Some white wines are fermented in old wooden #ats. :hese will also ha#e some method
of cooling applied, such as being surrounded by a coil of pipes through which cold
water is pumped. :hese #ats are less reliable than steel, but some winemakers swear that
fermenting in oak is the only method to use.
@any of the greatest white Burgundies and sweet white Sauternes are fermented in
small oak barrels with stunning results. :his labour intensi#e techniFue is usually
reser#ed for the highest Fuality wines, especially those built for long ageing.

3nce fermentation is complete ,taking between and ( weeks or so/
most white wines are considered complete. :he wine is simply run off
into clean steel containers to settle before bottling. :he alternati#e is to
mature the wine in small oak casks ,often referred to as 7barriFues7 $
the BordeauB name/. @aturation in oak is much more common in red
wines, but chardonnay and semillon in particular seem to marry #ery
well with the uniFue #anillaEbuttery fla#our that oak imparts to wine.
@aturing wine in barrels is an eBpensi#e and labour intensi#e process, as we will see
neBt week when we look more closely at the process in relation to red wines. 3ften, the
taste we notice most in a chardonnay has come from the oak, not from the grapes. 1n the
cheapest chardonnays, handfuls of oak chips are added to the wine to impart a
commercially desirable oaky fla#our. Whilst tasty, these wines are rarely subtle or
sufficiently well$balanced for ageing and further de#elopment in bottle.
Finally, prior to bottling, the wine must be filtered to lea#e it crystal clear. :his process
can be carried out by many methods. 6se of filters and centrifuges to eliminate all solid
matter are effecti#e, but some people claim these methods also remo#e body and
character from the wine. 8 more traditional method is fining. Fining uses a gelatinous
substance that is stirred into a barrel of wine. :he fining agent gradually sinks to the
bottom of the barrel, dragging all particles with it. :raditionally, fining is done with
whisked egg whites. 3ther common substances are bentonite ,a clay/ and isinglass
,made from fish bladdersP/. 3nce the wine is perfectly clear and bright it can be bottled,
labelled and shipped.
Wines might also undergo a process of 7cold stabilisation7 before filtering, when they
are chilled in order to force tartaric acids naturally present in the wine to form into tiny
crystals. :hese crystals can then be remo#ed during filtration. :his is done mostly for
cosmetic reasonsC white wines that are not stabilised might throw these crystals
naturally during storage or transportation. When the consumer sees tiny white crystals
in the bottom of a bottle it can be #ery off$putting, though in fact they are harmless and
tasteless.
#actors affecting the st$les of white wine
"learly, one important factor is grape #ariety. Whilst some grapes, such as the
chardonnay, are 7all rounders7 $ capable of being moulded into a #ariety of styles $
others, such as the gewQr<traminer, ha#e a #ery distincti#e and indi#idual taste which
asserts itself in e#ery decent bottle. Fermentation and maturation in oak is another
important aspect. :his is a complicated areaC oak trees from different forests impart
different fla#oursR new barrels ha#e more impact than barrels one or two years oldR
barrels can be toasted on the inside before they are filled and the degree of toast will
affect the fla#our. We will look more closely at oak and barrels in relation to red wine.
:he winemaker can also decide how much residual sugar to lea#e behind in the wine. 1f
fermentation is stopped early, before the yeasts eat all the sugars, then a certain amount
of sugar is left behind. For #ery ripe wines from hot climates it is perfectly possible to
produce a wine that has H or ( degrees of alcohol yet still has some residual sugar. 1n
some countries the addition of eBtra sugar is allowed during the fermentation stage $ a
process known as chaptalisation $ but this is done to boost alcohol to a minimum
standard, not to sweeten the finished wine.
@alolactic fermentation is a natural biological process that occurs after alcoholic
fermentation if the wine is kept at a slightly increased temperature. :his is a chemical
change, whereby harsh malic acid ,such as that found in tart green apples/ is con#erted
into lactic acid ,found in milk/. :his has the effect of softening the wine and reducing
ob#ious acidity, so the winemaker may choose to encourage or a#oid malolactic
fermentation according to his reFuirement for a specific style of wine. :his is achei#ed
by inoculating the wine with rele#ant bacteria.
@aturing the wine 7sur lees7 $ keeping the skins and dead yeast cells in contact in the
barrel $ can add a creaminess and compleBity to a wine. 8gain, this is done at the
winemaker?s discretion and is a process that reFuires care and attentionC the 7soup7 of
wine and lees can spoil if scrupulous hygiene is not practised.
White wine and grapes % st$les and characteristics
:here are many #arieties of grape used in the production of white wines. Here is a list of
the most important #arieties along with a description of their general character and some
of the tasting terms commonly applied to themC
"hardonnay $ full% soft% buttery% fruity
$ peach, pear, pineapple, citrus, melon, butter, #anilla
Sau#ignon Blanc $ in$i&oratin&% dry% &rassy% acidic
$ grass, gooseberries, asparagus, green beans, cat pee, flint
)iesling $ $i$idly fruity% li$ely acidity% oily
$ apples, limes, passion fruit, minerals, petrol
Semillon $ round% smooth% honeyed% toasty
$ grass, citrus, lanolin, honey, toast
;ewur<traminer $ e'otic% spicy% perfumed% oily% rich
$ ginger, cinnamon, lychees, ni#ea creamP
:he search is on amongst the big, commercial wineries to find a successor to
chardonnay. @arket watchers ha#e noted that some people are showing signs of being
fed up with o#er$oaked, big, blowsy chardonnays and are looking for a different taste.
@ost of the grapes abo#e are too distincti#e to fit the bill, and might not be so widely
accepted. Some other grapesEwines that ha#e been less commonly seen in the past are
starting to become more e#ident on supermarket shel#esC
@arsanne S )oussanne $ honey% tropical fruit% luscious
Aiognier $ flo(ery% peachy% delicate% fresh
*inot Blanc $ oily% perfumed% minerals% citrus% rich
"henin Blanc $ stra(% flo(ers% honey% can be dry or s(eet
White wine tasting terms and descriptors
Wine tasters ha#e their own #ocabulary or jargon, just like other groups of enthusiastsC
computer geeks, trainspotters, ballroom dancers, etc. :here can be a certain amount of
snobbishness and hints of 7one$upmanship7 in wine tasting. 3n the other hand these
terms are #ery usefulC the true wine lo#er will ne#er try to blind you with science, but
may well use some common terms and descriptions. 8 few eBamples are listed belowC
"reamy $ often applied to champa&ne and sometimes to chardonnay
"risp $ clean and sharply fla$oured% not s(eet or oa)y
Flabby $ the opposite * a (ine (ithout crispness
;reen $ too acidic +some o$erly tart sau$i&non blancs,
3ily $ richly te'tured (ines such as some &e(ur-traminers or pinot blancs
Steely $ crisp and a bit austere% li)e the best .hablis or Sancerre/
Here are some descripti#e words often used to conjure up the fla#our or scent from a
particular wine. :o the eBperienced taster these are often indicati#e of a particular wine
or style of wineC
Biscuity $ .hampa&ne
Flinty $ Sancerre or 0ouilly*Fume
;rassy $ sau$i&non blanc
5emony $ chardonnay
5ychees $ &e(ur-traminer or sau$i&non blanc
:oasty $ chardonnay
Aanilla $ oa) a&ein&/
6sing this jargon for describing and talking about the characteristics of wine isn?t
compulsory $ if you are more comfortable with simply describing the glass in your hand
as 7good7, 7ok7 or 7bad7, then that is Fuite acceptableP
Wine Appreciation Course
D :om "anna#an, &&2
Part &: 'ed wine
The grape
)ed wine can only be made from black ,or red/ grapes. :o
make red wine the skins are an integral part of the recipe,
whereas in whites they are often little more than
packaging.
:he skins of black grapes are important because of their
7phenolic7 compoundsC a compleB miB of colouring
agents, fla#ouring agents and a substance called tannin.
:annin is the essential difference between red and white
wines. 1t is a powerful preser#ati#e, and since red wines
are often made to mature o#er many years, tannin is
reFuired to ensure the wine does not grow old
prematurely.

:annin also has a taste $ slightly bitter $ and an effect that dries and puckers the mouth.
8nother substance containing large Fuantities of tannin is cold, stewed, strong tea. 8
mouthful of that will gi#e you an idea of what tannin is all about.
:he classic red wines of BordeauB and Burgundy ,and their new world counterparts/ are
made with a hefty dose of tannin that preser#es the wine and balances against the other
fla#our components of fruits, minerals and acids. Such wines are designed to impro#e
o#er many years until they reach their peak $ the point when the tannins ha#e mellowed
and the components ha#e integrated perfectly. 4ou need patience, suitable conditions
and a healthy bank balance to get into the business of cellaring the great red wines until
they each their peak.
)ed wines destined for early or short term drinking ,and not for 7laying down7/ are
made with little or no tannin in their composition. :raditionally these were lesser,
peasant wines, made to be drunk with the daily meal and without ceremony. Howe#er,
tastes and needs change, and many fine, modern wines are made for immediate
consumption. Since these wines don?t need to last se#eral years, the bitter tannins are
eBcluded and the wine tastes fruity, fresh and approachable upon release.
Ma"ing red wine
:he winemaker has at his disposal a far greater range of techniFues, and must make a
far greater number of decisions, when making a red wine. :he process is essentially the
same as the white wine processC gathering the grapes, fermentation, maturation and
bottling. 8t #arious stages the winemaker can inter#ene to change the style of the wine
he is making.
:he grapes are crushed, but a proportion
of the stalks may be left in place. :he
resulting mash is run straight into the
fermentation tank without pressing.
6nlike white wine, the skins are part of
the fermentation. Fermentation
temperature #aries between around 2I
and -2I celsius, as does the length of
fermentation between a few days and siB
weeks. :he fermentation #ats may be
concrete, steel or, traditionally, oak.
:he high Fuality 7free run7 wine is poured
straight into barrels or stainless steel to
rest and mature. :he remaining mulch of
juice, skins, and stalks is pressed, to
eBtract a strong, tannic liFuid known as
7press$wine7, a proportion of which is
often blended back in at a later stage to
add body, tannin and strength to the
finished wine.
@ost of the great red wines are matured in
oak barrels. :his is an eBpensi#e and
labour intensi#e process. 3ak from
ancient French forests is generally agreed
to be the finest, imparting a subtle #anilla,
toasty fla#our. Gach -.. year old tree
produces only - barrels, so they are
eBpensi#e at NH'.... each. :he forests are
managed with a re$planiting policy.
8merican oak is also #ery popular and is
cheaper. 1t is regarded as imparting a
7bigger7, less subtle, spicy fla#our to
wine. 3ak from the 6kraine, *oland and
Slo#enia is #ery old and fine and is the
cheapest of all, but many eBperts find it is
not fla#ourful enough.
*rior to bottling the wine must be cleared. :raditional fining is widely practised, but use
of filters and centrifuges to remo#e absolutely all micro$solids from the wine is highly
contro#ersial. Wine is a li#ing thing. :iny biological changes take place o#er years as
the wine matures in the bottle and many people belie#e that hea#y handed filtration
destroys the wine?s ability to age and impro#e. :his is why many red wines must be
decanted before ser#ingC to run the wine off from solid deposits.
#actors affecting the st$les of red wine
8s 1 ha#e said, the winemaker has a great deal of freedom to make choices in making a
red wine. >ecisions will be affected by the style of wine the winemaker is aiming to
make, and the raw materials the #intage has gi#en. Some of the options open to the
winemaker are listed belowC
1n most areas the #ineyards may be planted with a #ariety different grapes.
#arying the proportion of tannic stalks to include in the fermentation
cold$soaking the grapes $ allowing colour and tannin to leach from the skins
whether to ferment in inert cement or steel, or in oak tanks or barrels
choosing which strains of yeast to use for fermentation
choosing the temperature and length of fermentation
choosing when to remo#e stalks and skins during fermentation
choosing how to mature the wine ,if in barrel, oak, le#el of toast, age of barrel,
etc./
length of maturation ,usually between 2 and -( months/
whether to add some of the press$wine back in to the blend
how and when to blend the wines from different grapes and different casks
choose the method of fining andEor filtration
(pecial considerations for fine red wines
8s well as offering a world of choices to the winemaker, red wine also offers eBtra
challenges and complications that must be o#ercome to make a great wine.
balancing the colour and tannin eBtraction of the wine with its fruit
how to work the wine during fermentation T
judging the correct le#els of newEold oak and toast le#el
how and when the barrels in the cellar are 7racked7 TT
whether full, partial or no malolactic fermentation is carried out
decisions on blending, fining and filtration.
T "arbon dioBide gi#en off during fermentation causes the skins to float to the surface
of the tank and form a 7cap7. :his must be regularly submerged to ensure the wine
keeps eBtracting elements from the skins. :his can be achie#ed by 7pumping o#er7 juice
from the bottom to the top of the tank, by manually pushing down the cap, or by fitting
a mesh filter below the surface of the wine/
TT For all the time the barrels are in the cellar the wine must be 7racked7C wine is drawn
from one barrel into a clean barrel. 3nly around &.O of the barrel is drawn off, the
remaining .O is full of dead yeast cells and is discarded. :his process is carried out
e#ery H months or so and the fresh barrel must be topped back up to ..O with reser#ed
wine.
'ed wine st$les and characteristics
:here are just as many fla#our profiles amongst red wines as white. Some grapes, like
the cabernet sau#ignon take Fuite easily to a #ariety of growing conditions, whilst
others, such as the pinot noir, seem unhappy anywhere outside their home in Burgundy.
8 few places are starting to produce credible pinot noirs, notably in cool climates such
as 3regon on the northwest coast of the 6nited Sates and on the south island of %ew
Mealand.
"abernet Sau#ignon $ the classic BordeauB wine grape. 8 7serious7 wine, with intensity
and ageing potential which marries #ery well with the fla#our of oak.
blac)currant% cedar% pencil sha$in&s% peppers% mint% chocolate% tobacco
@erlot $ the -nd great grape of BordeauB $ most BordeauB is a blend of these - grapes
along with small amounts of some others. 1t is a #ery rich, plummy, spicy grape which
lends softness to the sometimes rather serious cabernet.
plums% roses% spice% fruit*ca)e% blac)currant% pencil sha$in&s
*inot %oir $ :he great red grape of Burgundy. 1t is a #ery fragrant and should be silky
with heady fruit and sometimes gamey compleBity.
raspberries% stra(berries% cherries% $iolets% roses% &ame% compost% manure
Syrah $ the great red grape of the )hone. *lanted outside France it is known as the
Shira<. Huge and compleB, rich, spicy and 7manly7.
raspberries% blac)berries% pepper% clo$es% spice% leather% &ame% tar/
3ther important red wine grapes includeC
"abernet Franc $ &reen peppers% blac)currant% lea$es% chocolate/
;amay $ the &rape of Beau1olais/ Beau1olais style (ines employ a uni2ue method of
fermentation called .arbonic 3aceration% or (hole berry fermentation% (hich produces
li&ht bodied and coloured (ine that is fruity% lo( in tannin and made for early drin)in&/
Sangio#ese $ the &rape of .hianti/ Full% firm% dry% spicy% tobacco and herbs/
:empranillo $ the &rape of Rio1a% usually (ith plenty of spicy% $anilla oa)/
Minfandel $ uni2ue to .alifornia/ Its ori&ins are a mystery% but it is belie$ed to be
descended from the Italian primiti$o/ Full blooded% spicy% po(erful% alcoholic/
'ed wine tasting terms and descriptors
:here are e#en more words for taking about red wines, largely because red wines can
co#er such a #ariety of colours, teBtures, aromas and tastes. 8 few eBamples are listed
belowC
8ustere $ tannic4 lac)in& fruit/ The (ine is too youn&% or too se$ere in style
Baked $ from a hot climate/ 5ot necessarily bad% but can mean 6not fresh6
"oarse $ rou&h and ready * should be cheap
>ense $ positi$e/ Solid colour and pac)ed (ith fla$our
Garthy $ tastes of earth but can also mean simple and rustic
Finesse $ used for (ines of hi&h 2uality% sho(in& a sil)y and refined nature
Firm $ a positi$e term for a (ine (ith a &ood balance of tannins and acid
Flabby $ not a compliment/ The (ine is o$er*oa)ed% or lac)in& acidity
;reen $ ra( 7 un*ripe% often a characteristic of cabernets from poor years
;rip $ used as a positi$e term for youn& (ines (ith &ood tannins
Hea#y $ full bodied and alcoholic% usually means too alcoholic8 out of balance
=ammy $ not a compliment/ Too ob$iously fruity (ithout &reat finesse
@eaty $ rich 7 full*bodied% maybe literally (ith an aroma of meat
Silky $ smooth% $el$ety mouth feel/ 9sually the si&n of a 2uality (ine
Stalky $ bitter tannins e$ident/ A fault in some pinot noirs and cabernets
Structure $ $ery positi$e/ Is balanced% (ell made and (ill last/
:hin $ lac)in& some fla$our and usually some (ei&ht in the mouth/
Some descripti#e words often used to conjure up the fla#ours and scents of red wineC
Blackcurrant $ alon& (ith cedar% the classic Bordeau':cabernet taste
"abbage $ mature Bur&undy/ This cabba&e smell is a positi$e aspect;
"offee $ comes from (ell inte&rated oa)% associated (ith top 2uality (ines
;reen *epper $ a distincti$e note of the t(o cabernet &rapes
5eather $ classic shira-% tou&h% bi&% spicy
5iFuorice $ many full bodied% tannic youn& (ines
3li#es $ usually sli&htly under*ripe cabernet sau$i&non or cabernet franc
*epper $ Rhone (ines are often $ery peppery on the ton&ue
Spice $ many 6bi&6 reds% includin& Rhone% -infandel and Rio1a
Strawberry $ Beau1olais 7 li&hter Bur&undy
:ar $ a heady% rich (ine% probably from a hot climate
:obacco $ a lo$ely rich% (arm taste from &ood Bordeau'
Aanilla $ oa) a&ein&
Part ): (par"ling* sweet and fortified
wine
(par"ling wine
8ll sparkling wines start life as still wines and ha#e the sparkle
added later. :he crucial factor in the Fuality of e#ery sparkling
wine is ho( the fi<< is added.
:he fermentation process naturally produces carbon dioBide gas
,"3-/ $ the waste product of the yeasts de#ouring the sugars. 1n
still wine making this gas is allowed to escape. 1n sparkling wines,
the "3- is retained, dissol#ing within the wine the wine which is
kept under pressure.
When it is released, the "3- bubbles to the surface. :he method for
producing a wine filled with "3- #aries from the #ery time$
consuming and eBpensi#e "hampagne method of natural,
secondary fermentation in indi#idual bottles, to the ineBpensi#e
and easy method of sFuirting industrial "3- into cheap, still wine.

The Champagne method
:he "hampenois are justifiably proud of their wines and the age old methods used in
their creation. 5egend has it that the method was in#ented by a monk and winemaker
named >om *Jrignon. "hampagne itself can come only from a #ery well defined area
in the north east of France, but many Fuality wines are made using the 7@Jthode
"hampenoise7 ,this term is no longer allowed on labels, so the term 7traditional
method7 is often used instead/.
First of all, a high Fuality, dry white wine is made ,usually from a blend of chardonnay,
pinot noir and pinot meunier grapes/ with 7ordinary7 tank fermentation. 3nce the wine
is complete it is placed into special, hea#yweight bottles and a fresh dose of yeast and
sugar is added. :he bottles are then capped and placed in the cool cellars of the winery
for up to - years. >uring this time, a secondary fermentation takes place. :he yeasts and
sugars create "3- that, because it is in a sealed container, cannot escape so dissol#es
into the liFuid. 1n the early days "hampagne production was a dangerous business $
cellars were destroyed by eBploding wines. "ontrolled production methods and stronger
bottles ha#e eliminated that risk.
:he problem with this techniFue is the deposit of dead yeast cells that collects in the
bottle. 1n still wines these would simply be filtered out, but since that would also
remo#e the bubbles, another method had to be found. :his process is known as
)emuageC an action whereby each bottle is shaken lightly, re#ol#ed and its position
adjusted, so that o#er the course of a few weeks the bottle ends up upside$down with the
dead yeast cells captured in the neck of the bottle.
:he )emueur can precisely adjust
(.,... bottles per day. 8t this stage the
in#erted bottles are carefully
transported to a free<ing tank. :he
necks are dipped in, just to the le#el of
the gathered sediment, which free<es
into a solid 7plug7 of dead yeast cells.
:he caps are remo#ed and the gas
pressure shoots the plug out. >epending
on the style of wine being made ,dry,
medium or sweet/ the bottles are topped
up with a 7dosage7 of reser#ed wine and
sugar. :he bottles are corked, wired and
at that stage, the "hampagne is
complete.
:hough this process is long, eBpensi#e
and labour intensi#e, no other method
produces wines with such fine and
persistent bubbles and such a creamy
compleBity on the tongue.

*hoto D "ephas
The tan" method
:his is a different process by which good Fuality bubblies can be made. Here the
secondary fermentation still takes place naturally, by adding new yeast and sugar to a
finished wine, but instead of taking place in bottles, the wine is held under pressure in
large sealed tanks so that the eFui#alent of se#eral thousand bottles re$ferment at the
same time. :he wine is cleared of sediment and bottled under pressure, directly from the
tank. :he bubbles are a little larger and disperse more Fuickly, but the tank method can
produce good results.
The transfer method
:his is a less common system for creating a sparkling wine. Here, secondary
fermentation takes place in indi#idual bottles $ like "hampagne $ but instead of the
eBpensi#e remuage process, the wine is cleared by filtration and is then pumped, under
pressure, into clean bottles.
(weet +or dessert, wines
5ike sparkling wines, there are a #ariety of methods for making sweet wines. :hese
#ary from cheap and easy, to some of the most labour intensi#e and eBpensi#e processes
in the wine making world. We are talking here about fully sweet wines, often drunk with
desserts, though the French like to partner the finest foie$gras with a luscious Sauternes
$ perhaps the king of sweet wines.
5ike so many aspects of wine making, the disco#ery that grapes left on the #ine until
they rot can produce beautiful wines, was probably yet another accident.
Botrytis is a fungus which may attacks grapes, usually
in the cool of late autumn. 1t occurs in the early
morning mists which form in #ineyards sited near large
bodies of water. :he fungus wraps itself around the
grapes and spores puncture the skin, drawing off water
and lea#ing the grape shri#elled.
1f left unchecked, botrytis will kill grapes and can be a
big problem to #ine growers. 1n some uniFue locations
,Sauternes in France, parts of ;ermany and 8ustria for
eBample/ the #ineyards are sited such that they also get
maBimum eBposure to the sun.
1n good years, the warmth of the sun as it rises kills off
the fungus, lea#ing the grapes shri#elled and unsightly,
but tasting deliciousC full of the sugar and glycerine
which was left behind.

*hoto D "ephas
Aineyards for botrytis wines are har#ested by hand, so that only those indi#idual grapes
affected by the 7noble rot7 are selected. 3ften the same area will be picked o#er se#eral
times so that grapes can be picked in ideal condition. :he wine is then made using the
normal method for white wines, but the high sugar and glycerine content means that the
wine is sweet, luscious and full$bodied. Because grapes high in natural acidity are used
,sJmillon, sau#ignon blanc, riesling, gewQr<traminer/ the wine is not at all cloying.
:hough sweet, the best wines are balanced and full of subtle fla#ours that linger on the
palate.
Botrytis wines are always eBpensi#e and often bought by the half bottle. With the
unpredictability of the har#est and the labour intensi#e methods used, it is perhaps easy
to see where the money goes.
Other sweet wines and methods of production
Some other sweet wines are produced from grapes that are o#er$ripened, but not rotted.
:his can be done by simply lea#ing the grapes on the #ine for longer than usual, or
har#esting the grapes as normal but lea#ing them spread out to dry on mats so that they
shri#el in the sun and air. 3ne interesting, rare and eBpensi#e form of sweet wine is the
ice$wine ,in ;erman, Giswein/ of ;ermany, 8ustria and "anada. Here the grapes are
left on the #ine into the dead of winter $ often into the new year. 3n a suitably free<ing
cold night the grapes are har#ested. @ost of the water content of the grapes has turned
to ice and this is eBpelled from the grapes lea#ing only the sugars and acids behind in
the pulp. 8 wine is made from this which is #ery luscious and sweet.
8nother group of sweet wines are sweet because fermentation is stopped at a fairly low
alcohol le#el. 8t that point, there is still plenty of natural sugar that has not been
consumed by the yeast, so the resulting wine is naturally sweet. Fermentation is usually
stopped by filtering out the yeasts, but in some wines the fermentation is stopped by
adding spirit to the tankC this is the basis of the great sweet, fortified wines such as *ort
and @adeira, as we shall see in the neBt section.
:he cheapest method of making a dessert wine is simply to add sugar. 1n the best cases
this will be natural grape sugar, in the worst, sacks of cane sugar. 8lthough these wines
are sweet $ and may please some palates $ they are usually lacking in balancing acidity
and interesting fla#ours.
#ortified wines
:he term fortified indicates that the wine?s alcoholic strength has been boosted by the
addition of spirit, usually a grape based spirit, like brandy. Fortified wines can be sweet
or dry, depending on whether the spirit is added during or after fermentation of the base
wine. :he family of sweet fortified wines include *ort, @adeira, @almsey, Aermouth
and @uscat de Beaumes de Aenise. 8gain, the Fuality of these is only as good as their
componentsC a good base wine and a good Fuality spirit.
8bout half way through fermentation ,with an alcohol le#el around 'I/ a measure of
spirit is added to the tank. :his immediately raises the alcohol le#el. 4east cannot
sur#i#e in alcohol le#els much abo#e HE(I, so the fermentation stops and all the
unfermented sugar is left in the wine. :he resulting wine is both strong and sweet. 1t is
normally transferred to oak barrels at that point for ageing.
Some of the world?s great fortified wines includeC
Port
3riginating from the >ouro #alley of *ortugal, port comes in #arious styles and Fuality
le#els. 1n particularly good years ,usually two or three per decade/ a 7#intage7 year is
declared and a #intage port is released. Aintage ports are the aristocrats of the port world
and often take around H. years after release to de#elop into truly great wines. :hese
should not be confused with 5ate Bottled Aintage ,or 5BA/ portsC these are ports which
ha#e been matured for longer than ordinary ruby or tawny ports in the shippers? cellars,
but they are not true #intage ports of a great year. 5BAs are ready to drink when they
are released.
Madeira
From the island of the same name, @adeira is uniFue in that after being made $ in much
the same way as port $ it is cooked. :he wine is placed in #ery hot #ats ,o#er '.I
centigrade/ for &. days. 3nce again this was an accidentally disco#ered techniFue $
@adeira wines being shipped in the holds of sailing ships on long #oyages were kept in
#ery hot conditions which seemed to caramelise the wines $ a fla#our that people
seemed to enjoy.
-ermouth
:his fortified wine ,usually manufactured on an industrial scale in the north of 1taly/ is
fla#oured with wormwood or other herbs.
(herr$
Sherry, from =ere< in Spain, is perhaps the greatest wine made by the post$fermentation
method. 1n other words, unlike port, the spirit is only added after fermentation is
complete. 8ll sherry therefore, starts life as a completely dry style. Aarying amounts of
sweet reser#e wine are added back in before bottling, according to the style of sherry
being made. 8nother unusual feature of sherry making is the 7solera7 system of ageing.
1n the solera system, wine from many #intages is matured in the cellars in separate
casks. :he casks containing the oldest sherry are constantly topped up with wine from
the second oldest casks. :hese in turn are topped up with wine from the third oldest
casks, and so on until the newest casks $ from the current #intage. 1n this way, the style
of sherry can stay much the same from year to year as all sherry is a blend of se#eral
#intages.
Fortified wines typically range from around +I to -HI of alcohol $ about double the
strength of ordinary wines.
(par"ling* sweet and fortified wine tastes and st$les
:here is a huge #ariation in terms of style and taste amongst these groups of wines.
Here are a few pointersC
Champagne.(par"ling wines
can be made white or rosJ. 8lthough rare, there are eBamples of red sparkling wines,
such as the deep red, sparkling syrah from 8ustralia. @ost "hampagnes tend towards a
dry, elegant style, but many other sparkling wines ,such as 8sti$Spumanti for eBample/
are lighter in alcohol and sweet, or semi$sweet.
/essert wines
ha#e #arying le#els of sweetness and are often a golden yellow colour. :heir taste is
often described as honeyed, whilst toffee and caramel notes are common too. @any will
display fla#ours of 7white7 fruitsC peaches, pears, melon, etc.
-ermouth
here the o#erwhelming fla#our comes not from the wine at all, but from the herbs used
as fla#ouring agents.
Port
comes in many styles and Fuality le#els, but the characteristics are just like those of fine
red winesC #intage ports can be tannic and o#erpowering when young, but can mature
o#er many years so that the fruitiness and sweetness of the grapes re$emerges.
(herr$
also appears under a huge #ariety of guises. @ost sherries are commercial blends, made
with consistency in mindC to taste the same year after year in a pleasant but
uncomplicated style. :here can be a lot more to sherry than that howe#erC some fine,
old, dry sherries de#elop wonderful walnutty, warm scents and fla#ours Fuite unlike any
other wine. :he finest, true fino sherries are produced when a strange substance called
7flor7 grows on the top of the open cask as the sherry ages. Flor is a yeast compound,
which pre#ents the sherry from oBidising and adds subtle compleBity to the fla#our.
@ost sherry is made principally from the palomino grape, but look out for sherry made
mainly from the *edro UimJne< grapeC these are intensely sweetC wonderful poured neat
o#er good #anilla ice$creamP