FLUID FLOW

Understand
centrifugal compressor,
equipment interaction
Operating scenarios provide insights into predicting
behavior during changes
K. Majumdar, Abu Dhabi National Oil Co., Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.
any compressor operators often find difficulty in
comprehending compressor behavior with respect to system
changes, particularly when coupled with other operational changes.
An eample is how to predict possible flow increase when there is
still some room for a speed increase. !here will the new operating
point be if a change is made " will it shift along the constant
pressure line to the right, along the system curve or along the
compressor curve itself# $ow are power consumption and
efficiency predicted in such cases# %or the benefit of operators,
compressor behavior with respect to the connected systems and
related problems are presented for common operating scenarios.
%ig. & shows a typical arrangement of a compressor operating in a
process system. 'he compressor is ta(ing suction from a source,
point A at pressure P
&
, and discharging at pressure P
)
at point *
into a process system consisting of pipelines, valves and
e+uipment. 'he gas is transported through this system to be
delivered to point C at pressure P
,
. 'he line pressure drop, -P
)
.
P
,
/, is usually denoted as P -delta 0/ of the system.
Fig. 1. Typical process compressor arrangement.
Archive
August 1999 Vol. 78 o. 8
!eature Article
System curve. 'he plot of pressure drop versus flow gives the
system curve -%ig. )a/. 'he total pressure drop has two
components, the superincumbent pressure or static pressure
difference between points * and C, and the dynamic pressure drop,
i.e., the drop due to friction, velocity change, etc. 'he static
pressure drop of any system is constant and is independent of the
flow through the system, whereas dynamic pressure drop varies
directly as the s+uare of the velocity or flow rate.
Fig. a. Total pressure drop has two components.
'he system curve is independent of the gas supply source or the
e+uipment that is delivering gas into the system. 'he curve
remains unchanged unless any component of the system is
changed, li(e opening a manual or a control valve, pipe si1e
change, etc. As a valve in the system is opened, flow increases, i.e.,
the pressure drop decreases, shifting the system curve to the right
-curve b in %ig. )a/. !hen the valve is throttled, the system curve
moves to the left -curve c/.
!ompressor curve "asics. 'he flow, Q, head -or differential
pressure, P/ and speed, N, relationship of a centrifugal compressor
is very similar to that of a centrifugal pump -%ig. )b/. 'he ma2or
difference is that a pump handles li+uid, which is a incompressible
fluid. $ence, density and volumetric flow remain unchanged
throughout the flow process. A compressor handles only gas,
which is compressible. As the pressure of a gas stream changes
during compression or flow, density or specific volume changes
correspondingly.
Fig. ". Compressor operating limits are between surge
and stonewall.
As shown in %ig. )b, centrifugal compressors have continuously
falling pressure3flow characteristics. A family of parallel curves
represents compressor operation at different speeds. %or a
compressor operating at a constant speed, the pressure increases as
the flow decreases and vice versa. 4f reduction in flow continues, at
one point compressor operation becomes unstable and a
momentary flow reversal ta(es place. 'his leads to a very rapid
pulsating flow bac(ward and forward through the compressor
internals, resulting in severe vibration and conse+uent damage.
'his phenomenon is (nown as surge and the flow at which surge
occurs is the surge point for that particular speed. 'he surge point
shifts to the right as speed increases -%ig. )b/. 'he line 2oining the
surge points of curves at different speeds is the compressor surge
line. 'o avoid surge, compressors are always operated at flows
greater than surge point, i.e., at a reasonable distance to the right of
the surge line.
As flow increases, a point is reached at the right3hand etreme of
the compressor curve after which the flow can not increase no
matter what changes are made on the outlet side. 'his point is
(nown as stonewall for the compressor for that particular speed.
5i(e the surge point, the stonewall point also shifts to the right as
speed increases -%ig. )b/. $owever, unli(e surge, no adverse effect
occurs to the compressor at the stonewall point. 'herefore, the
operating regime of a compressor is confined between these two
limits, i.e., surge and stonewalls. 'he set of curves including the
limit lines is also (nown as the compressor operating map.
#elations$ip "et%een compressor and system curves.
!hen a compressor is connected to a system, the operating point
can be obtained by superimposing the system curve -%ig. )a/ on
the compressor curve -%ig. )b/, resulting in %ig. )c. 'he point at
which the compressor curve for a particular speed meets the
system curve represents the compressor operating point for that
speed. 'hat means the compressor would deliver flow and pressure
corresponding to the intersection point in %ig. )c. Under no
circumstances can the compressor deliver any other flow or
pressure -at that speed/, unless a change is made in the system.
Only when some change is made in the connected system -say,
change in valve opening, pipe si1e, length, etc./, does the operating
point shift along the compressor curve. Otherwise, the compressor
will continue to operate at that fied flow and pressure.
Fig. c. The operating point is obtained by superimposing
the system and compressor curves.
So, it can be noted that although a system is quite independent of
its upstream source equipment, in this case the compressor,
compressor operation is very much dependent on its downstream
connected system.
!ompressor "e$avior in common applications. 'he
figures shown later are only schematics of the most common
compressor configurations. 'hey are neither complete in all details,
nor do they represent all possible configurations. 6everal variations
and different control system arrangements are also possible,
although not shown here.
1. "ingle#speed compressor drive $ith suction % discharge
pressure control. %ig. , shows the typical arrangement of a single3
speed -motor3driven/ compressor. 4n this configuration, a
compressor operates similarly to a motor3driven pump. 'he
compressor ta(es suction from the suction drum and discharge into
the piping system.
Fig. &. In this configuration, a compressor operates
similarly to a motor-driven pump.
'he main ob2ective of any compressor control is to maintain a
balance between discharge and incoming flows. 'his is done by
trac(ing pressure in the suction drum by means of a pressure
controller, which regulates a control valve mounted either on the
suction or discharge line. 4n some installations, a pressure
controller is also installed on the compressor discharge line, which
wor(s in con2unction with the suction side pressure controller
through a signal selector or a microprocessor3based control
module. 4n case of low3pressure gas, it is more common to provide
the control valve on the discharge line.
Scenario 1.1: Incoming flow to compressor decreases. Consider
that at a particular instance flow coming into the drum drops.
Outgoing flow being higher than incoming flow, suction drum
pressure falls momentarily. 'he pressure instrument mounted on
the suction drum senses this drop. 'he pressure controller ta(es
action by closing the control valve on the discharge line -or suction
line/ to reduce the flow. As the control valve closes, the system
curve shifts to the left -%ig. 7a/.
Fig. 'a. As the control valve closes, the system curve shifts
to the left.
Conse+uently, the operating point -a/ also shifts to the left along
the compressor curve to the point of intersection -b/ with the
modified system curve, where the compressor flow e+uals the
reduced incoming flow. 6o, in this type of arrangement,
compressor capacity control is achieved by shifting the system
curve along the compressor curve backward and forward, as
shown by arrows in %ig. 7a.
Scenario 1.2: Incoming flow drops below surge control point. As
incoming flow drops, the compressor will try to find the operating
point in the way described in scenario &.&. 4f, however, flow drops
below the surge control point, the compressor surge control system
sends a signal to the recycle valve -also called antisurge valve
-A68/, a +uic(3acting control valve/ to open. 0art of the outlet
flow is then returned bac( to the suction side via the A68. 'hus,
the inlet flow -incoming 9 recycle/ is never allowed to fall below
the surge control point to avoid surge -%ig. 7b/.
Fig. '". Inlet flow is never allowed to fall below the surge
control point.
In this case both the AS and pressure control valves mounted on
the compressor discharge line take action simultaneously, i.e., the
former opens and the latter closes.
Scenario 1.3: !as demand decreases at the consumer end. 4n most
of these cases, the online valve at the consumer end is throttled,
either manually or through the process control system, to achieve
the desired flow reduction. %or eample, in case of gas supply to a
boiler, heater or gas turbine, the control valve at the inlet of the
e+uipment is throttled matching the e+uipment load. 'he valve
may even close if the e+uipment trips. "his event in effect changes
the system curve, shifting the operating point to the left until the
desired lower flow is achieved #similar to scenarios $.$ and $.%&.
'he control valve on the compressor outlet line will, however,
open instead of closing, in contrast with scenarios &.& and &.). 'he
reverse phenomenon follows when gas demand increases. 'he
same control se+uence would also follow when gas is to be
delivered to a consumer at a constant pressure.
In summary, for all single'speed compressors, variation in flow is
achieved only by varying the system curve position backward and
forward. "he operating point shifts along the compressor curve, as
shown in (igs. )a to c.
Fig. 'c. The online valve at the consumer end is throttled
to achieve the desired flow reduction.
&. Variable#speed compressor drive $ith speed controller. %ig. :
shows a general arrangement of a compressor driven by a gas
turbine driver. 'he compressor control module varies gas turbine
speed through the speed control module, matching the process
re+uirement.
Fig. (. The compressor control module varies gas turbine
speed.
As eplained earlier, the system curve is independent of the
compressor curve and the points at which the system curve cuts the
set of compressor curves are the corresponding operating points at
different speeds. 'he speed is changed by a variable3speed driver
to achieve varying flow.pressure re+uirements. 'he driver is often
a gas or steam turbine, although variable3speed electric motors are
also used in certain cases. 4n this type of arrangement, a pressure
controller mounted on the suction line controls the speed of the
variable3speed driver. 4n some installations, pressure controllers
mounted on both suction and discharge lines control the driver
speed through a signal selector. ;icroprocessor3based advanced
compressor control systems are also used instead of a simple 04D
controller.
Scenario 2.1: Incoming flow to compressor decreases. As in the
case of a single3speed compressor, here also compressor suction
and discharge controllers are used through a low3signal selector or
a compressor control module to modulate the driver speed. As the
incoming flow to the suction drum decreases, compressor suction
pressure decreases. 'he pressure controller on the suction side
detects this pressure drop and sends a signal to the driver -turbine/
to slow down until a new operating point is reached where the
discharge flow e+uals the reduced incoming flow -point a to b in
%ig. <a/.
Fig. )a. The pressure controller sends a signal to the driver
to slow down.
In this case the system curve remains unchanged. *nly the
operating point shifts down along the system curve, unlike in the
similar scenario using a single'speed drive #$.$& where the
operating point moves along the compressor curve #note the
difference&.
Scenario 2.2: Incoming flow drops below surge control point. 4n
case of a variable speed compressor, if the incoming flow
decreases below the surge control point, the compressor first slows
down similarly to scenario ).&. "he operating point starts to shift
down along the system curve until the minimum sustainable speed
is reached #(ig. +b&. 4f the corresponding flowrate is still not
reached, the surge control valve begins to open along the minimum
speed curve. 'he surge control valve continues to open until the
sum of forward and recycle flow is e+ual to the flow corresponding
to the intersection point of the system and compressor curves -at
the minimum operating speed/.
Fig. )". The operating point starts to shift down along the
system curve.
4t should be noted that under certain circumstances li(e this, the
A68 might open even when the discharge flow is higher than the
surge flow at the minimum speed. $owever, this se+uence of
control ta(es place only if the speed controller and the driver are
fast enough to respond and rectify the changing condition. 4f the
flow change is very rapid, the fast3acting antisurge control system
acts through the A68 ahead of the speed controller to save the
compressor from surging.
Scenario 2.3: !as demand decreases at the consumer end. As in
the case of a single3speed compressor, the system curve also moves
to the left due to throttling of the consumer valve-s/ to achieve
flow reduction. 'he suction pressure controller now starts sending
a signal for the driver to slow down. "he operating point moves
hori,ontally from point a to be along the fi-ed'pressure line until it
meets the compressor curve at a speed that corresponds to the
reduced flowrate #(ig. +c&. 4f the flow increases the reverse
phenomenon ta(es place.
Fig. )c. The operating point moves horizontally from point
a to point b.
Scenario 2.4: .ompressor delivers at a fi-ed pressure to
consumer/ set pressure changed. !hen the compressor is
connected to a piping system to deliver gas at a constant pressure
to a consumer, the static pressure difference -P
)
. P
,
/ in %igs. &, )a
and )c remains constant. 4n fact, in all the scenarios described, this
difference is assumed to be constant. Now, if the pressure setting at
the consumer end is lowered, the static pressure curve in %ig. )a
moves down -%ig. <d/. Correspondingly, the system curve also
shifts down to the right, although its slope remains unchanged. "he
shifted system curve now meets the compressor curve at a new
location on the right'hand side of the original point. "his means
flow increases as discharge pressure decreases. $owever, if the
flow coming to the compressor suction drum is not increased at the
same rate -say, due to nonavailability of ecess gas/, suction
pressure would drop. 'he lower suction pressure triggers the
pressure controller to ta(e effect through the compressor control
system to slow down the compressor. "hus, the operating point
shifts along the new system curve to meet the new speed curve at a
point where the flow equals the incoming flow. 'he reverse
happens when the pressure is increased.
Fig. )d. If the compressor setting at the consumer end is
lowered, the static pressure curve moves down.
In summary, when a compressor is driven by a variable'speed
drive #gas turbine, steam turbine, etc.&, the operating point may
shift either along the compressor curve, the system curve, the fi-ed
pressure line, or a combination of them depending on the nature of
change as discussed. "his is quite different from a compressor
driven by a single'speed drive #electric motor& described earlier.
'. (as molecular $eight changes.
Scenario 3.1: 01 decreases. Change in hydrocarbon gas
composition, hence in molecular weight -;!/, is +uite common.
5ower ;! leads to a lower discharge pressure from the same
compressor at the same speed. 'he compressor curve shifts down
as shown in %ig. =. 'he compressor in this case will speed up
automatically, through the suction > discharge pressure controller,
to develop the same pressure -point b bac( to a/. 4f the compressor
is already at its maimum sustainable speed -say, at &?:@ of rated
speed as per A04/, the compressor flow drops to a value
corresponding to the intersection point of the system and the new
compressor curves -point b/.
Fig. *. Lower ! leads to a lower discharge pressure.
'his flow reduction may eventually increase the suction pressure,
as the compressor cannot cope with all the incoming gas. 'he
ecess gas may then start to escape to the vent or flare, even
though all operating conditions may appear unchanged. 'his
phenomenon of gas escaping to flare is often eperienced in
process plants. 4f gas from a compressor suction drum is suddenly
found going to flare when the compressor is running normally at
its full speed, ;! reduction is often the first suspect.
'his problem is also faced when a compressor rated to handle
heavy saturated gas is operated in recycle mode for a long period
through an aftercooler. 'he gas continues to become leaner due to
cyclic compression and cooling, resulting in lower discharge
pressure. At this point, if the compressor has to feed forward, it
fails to develop the re+uired discharge pressure. 'he recycle valve
still remains partly open, returning some gas to suction side. 'he
incoming gas starts to escape to flare from the suction drum, unless
the vicious cycle is interrupted manually. 6ometimes while a
compressor is running in recycle mode, light seal gas lea(s through
worn out seals into the compressor casing, which may result in a
similar problem.
Scenario 3.2: 01 increases. Conversely, an increase in ;!
results in a higher discharge pressure. 'he compressor curve shifts
up for the same speed. 'he net result is an increase in compressor
flow, of course, if additional gas is available. 4f not, the compressor
is slowed down by the suction > discharge pressure controller. 4n
case of a single3speed compressor, flow is directly reduced by
throttling the control valve on the discharge -or suction/ line.
Impact of 01 variation on compressor stability. Note that unli(e
the effects of suction pressure and temperature variations, ;!
change has a much greater effect on performance and, hence,
compressor stability. 'his effect is more visible on multistage
compressors. !hen ;! increases, the initial stage-s/ may be
operating at the rated -or increased/ flow, but subse+uent stages
may be operating at progressively lower flow due to higher
pressure from the preceding stage. 'he flow in some of these
stages may drop below the surge point even when the inlet flow to
the compressor is much higher than the surge point. 4ncidentally,
reducing ;! does not have the reverse effect, i.e., it does not
enhance compressor stability.
Aoing to etremes, change in ;! may decrease compressor
stability to such an etent that when some stages are at surge,
others in the same compressor may be at stonewall. Conventional
compressor control and surge protection systems fail to detect such
instability. 'he compressor map provided in the control system no
longer holds good as the flow3pressure3speed relationship is altered
by the change in ;!.
'his, however, should not give an impression that compressors can
operate only at a fied -rated/ ;!. Compressor design normally
allows operation over a certain ;! range without running into
surge in any stage -usually, there is enough distance between the
surge and normal operating points/. 4n case of a substantial change
in ;!, compressor performance and stability should be
reassessed, preferably with the assistance of the compressor
vendor.
). *ompressor +lo$ increases be,ond rating. 4f the driver
-motor, steam or gas turbine/ is sufficiently large and sufficient
inlet gas is available, it may often be possible to derive somewhat
higher throughput from a compressor without being unduly
overloaded. 'he throughput is increased automatically by the
control system for reasons described earlier. ;! change is one
main reasonB the other being actual system pressure drop lower
than estimated in design. 5ower destination pressure or higher
suction pressure may also cause a flow increase, often to the
operatorsC benefit. 4n all these cases, the system curve shifts to the
right to meet the compressor curve at a higher flowrate. 'his is true
for both single3 and variable3speed compressors.
4f all other compressor and driver operating parameters are within
acceptable limits -below alarm and trip points/ and ;! variation
is within the specified design range, such operation at increased
flowrate is not epected to cause any instability or mechanical
problem in the compressor. 'he operating point in this case is well
within the compressor design operating regime.
*arring the +uestion of efficiency, a centrifugal compressor " li(e
a centrifugal pump " can be operated anywhere
on its curve between surge point -or surge control
line, 6C5/ and stonewall by shifting the system
curve, provided the driver is ade+uately si1ed.
$owever, if the increase is due to a change in
;! where the compressor curve itself shifts, this
should be limited to the specified ;! variation range. 4n fact,
during a factory acceptance test -%A'/, compressors are actually
operated at varying flowrates within the compressor map range to
verify the developed pressure and other parameters.
*esides the above many other scenarios are possible. 4t is not
possible to identify and discuss them all separately. $owever, some
of the common scenarios and problems presented will help to
understand and interpret the behavior of many others not described
here.
-.-/.O(0A123
.ompressor 2andbook for the 2ydrocarbon Processing
Industries, Aulf 0ublishing Co., *oo( Division.
5apina, Donald 0., 3stimating .entrifugal .ompressor
Performance, 8olume3&.
0ichot, 0ierre, .ompressor Application 3ngineering, 8olume3
&.
+$e aut$or
,umares -a.umdar is technical services manager at Abu "habi
#ational $il Company %A"#$C&. 'e has over () years of e*perience in
the oil and gas industry in the fields of process engineering design,
commissioning and operation. r. a+umdar has wor,ed in many
countries with internationally reputed engineering and operating
companies on oil, gas and pipeline pro+ects. 'e +oined A"#$C in -./0 in
its 1as 2rocessing 3 2ipelines "ivision, which operates one of the
largest gas processing plants in the world and an e*tensive pipeline
networ,. r. a+umdar specializes in process and systems engineering
related to gas processing, utility plants and pipeline transportation. 'e
holds a 45 degree in chemical engineering from 6adavpur 7niversity,
India, and has had several technical papers published in leading +ournals
and presented at symposiums.

*op,right 4 1999 2,drocarbon 1rocessing
*op,right 4 1999 (ul+ 1ublishing *ompan,