Introduction of Highway

Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/

INTRODUCTION OF HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand the development and transportation system in Malaysia.
Specific Objectives
At the end of the unit you should be able to :-
state the construction structure used in transportation system.
identify the related profession in the road construction development.
describe the history of road development.
describe the road category.
identify the related agencies involved in road construction.
1
UNIT 1
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
!"Intr#$%cti#n
For rapid economic, industrial and cultural growth of any country, a good
system of transportation is very essential. Transportation system comprises of
good network of roads, railways, well developed water ways and airways.
Airways and water ways although help to some etent in transportation within the
country, but they are the modes of transport mainly with foreign country.
!ailways and highways also to some etent help in transport with foreign
countries but their main concern is within the country itself.
2
IN&UT
CONSTRUCTION STRUCTURE FOR
TRANS&ORTATION
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
!"! Different '#$es #f transp#rtati#n
Man has always been curious for new inventions. "n the early days
of civili#ation it was thought that the movement of any human being can
be on the earth only. $o one thought of flying in air or cruising in large-
oceans.
Modes of transportation can be classified as follows :
a. roadways or highways
b. railways
c. water ways
d. airways
The science which covers designing, maintenance and operation of
the roads, for convenience of the road traffic, is called highway
engineering. The science dealing with planning, designing, operation and
maintenance of railway track, wagons, coaches, locomotives, is called
railway engineering.
3
%eeing birds flying, man must have
thought of flying and that may probably be
the starting point of modern aeronautics.
%imilarly, seeing fishes cruising in the sea
or river, man must have thought of rowing
in water, and that may probably be a
starting point in the development of water
ways and designing of ships and boats.
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
%imilarly planning, designing, operation, control and maintenance
of water ways, airways and their connected machinery are respectively
called harbour engineering and airport engineering.
&esides the above stated four ma'or modes of transportation, fluids
are mainly transported through pipes. &elt conveyors, cable cars,
monorails are some other minor systems of transportation, but they are
used for specific purposes. (ooking to the transport characteristic of each
type of transportation system, it can easily be appreciated that roads and
railways are economical and easy for internal transportation, while airways
and waterways are main economical for transportation with foreign
countries. Airways are gaining importance even in internal movement
these days, because they cause saving in time of travel.
4
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
!"!( R#a$ transp#rt c)aracteristics
)hile going to railway station, harbour or airport, roads is the first
mode which is going to lead you to these places. *ence it can be said that
out of all types of transport systems, road is the nearest to the man.
+haracteristics of road transport are given as follows :
a. !oads can be used by all sorts of vehicles like bullock
carts, carriages, bicycles, scooters, cars, buses and
lorries, etc. They are e,ually useful for pedestrians also.
b. !oads can lead to any remote place.
c. "nvestment on road transport by government is
comparatively small. Maintenance of roads is also
cheaper than rail-track, docks, harbours and airports.
d. There is complete freedom to road users to transfer the
vehicles from one lane to another, or from one road to
another according to the re,uirements.
e. (ocal communication among villages, villages and towns
is only possible through roads.
f. Movements on roads are not time bound, as in case of
railways or airways.
g. !oad transport is the only mode of transport that offers
itself for the service of whole community alike.
5
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
! HISTORY OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
Traces of early roads have been found since the recorded history of the
man kind. The first and oldest mode of travel obviously was foot path. &efore
invention of wheel, people used to move on foot, thus creating foot paths. Men
and material must have been transported either on backs of men or animals.
The historical road development can be divided in to the following era :
-arly. &asic roads
!oman roads
Modern roads
!! Earl* r#a$s
After invention of wheel, animal drawn bullock carts continued to be
the popular mode of transport for ,uite a long time. This necessitated in
providing hard surface for wheeled carts. The first hard surface was
discovered in Mesopotamia at about /011 &.+. Archeological findings
street were paved in Mohan'odaro at about /011 &.+.
There are signs of pucca roads were used during the construction
of "llahun pyramids in -gypt between /111 - 2011 &.+. This would be due
to the transportation of huge limestone blocks.
!!( R#'an r#a$s
"n the ancient !ome era, more intensive system of roads was
developed. The road radiating in many directions from !ome. %ome of
6
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
those roads are said to be a very elaborate construction. Many of the
!oman roads are still in eistence even after 2111 years. !omans were
considered to be the pioneers in road construction. )ith the fall of !oman
-mpire, the road building techni,ue became a lost art.
!!+ ,#$ern r#a$s
"n eighteenth century, improved construction methods for roads
again began to develop. Mr. 3ierre Tresa,uet developed an improved
method of construction in 4567 in France. At the time when Mr. 3ierre
Tresa,uet was busy in developing his road construction method, Mr. 8ohn
Metcalf was engaged in his development in -ngland. Metcalf constructed
about 291 :m road in northern region of -ngland. %ince Metcalf was blind,
his work was not recorded and thus got lost.
Telford and Macadam were the pioneers in road development in
-ngland. Telford believed in using heavy foundation stones over the soil
sub-grade, while Macadam advocated the use of compacted crushed
aggregate layer at the bottom. Macadam;s method of road construction is
still in used and is named after his name.
!( CHARACTERISTIC OF SO,E I,&ORTANT EAR-Y ROADS
"mportant early roads include:
a. !oman roads construction
b. Trese,uet roads construction
c. Metcalf;s roads construction
d. Telford;s roads construction
e. Macadam roads construction
7
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
!(! R#'an r#a$s
!oman;s developed very elaborate system of roads mainly for the
purpose of military movement. They constructed in all about one lakh
kilometers of road, etending in whole of their empire. An "mportant road
constructed by !omans in /42 &.+ called Appian way is still in eistence
in !ome.
The main characteristics of !oman roads were as follows:
4. They weary very thick. Total thickness of the road varied
from about 1.5 m to as much as 4.2 m.
2. They were straight, without any regard for gradient. 3robable
reason for straightness may be their main use for army.
/. !oads were not built on soft soil formations but on hard
stratum reached after ecavation.
,et)#$ #f c#nstr%cti#n f#r R#'an r#a$s
First of all loose soil was used to be removed from the site of the
road and a trench, e,ual to width of carriage way ecavated to depth so
that hard stratum is reached. At the bottom of the trench one or two layers
of large stones were laid in lime mortar. The thickness of this foundation
layer ranged from 41 < 21 cm. =ver this, 20 < 71 cm thick layer of lime
concrete with large si#e broken stone aggregate was laid. Another layer
again 20 to 71 cm of lime concrete but using comparatively small si#e
broken stone aggregate was laid over the previously laid layer. (astly 41
to 40 cm thick dressed large stone blocks, set in lime mortar were used as
wearing course. %eeing thickness of the road, it is obvious that these
roads must be very strong, but they cannot prove economical, when
compared with modern design methods.
8
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
!(!( Tresa.%et/s r#a$s
Mr. 3ierre Tresa,uet was inspector general of roads in France from
4550 to 45>0. *e developed an improved method of road construction.
The main feature of his work was that the thickness of the road was about
/1 cm. *e also made consideration of sub-grade moisture and drainage
from the surface. *e also emphasi#ed the need for continuous
maintenance of road to keep it in good shape. At the time of $apoleon,
,uite elaborate road system was developed in France mainly for use of
military adventures.
,et)#$ #f c#nstr%cti#n f#r Tresa.%et/s r#a$s
=n the prepared sub-grade a layer of large foundation stones was
laid, keeping all the stones on edge. At the edges of the road, a large si#e
stone was laid length wise to give lateral support to the foundation layer.
The interstices of the foundation stone layer were filled with stone
aggregate of smaller si#e. +ompacted thickness of this layer was about >
cm. (astly the top wearing course was laid of walnut si#ed stones and
compacted to a thickness of about 0 cm. A cross slope of about 4 in 70
was used to be developed in the road surfaced by ad'usting thickness
mainly in top and intermediate layers. (astly, shoulders were also given
suitable cross slope, away from the edges of carriage way.
9
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
!(!0 1#)n ,etcalf r#a$s 23345"6
*e was working in -ngland at the time when Tresa,uet was busy in
France. *e eperimented road construction with a graded miture of earth
and gravel. %ince Mr. Metcalf was blind, his work could not be recorded.
&ut it is believed that he was following the procedure outlined by !obert
3hilips in 45/5. !obert 3hilips method consisted of laying gravel layer
upon a well drained and dried sub-grade. ?ravel layer was used to be
compacted in due course of time, by the action of the traffic using road.
Metcalf constructed about 291 :m of road in northern parts of -ngland.
Telf#r$ r#a$s 237345+06
Thomas Telford was %cottish road engineer and founder of the
institution of civil engineers. *e used big si#e stones in foundation wearing
from 45 < 22 cm to develop a firm base. *e also provided cross drains
under foundation layer to keep the sub-grade in dry condition. *e
proposed provision of cross drains at intervals of about 91 m. Total
thickness of road advocated by him was about /> cm.
C#nstr%cti#n ,et)#$ f#r Telf#r$ r#a$s
A level sub-grade which may be on embankment or cutting was
prepared in the re,uired width. Telford adopted 9 mm width of the road.
=n the prepared sub-grade a layer of large si#e stone boulders, varying in
si#e from 45 cm near the edges to a maimum si#e of about 22 cm at the
centre of the width of the road was laid. (aying of the stones was done by
packing. &y using smaller si#e stone near the edges and larger si#e near
centre, a cross slope, of 4 in 70 in road surface was developed. The
interstices in this boulder foundation layer were filled with smaller stones
and chippings and properly compacted.
10
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
$ow central width of about 0.0 m @ 4>; A of road was covered with
intermediate coating consisting of two layers. The compacted thickness of
first layer was about 41 cm and consisted of 6.0 cm si#e stone aggregate.
The compacted thickness of second layer was about 0 cm and consisted
of about 7 cm si#e stone. These layers were used to be rammed initially,
but allowed to be compacted under traffic. $o water was sprinkled during
compaction. =nly rain water was used to help compaction and
consolidation of these layers.
=ver the intermediate coat, 7 cm thick gravel layer was used to act
as blinding and wearing layer. The finished surface used to have a cross
slope of 4 in 70. The remaining width of the foundation left untreated by
intermediate coats @two layersA, on either side, was treated by lime
concrete. (ime was mied with broken stone aggregate about 41-40 cm
si#e to prepare lime concrete, to be laid on either side of the road. This
treatment provided lateral stability to the road structure.
!(!7 ,aca$a' R#a$s 2 37845+5 6
*e, for the first time put forward entirely new concept of road
construction in 4>25. *e was a %cottish engineer and was surveyor
general of roads in -ngland. "mportant characteristic of his concept are as
follows:
"t was he who for the first time recogni#ed the importance of sub-
grade compaction and drainage. To affect speedy surface drainage
he recommended suitable cross slope for the sub-grade.
"t was he who reali#ed for the first time that heavy foundation
stones are not at all necessary. "f sub-grade is prepared properly
and kept well drained it can be very well bear the traffic load
transmitted to it through foundation layer, having smaller
11
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
compacted thickness of small si#e broken stones. *e was of the
opinion that a broken stone layer of few centimeter thickness can
sustain mush heavier load than a thick layer of big si#e stones.
%i#e of the aggregate to be used in wearing course was decided
according to re,uirements of stability under the effect of vehicles.
,et)#$ #f C#nstr%cti#n f#r ,aca$a' r#a$s
%ub-grade was prepared and compacted to the re,uired
width of the road. 3repared sub-grade was given the same camber,
as to given to the finished road surface. +onstruction of road
according to Macadam method consists of three layers, namely,
foundation layer, intermediate layer and wearing surface layer.
Foundation layer was 41 cm thick @compactedA and was made from
0 cm si#e aggregate. "ntermediate layer was also 41 cm thick
@compactedA but made from aggregate passing 71 mm sieve.
(astly, wearing surface was made 0 cm thick @compactedA using
aggregate passing 21 mm sieve. +ross slope of finished surface
was kept as 4 in /6.
"n those days, there were no rollers to affect thorough
compaction and interlocking, and hence, this action was used to be
achieved by means of traffic. This was the reason that net layer
could not only be laid once the previously laid layer gets thoroughly
compacted. Macadam method was first scientific method based on
modern concepts and hence is still in use in most parts of the
world, though with certain modifications.
12
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
!+ C#'paris#n 9et:een ,aca$a' an$ Telf#r$ R#a$s
a. Telford roads are costlier than Macadam roads.
b. "n the case of Telford construction, sub-grade was kept hori#ontal due
to which drainage of sub-grade was not proper. "n the case of
Macadam construction sub-grade was given 4 in /6 cross slope. This
aspect helped in better sub-grade drainage.
c. (arge si#e stones were adopted by Telford for foundation. %i#e of
stone varied from 45 cm near edges to 22 cm at the centre of the road.
"n the case of Macadam roads 0 cm was the maimum si#e of the
aggregate used for foundation layer.
d. +ross slope in Telford using smaller si#e stones at the edges and large
si#e stones at the centre of the width-developed roads. Thicknesses of
subse,uent intermediate and surfacing layers, is kept constant for the
full width of the road. "n Macadam roads, re,uired camber was given to
the sub-grade itself and all the subse,uent layers of aggregate
including foundation layer of uniform thickness for the whole of the
width of the road.
e. Telford construction is carried out in four layers namely foundation
layer, two layers of intermediate coat and 7 cm thick wearing top layer.
Macadam construction is done in three layers. Two layers each of 4/
cm compacted thickness as foundation layers and 0 cm thick surfacing
layer.
f. "n Telford roads, camber given was 4 in 70 while in Macadam it was 4
in /6.
g. Telford;s foundation layer, being of larger si#ed stones, behaved like
semi fleible road but Macadam;s base was yielding type and hence
Macadam roads behaved like fully fleible roads.
h. Total thickness of road structure was about 71 cm in case of Telford
but only about 20 cm in case of Macadam.

13
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING &-F=!- B=C +=$T"$C- )"T* T*- $-DT
"$3CTE.F
4. Gescribe briefly the contribution of Tresa,uet , Metcalf, Telford and
Macadam to road improvement of a scientific nature.
2. )rite short notes on the history of:
a. -arly basic roads
b. !omans roads
c. Moderns roads
/. Giscuss the comparative specifications of Telford and Macadam road
crust construction.
14
ACTI;ITY
GOOD -UC<=!
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
4. 3ioneers contributions are :
a! Tresa.%et
Geveloped an improvement method of road construction
which feature of his work was that the thickness of the road
was about /1 cm.
The interstices of the foundation stone layer were filled with
stone aggregate of smaller si#e and compacted thickness
of this layer was about > cm.
Top wearing course was laid of walnut si#ed stones and
compacted to a thickness of about 0 cm.
A cross slope of about 4 in 70 was used to be developed in
the road surfaced by ad'usting thickness mainly in top and
intermediate layers.
b! ,etcalf
-perimented road construction with a graded miture of
earth and gravel.
Method consisted of laying gravel upon a well drained and
dried sub-grade. "t used to be compacted in due course of
time, by the action of the traffic using road.
15
FEED9AC< ON
ACTI;ITY
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
c! Telf#r$
Csed big si#ed stones in foundation wearing from 45-22 cm
to develop a firm base
3rovided cross drains under foundation layer to keep the
sub-grade in dry condition
(evel sub-grade on embankment or cutting was prepared in
the re,uired width.
$! ,aca$a'
Csing entirely new concept of road construction.
!ecogni#ed the importance of sub-grade compaction and
drainage
Csing a broken stone layer of few centimeter thickness can
sustain much heavier load than a thick layer of big si#e
stones
%i#e of the aggregate to be used in wearing course was
decided according to re,uirements of stability under the
effect of vehicles.
2.
a! Earl* r#a$s!
After invention of wheel, animal drawn bullock carts continued to be
popular mode of transport for ,uite a long time. This necessitated
providing hard surface for wheeled carts. The first hard surface was
discovered in Mesopotamia at about /011 &.+. Archeological
findings in Mohan'odaro indicate that about /011 &.+ %treet was
paved.
16
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
b! R#'ans r#a$s!
"n the ancient !ome era, more intensive system of roads was
developed. The roads radiating in many directions from !ome.
%ome of those roads are said to be a very elaborate construction.
Many of the !oman roads are still in eistence even after 2111
years. !omans were considered to be the pioneers in road
construction. )ith the fall of !oman -mpire, the road building
techni,ue became a lost art.
c! ,#$ern r#a$s!
"n eighteenth century, improved construction methods for roads
again began to develop. Mr. 3ierre Tresa,uet developed an
improved method of construction in 4567 in France. At the time
when Mr. 3ierre Tresa,uet was busy in developing his road
construction method, Mr. 8ohn Metcalf was engaged in his
development in -ngland. Metcalf constructed about 291 :m road in
northern region of -ngland. Telford and Macadam were the
pioneers in road development in -ngland. Telford believed in using
heavy foundation stones over the soil sub-grade, while Macadam
advocated the use of compacted crushed aggregate layer at the
bottom. Macadam;s method of road construction is still in use and
is named after his name.
/. +omparison between Telford roads and Macadams roads are :
a. Telford roads are costlier than Macadam roads.
b. "n the case of Telford construction, sub-grade was kept hori#ontal
due to which drainage of sub-grade was not proper. "n the case of
Macadam construction sub-grade was given 4 in /6 cross slope.
This aspect helped in better sub-grade drainage.
c. (arge si#e stones were adopted by Telford for foundation. %i#e of
stone varied from 45 cm near edges to 22 cm at the centre of the
17
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
road. "n the case of Macadam roads 0 cm was the maimum si#e of
the aggregate used for foundation layer.
d. +ross slope in Telford roads was developed by using smaller si#e
stones at the edges and large si#e stones at the centre of the width.
Thicknesses of subse,uent intermediate and surfacing layers, is
kept constant for the full width of the road. "n Macadam roads,
re,uired camber was given to the sub-grade itself and all the
subse,uent layers of aggregate including foundation layer of
uniform thickness for the whole of the width of the road.
e. Telford construction is carried out in four layers namely foundation
layer, two layers of intermediate coat and 7 cm thick wearing top
layer. Macadam construction is done in three layers. Two layers
each of 4/ cm compacted thickness as foundation layers and 0 cm
thick surfacing layer.
f. "n Telford roads, camber given was 4 in 70 while in Macadam it
was 4 in /6.
g. Telford;s foundation layer, being of larger si#ed stones, behaved
like semi fleible road but Macadam;s base was yielding type and
hence Macadam roads behaved like fully fleible roads.
h. Total thickness of road structure was about 71 cm in case of
Telford but only about 20 cm in case of Macadam.
18
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
4. Gescribe brie the characteristic of road transport..
2. Gescribe the method of construction for Macadam roads.
/. +lassify the modes of transportation used in Malaysia.
19
Huestion
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
4. The characteristics of road transport are as follows :
i. !oads can be used by all sorts of vehicles like bullock carts,
carriages, bicycles, scooters, cars, buses and lorries, etc.
They are e,ually useful for pedestrians also.
ii. !oads can lead to any remote place.
iii. "nvestment on road transport by government is
comparatively small. Maintenance of roads is also cheaper
than rail-track, docks, harbors and airports.
iv. There is complete freedom to road users to transfer the
vehicles from one lane to another, or from one road to
another according to the re,uirements.
v. (ocal communication among villages, villages and towns is
only possible through roads.
vi. Movements on roads are not time bound, as in case of
railways or airways.
vii. !oad transport is the only mode of transport that offers itself
for the service of whole community alike.
2. Method of +onstruction for Macadam roads
20
Answer
Introduction of Highway
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT 1/
%ub-grade was prepared and compacted to the re,uired
width of the road. 3repared sub-grade was given the same camber,
as to given to the finished road surface. +onstruction of road
according to Macadam method consists of three layers, namely,
foundation layer, intermediate layer and wearing surface layer.
Foundation layer was 41 cm thick @compactedA and was made from
0 cm si#e aggregate. "ntermediate layer was also 41 cm thick
@compactedA but made from aggregate passing 71 mm sieve.
(astly, wearing surface was made 0 cm thick @compactedA using
aggregate passing 21 mm sieve. +ross slope of finished surface
was kept as 4 in /6.
"n those days, there were no rollers to affect thorough
compaction and interlocking, and hence, this action was used to be
achieved by means of traffic. This was the reason that net layer
could not only be laid once the previously laid layer gets thoroughly
compacted. Macadam method was first scientific method based on
modern concepts and hence is still in use in most parts of the
world, though with certain modifications.
/. Modes of transportation can be classified as follows:
a. roadways or highways
b. railways
c. water ways
d. airways
21